The Rebirth of Cities - Medieval History PDF

3. BETWEEN WALLS AND ROAD THE REBIRTH OF CITIES SITUATE YOUR LEARNING With the end of the second invasions (Vikings, Slavs, Muslims, etc.) and an improvement in climatic conditions, the Late Middle Ages began, which lasted between the 11th and 15th centuries. Thanks to improvements in agri...

3. BETWEEN WALLS AND ROAD THE REBIRTH OF CITIES SITUATE YOUR LEARNING With the end of the second invasions (Vikings, Slavs, Muslims, etc.) and an improvement in climatic conditions, the Late Middle Ages began, which lasted between the 11th and 15th centuries. Thanks to improvements in agriculture, food production increased and population and trade also grew. Cities became important again: the old Roman cities and new towns welcomed artisans and merchants (bourgeoisie), who revitalised the economy. The increasingly influential bourgeoisie received the protection of the kings, who strengthened their power over the nobility.  1 What drove the rebirth of cities? About a thousand years ago, most of Europe was still rural and had a subsistence economy. However, the gradual disappearance of threats, such as the Viking invasions and wars between feudal lords, led to the growth of trade and cities. The rise in agricultural production… Europe experienced a period of warmer weather between the 11th and 14th centuries. This led to the expansion of agriculture and a series of innovations: Improvements in farming tools. The mouldboard plough and new harnesses, such as the horse collar, increased the fertility of the land. New cultivation methods. The introduction of the three-field system reduced the amount of fallow land and meant that winter and spring cereals could be alternated on the same plot. Windmills and watermills became more widespread and made it easier to grind cereals. All of this increased productivity, so the amount of food increased and there was surplus labour in the countryside....led to population growth… The improved diet increased people's resistance to disease and reduced mortality. This caused Europe's population to grow from 45 million in the 12th century to 75 million in the 14th century. People started cultivating abandoned fields, cutting down forests and ploughing new areas, so there was a significant increase in agricultural land. In addition, population growth in the countryside caused peasants to move to cities. Since cities were not controlled by feudal lords, they offered more personal freedom and better living conditions....and agricultural surplus The rise in productivity and agricultural land generated surplus crops, which were sold in markets. Lords and peasants could sell some of their harvest, which allowed them to buy weapons, luxury items, tools and fabrics. This boosted trade and artisanal production. Merchants, artisans and migrant peasants settled in the cities, or burghs. Existing cities were revitalised and new cities were built at crossroads or at the foot of castles or abbeys. POPULATION GROWTH IN EUROPE INNOVATIONS THAT DROVE THE AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION The three-field system In the three-field system, only a third of the land was left fallow every year. In the old two-field system, half the land had been left fallow. In addition, the use of manure improved fertilisation. Mouldboard plough The mouldboard plough, which was heavier than the old ard plough, created deeper furrows and aerated the soil better. In addition, horseshoes increased the towing capacity of horses and mules and made them faster than oxen. Watermills and windmills In mills, the force of the water or wind pushed the blades or sails. This rotated a shaft, which moved the machinery (in this case, a grindstone). Most of Europe was still rural and had a subsistence economy. The gradual disappearance of threats,invasions and wars, led to the growth of trade and cities.. The rise in agricultural production… Warmer weather between the 11th and 14th centuries. Expansion of agriculture and innovations: Improvements in farming tools. The mouldboard plough… New cultivation methods. Three-field system reduced the amount of fallow Windmills and watermills Widespread All of this increased productivity, so food increased and there was surplus...led to population growth... The improved diet increased people's resistance and reduced mortality. This caused Europe's population to grow People started cultivating abandoned fields or cutting down forests = increase in agricultural land. Population growth in the countryside caused move to cities. Cities were not controlled by feudal lords, t(more personal freedom and better living conditions)...and agricultural surplus The rise in productivity and agricultural land generated surplus crops, which were sold in markets. allowed them to buy weapons, or tools. This boosted trade and artisanal production. Merchants, artisans and migrant peasants settled in the cities, or burghs. Existing cities were revitalised and new cities were built INNOVATIONS THAT DROVE THE AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION The three-field system (Draw it) In the three-field system, only a third of the land was left fallow every year. In the old two-field system, half the land had been left fallow. In addition, the use of manure improved fertilisation. Mouldboard plough Watermills and windmills  2 Why was there trade growth? Transport and trade developed… Trade increased because there were more agricultural products on the market and the rural population had more money. It was also due to innovations in transport and payment systems: Transport innovations: Horse collars and horseshoes, which increased the traction of horses and mules, and improved overland journeys. There were also innovations in maritime transport, such the sternpost-mounted rudder. Commercial innovations: Monetary circulation increased and payment methods improved. For example, bills of exchange made it possible to buy and sell without cash. Medieval fair near Paris, 1403. All this boosted local trade (between rural villages) and medium-distance trade (between villages and cities). In addition to weekly market days, many cities organised annual fairs. Merchants travelled long distances to attend these fairs. The most important innovation was long- distance trade, usually by sea routes, with the Far East and Africa. The main hubs were Northern Italy in the Mediterranean and the Netherlands in the Atlantic....due to safer, longer routes Trade expanded mainly because of the increased safety between the 11 th and 13th centuries. Overland routes. These became safer when the monarchs started using the revenue from taxes on merchants and artisans to impose their authority on the nobility and protect the cities. Goods were transported by animals, wagons or boat. In Europe, the main overland routes linked Mediterranean ports with northern ports. Maritime routes. The Atlantic Ocean became safer when the Viking invasions ended. In the Mediterranean Sea, the Crusades (military campaigns to conquer the Holy Land in the 12 th and 13th centuries) strengthened the Byzantine Empire and created small Christian states that provided safe places to trade. EUROPEAN TRADE BETWEEN THE 13TH AND 15TH CENTURIES The Mediterranean route linked Europe with the Byzantine Empire and Middle East. Europeans imported luxury products (silk, spices, perfumes, etc.) and exported fabrics, weapons, etc. The Atlantic and Baltic routes extended from Lisbon and the Spanish ports on the Cantabrian Sea to the cities of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic Sea. Cities like Bruges and Ghent were centres of artisan distribution and production. They traded products such as salt, wool, wine, fur, amber, wood and wheat. Trading expeditions started in the main Mediterranean ports (Venice, Genoa, Marseille and Barcelona) and arrived in Eastern Mediterranean ports (Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria). Few ports in the Middle Ages had docks, and even fewer had cranes. The boats anchored far from the shore and the goods were taken ashore in small rowing boats. From the 13th century, rowing boats were replaced by sailing boats, which had smaller crews and could carry more. HOW DID BANKING EMERGE? The increased trade led to the creation of new financial instruments. Many cities minted coins and, as a result, money changers appeared. They knew the value of different currencies and allowed merchants to exchange the currency of one place for that of another. However, it was dangerous to carry coins when travelling, so bills of exchange were used. A merchant gave money to a banker, who had branches in other countries, and the banker gave the merchant a bill of exchange that guaranteed his money. It was also common for individuals or companies to Coins were made of gold, silver or a silver and offer commercial credits (loans in exchange for copper alloy. Their value varied depending on interest) to finance merchants' expeditions. their precious metal content. Transport and trade developed Trade increased more agricultural products had more money. Innovations in transport and payment systems: Transport innovations: Horse collars and horseshoes, Commercial innovations: Monetary circulation, bills of exchange possible to buy and sell without cash. All this boosted local and medium-distance trade. Many cities organised annual fairs. Innovation = long-distance trade, usually by sea routes. The main hubs were Northern Italy in the Mediterranean and the Netherlands in the Atlantic. Trade expanded mainly because of the increased safety: Overland routes. when the monarchs started using the revenue from taxes oto impose their authority on the nobility and protect the cities. In Europe, the main overland routes linked Mediterranean ports with northern ports. Maritime routes. Safer when the Viking invasions ended. In the Mediterranean Sea, the Crusadesstrengthened the Byzantine Empire and created small Christian states. The Mediterranean route linked Europe with the Byzantine Empire and Middle East = Luxury products The Atlantic and Baltic routes from Lisbon to the cities of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic Sea. Products such as salt, wool, wine,wood and wheat. BANKING The increased trade led to the creation of new financial instruments. Many cities minted coins and, as a result, money changers appeared. Exchange currency Carry coins was dangerous so bills of exchange were used. Also ndividuals or companies to offer commercial credits (loans in exchange for interest).  3 What were medievalcities like? Cities were situated in prime locations… Medieval cities were usually located near roads and in areas that could meet the inhabitants' basic needs: good soil for cultivation and grazing, water, forests for wood, quarries for stone, etc....had irregular street layouts… The centre was surrounded by walls to defend the city against frequent attacks. Walls also made it possible to collect taxes from visitors and inspect commercial products. The street layout was irregular. The cathedral, town hall and market were located in a central square. The neighbourhoods were inhabited by different communities, according to their religion (Jews, Muslims, etc.) or their trade. The streets were narrow and winding. Infectious diseases spread easily due to poor hygiene, fleas and rats, and the lack of sewage systems and running water. New neighbourhoods were developing outside the walls. These were inhabited by poor people and tradesmen such as blacksmiths and tanners.... and were governed by urban patricians The inhabitants elected magistrates, who were responsible for finance, order and justice. They worked under the mayor or burgomaster. They met in the town hall, where the city's seal, banner, archive and treasure were kept. Cities were governed by rich families of merchants and bankers. Along with the urban nobility, they made up a privileged group called the urban patricians. THE MEDIEVAL CITY Cities became important enclaves that were connected to each other and had several functions: trade (they linked production centres, commercial routes and customers), religion (cathedrals, churches and convents) and education (universities and cathedral schools). Cities were situated in prime locations... near roads and in areas that could meet the inhabitants' basic needs: cultivation, water, forests for wood, etc....had irregular street layouts... Surrounded by walls = to defend. Walls also made it possible to collect taxes from visitors and inspect commercial products. The street layout was irregular. Narrow and winding The cathedral, town hall and market were located in a central square. The neighbourhoods were inhabited by different communities. Infectious diseases spread easily due to poor hygiene, and the lack of sewage systems. New neighbourhoods were developing outside the walls.... and were governed by urban patricians The inhabitants elected magistrates, who were responsible for finance, order and justice. Cities were governed by rich families. Along with the urban nobility, they made up a privileged group called the urban patricians. THE MEDIEVAL CITY Cities became important enclaves and had several functions: trade , religion (cathedrals) and education (universities).  4 How did the inhabitants of medieval cities live? Cities were centres of artisanship and trade… Cities were hubs where most products were manufactured and most trade took place. They were usually small, with 15000 to 30000 inhabitants, although some had more than 200000 inhabitants (for example, Paris and Córdoba). Artisans formed guilds, which established rules to prevent competition and to regulate the quality, quantity and prices of their products. Artisans in the same guild lived in the same streets, which were named after their activity: cutlers, silversmiths, weavers, etc. A family of rich merchants in the 15th century. Sometimes the wealthiest merchants and bankers were related to the nobility....where new social classes appeared A new social class, the bourgeoisie, emerged in the cities. Their wealth came from selling their products or from the profits of their businesses. This social class was very diverse. It was divided into the upper bourgeoisie (important merchants and bankers) and petty bourgeoisie (artisans and small-scale merchants). Medieval cities were also home to nobles, clergymen and many poor people, such as servants and beggars. Despite their great socioeconomic differences, the city's inhabitants were free, as they did not have a feudal lord. If a serf managed to live in the city for a year without being reclaimed by his lord, he was considered free. AN ARTISAN WORKSHOP Medieval cities had a weekly market day, a tradition that has survived in many places. People came from the surrounding areas to sell their agricultural products and buy products and services that were not available in the countryside. The city's shops displayed a symbol to show what products they made and sold, since most people were illiterate. Merchants also came to sell products from far away (salt, spices, etc.) or to buy cattle and other products to resell elsewhere. A MEDIEVAL MARKET Cities were centres of artisanship and trade... Cities were hubs where most products were manufactured and most trade took place. They were usually small. Artisans formed guilds, which established rules and to regulate the quality, quantity and price. Artisans in the same guild lived in the same streets....where new social classes appeared A new social class, the bourgeoisie, emerged in the cities. Their wealth came from selling their products or from the profits of their businesses. It was divided into the upper bourgeoisie and petty bourgeoisie (artisans). Medieval cities were also home to nobles, clergymen and many poor people, such as servants and beggars. The city's inhabitants were free, as they did not have a feudal lord. If a serf managed to live in the city for a year he was considered free. ARTISAN WORKSHOPS Each workshop was owned by a master artisan. The master was an expert. He employed artisans and apprentices and paid them a salary. Guilds followed a strict training system. Guilds also formed brotherhoods, looked after their members. Medieval cities had a weekly market day. People came from the surrounding areas to sell their agricultural products and buy products.  5 Who was in charge in the Middle Ages? The support of the bourgeoisie strengthenedthe power of the monarchs… In the feudal system which lasted until the12 th century, the king was "first among equals". In other words, he was the most powerful feudal lord in the kingdom. He owned the Crown Estate and had full authority over it.The feudal lords had authority in the rest of the kingdom. Monarchs needed the support of the bourgeoisie to impose their authority on the nobility, guarantee territorial unity in the kingdom and build national monarchies. The bourgeoisie needed protection from the feudal lords to trade by road and sea and in cities throughout the kingdom. They also aspired to control the cities and influence the king's political decisions. To gain the support of the bourgeoisie, kings issued royal charters that gave cities privileges, freed their inhabitants and granted them the right to self-government. They also granted trading monopolies, permits to open markets and freedom of movement. In exchange for these privileges, the bourgeoisie paid taxes that allowed monarchs to pay for armies and officials to administer the kingdom. This allowed them to impose their authority over the feudal lords. KINGDOMS OF WESTERN EUROPEAN IN THE MID-14TH CENTURY...and led to the creation of parliaments Monarchs ruled with the help of the Royal Council (Curia Regis), a group of nobles and clergymen. However, from the 12th century, members of the bourgeoisie were also invited to represent the cities. At first, this happened only occasionally, but later it became regular. These meetings between the king and the three estates (nobility, clergy and bourgeoisie) were called parliaments. By including the bourgeoisie, the king was recognising the importance of this group in society. However, he also wanted money in the form of subsidies in exchange for listening to their complaints and meeting their demands. In some kingdoms, the bourgeoisie voted on subsidies only after the king had met their demands. THE LAW GAVE POWER TO MONARCHS To deal with the powerful nobles, monarchs started gaining authority through laws that established the rights and duties of their subjects. James I of Aragón receives the charters of Aragón before clergymen and nobles of the Curia Regis, 13th century. Meeting of the Parliament of France, 13th century. The support of the bourgeoisie strengthened the power of the monarchs... In the feudal system the king was the most powerful feudal lord in the kingdom. He owned the Crown Estate and had full authority over it. Monarchs needed the support of the bourgeoisie to impose their authority on the nobility. The bourgeoisie needed protection to trade. They also aspired to control the cities and influence the king's political decisions. To gain the support of the bourgeoisie, kings issued royal charters that gave cities privileges. They also granted trading monopolies or permits to open markets. In exchange for these privileges, the bourgeoisie paid taxes that allowed monarchs to pay for armies and officials...and led to the creation of parliaments Monarchs ruled with the help of the Royal Council (Curia Regis), a group of nobles and clergymen. However, from the 12th century, members of the bourgeoisie were also invited to represent the cities. These meetings between the king and the three estates were called parliaments. By including the bourgeoisie, the king was recognising the importance of this group in society. To deal with the powerful nobles, monarchs started gaining authority through laws that established the rights and duties of their subjects.  6 How did the Black Death affect society in Europe? In the 14th century, Europe suffered many disasters, including hunger, wars and the plague, which was particularly devastating and led to the crisis of the Late Middle Ages. The arrival of the Black Death in Europe… The Black Death originated in Asia and reached Europe in around 1348. It was an infectious disease, but people did not know how it was transmitted. As a result, some people blamed the Jews for poisoning the water, while others thought it was divine punishment for the sins of humanity or the corruption of the Church. It was a deadly disease that was transmitted mainly by flea bites. The symptoms included fever, breathing difficulties and circulatory problems. Also the skin of victims turned black, which is where the name "Black Death" came from. Partial remedies, such as quarantining patients, failed to end the pandemic. It struck Europe several times, although with decreasing intensity....affected the weakened population This disease had catastrophic effects on society and caused a widespread crisis in Europe due to three additional factors: Numerous wars occurred in the 14th century and caused severe human and economic losses. Population growth led to the use of poor quality land and bad harvests. The Little Ice Age began during this period, and the frost, hail and rain caused crop failures and famines. HOW DID THE BLACK DEATH SPREAD? WHAT WERE THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE PANDEMIC? Demographic impact It is estimated that the Black Death killedbetween 30% and 40% of Europe'spopulation, which decreased from 73 to45 million. Many towns ended up desertedbecause their inhabitants died or left. Economic impact The pandemic struck during an economicdepression. The demand for goods decreasedas the population declined. This paralysedartisanship and trade. Farmland was alsoabandoned, which caused agricultural production to fall, prices to rise and day labourers to demand higher wages. Social impact Faced with a loss of income, many lords increased taxes and tried to prevent serfs from leaving their land. This led to revolts against feudal lords. The decline in artisanship and trade also caused urban revolts. In addition, the lack of scientific explanations for the pandemic led to misinformation and rumours, which increased intolerance towards groups thought to be guilty of spreading the plague. Impact on attitudes Some religious fanatics considered the plague to be divine punishment. To atone for their sins, they took part in processions in which they whipped themselves. The Danse Macabre (dance of Death), an artistic genre in which people were depicted marching towards the other world, also emerged. Procession of flagellants, 1349. In the 14th century, Europe suffered many disasters, including hunger, wars and the plague, The Black Death originated in Asia and reached Europe in around 1348. It was an infectious disease. Some people blamed the Jews, others thought it was divine punishment. It was a deadly disease transmitted by flea. The symptoms included fever, breathing difficulties and circulatory problems. Also the skin of victims turned black, which is where the name "Black Death" came from. This disease had catastrophic effects on society and caused a crisis in Europe due to three additional factors: Numerous wars occurred in the 14th century. Population growth led to the use of poor quality land and bad harvests. The Little Ice Age , famines. WHAT WERE THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE PANDEMIC? Demographic impact It is estimated that the Black Death killed between 30% and 40% of Europe's population. Economic impact The demand for goods decreased. This paralysed artisanship and trade. Farmland was also abandoned, production fall, prices rise. Social impact Many lords increased taxes and tried to prevent serfs from leaving their land. This led to revolts against feudal lords. The decline in artisanship and trade also caused urban revolts. Impact on attitudes Some religious fanatics considered the plague to be divine punishment.  7 Why are Gothic cathedrals so fascinating? More than 500 years after Gothic buildings were built, we continue to be captivated by their towering spires and vaults, even though we are used to seeing skyscrapers and other remarkable buildings. How did these buildings emerge? What lies behind their undeniable appeal? Belfry on top of Bruges cloth market (Belgium). The new economic activities made it necessary to construct buildings to conduct business. Gothic architecture: a reflection of urban expansion… Gothic art developed in France in the mid-12th century. It then spread to Western Europe, where it lasted until the 15th century. Unlike Romanesque art, which was essentially rural, the Gothic style was an urban art driven by the bourgeoisie and clergy. The growing cities needed large public buildings, such as palaces, markets, town halls, universities and hospitals. But the building that reflected a city's wealth and power more than any other was the cathedral, and cities competed to makes theirs the tallest and most beautiful....with bright, open spaces… The Gothic cathedral was a marvel of engineering, with airy spaces and high vaults supported by lightweight pillars and bright windows. To achieve this, they used highly innovative features: The pointed arch, which was lighter and had a more downward thrust than the Romanesque semi-circular arch. The ribbed vault, which was divided into sections that transferred the vertical weight of the vault onto four columns or pillars. Flying buttresses to reinforce the walls and counteract the lateral force created by the roof. Pinnacles and spires were not part of the building structure, but were used to make the cathedral appear slimmer. The main façade had three doors, corresponding to the three naves, with tall towers and often a rose window....that symbolised great spirituality The Gothic cathedrals that dominated medieval cities reflected the religiousness of society. Most people were used to living in modest houses, and the tall spires, vaults and pinnacles reflected their spiritual aspirations. Statues of the Virgin and saints adorned the façades, and the light and incredible colour inside the naves from the stained glass windows created a magical, spiritual place that invites believers to reflect on eternal life. THE GOTHIC CATHEDRAL The cathedral was a large public building for religious ceremonies. Its purpose was not only spiritual. It also played a political and civic role because its large naves were used as meeting places for the city's inhabitants. Flying buttresses with pinnacles on Bourges Cathedral (France). Central nave of León Cathedral. Gothic art developed in France. It then spread to Western Europe, where it lasted until the 15th century. The style was an urban art driven by the bourgeoisie and clergy. The growing cities needed large public buildings. the building that reflected a city's wealth and power was the cathedral (Tallest and more beautiful) They used highly innovative features: The pointed arch, which was lighter than the Romanesque semi-circular arch. The ribbed vault, which was divided into sections. Flying buttresses to reinforce the walls. Pinnacles and spires were used to make the cathedral appear slimmer. The main façade had three doors, corresponding to the three naves, with tall towers and often a rose window. The Gothic cathedrals that dominated medieval cities reflected the religiousness of society. Statues of the Virgin and saints adorned the façades, and the light and incredible colour inside the naves from the stained glass windows created a spiritual place that invites believers to reflect on eternal life. COPY THE DRAW  8 Was Gothic art naturalistic? Religious themes continued to dominate sculptures and paintings. However, Gothic art introduced important changes that would transform the history of art. What were they?What new techniques emerged? The Smiling Angel on the façade of Reims Cathedral, 13th century. SCULPTURE Most Gothic sculptures were religious but they sometimes represented kings and nobles. In addition to statues carved in stone on buildings, there were also free-standing stone or wooden sculptures. Images of Christ on the cross and the Virgin and Child were common themes. Beautiful stone-carved tombs and wooden altarpieces were also created. Compared to the rigid, expressionless sculptures of the Romanesque style, Gothic sculptures were much more realistic and reflected a new religiousness: The faces reflected emotions. Figures were more voluminous since clothes and bodies were represented more realistically. Gestures were used to give figures a sense of movement. There was greater interaction between figures, forming parts of narrative scenes. Sculptures at the entrance of Bamberg Cathedral (Germany). White Virgin in Toledo Cathedral, 12th century. Tomb of Martín Vázquez de Arce, Sigüenza Cathedral, 15th century. PAINTING The large windows in Gothic buildings reduced the need for wall paintings, which were typical of Romanesque art. New formats developed during this period, including painting on glass and wood (altarpieces made up of several panels that formed diptychs or triptychs). New painting techniques also appeared: Tempera, in which coloured pigments were mixed with a glutinous substance, usually egg yolk. Oil painting, which combined pigments with oil and allowed artists to retouch paintings and add greater detail. Both techniques gave rise to more naturalistic and expressive works. There were two main schools: The Italian school was characterised by religious works with figures against natural, architectural backgrounds, and great depth. Prominent artists were Giotto and Simone Martini. The Flemish school works with a high level of detail thanks to the use of oil on panel. The painters depict religious themes, but also landscapes, scenes of everyday life and portraits of the new Flemish merchant bourgeoisie. The works of Jan van Eyck or Rogier van der Weyden stand out.  Robert Campin: Annunciation Triptych, 1427. Giotto: Kiss of Judas, 14th century. Fresco. MINIATURE BOOKS In the Middle Ages, manuscripts were often illustrated with miniature paintings. They included decorated capital letters and featured religious, romantic and courtly scenes. They are often excellent sources of information on social customs. Limbourg brothers: The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry, 15th century. Religious themes continued to dominate sculptures and paintings. However, Gothic art introduced important changes: SCULPTURE Most Gothic sculptures were religious but they sometimes represented kings and nobles. Statues and free-standing stone or wooden sculptures. Beautiful stone-carved tombs and wooden altarpieces were also created. Compared to the rigid, expressionless sculptures of the Romanesque style, Gothic sculptures were much more realistic and reflected a new religiousness: The faces reflected emotions. Figures were more voluminous since clothes and bodies were represented more realistically. Gestures were used to give figures a sense of movement. There was greater interaction between figures, forming parts of narrative scenes. PAINTING The large windows in Gothic buildings reduced the need for wall paintings, which were typical of Romanesque art. New painting techniques also appeared: Tempera Oil painting,greater detail. Both techniques gave rise to more naturalistic and expressive works. There were two main schools: The Italian school was characterised by religious works The Flemish school works with a high level of detail. Depict religious themes, but also landscapes, scenes of everyday life and portraits. The works of Jan van Eyck or Rogier van der Weyden stand out.