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Questions and Answers
What is one potential direct cause of abortion in dogs as mentioned?
Which infectious agent is NOT listed as a cause of abortion in dogs?
What systemic condition can adversely affect pregnancy outcomes in dogs?
Which bacteria is associated with uterine infection that could lead to abortion?
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What laboratory test is important post-abortion to determine causes in dogs?
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What does a CBC typically show in cases of abortion due to systemic disease in dogs?
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Which viral infection is identified as a potential cause of abortions in dogs?
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Which statement regarding endometrial conditions and pregnancy loss is true?
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What is the main mechanism of 5-Fluorouracil's action?
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Which of the following is a symptom of 5-Fluorouracil toxicity?
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How often should CBC be monitored after exposure to 5-Fluorouracil?
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What is a probable consequence of administering 5-Fluorouracil?
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Which of the following agents can be used for metabolic protection in a case of 5-Fluorouracil exposure?
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What is the role of maropitant in the treatment protocol for 5-Fluorouracil toxicity?
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When does leukopenia typically develop after exposure to 5-Fluorouracil?
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What type of agent is 5-Fluorouracil categorized as?
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What is the low dose protocol for treating a pregnant bitch according to the guidelines?
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For which stage of gestation is cloprostenol treatment appropriate in bitches?
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What is the recommended standard dose protocol for a pregnant queen during treatment?
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According to the treatment procedures, how often should a standard dose be administered for a pregnant dog?
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What is the key difference in dosage required for queens compared to bitches when reacting to luteolytic effects of PGF2α?
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What common sign of pregnancy might necessitate further diagnostic procedures?
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What is the initial dose of cloprostenol for a pregnant bitch under treatment?
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What is the maximum dose of cloprostenol listed for use in queens after day 40 of gestation?
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What is a potential complication of untreated pyometra?
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What dosage of cloprostenol is indicated for use?
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What condition is most likely to recur up to 70% of the time during subsequent cycles?
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Which of the following treatments is not approved for use in dogs?
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When should progesterone be adjusted to maintain pregnancy?
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Which antibiotic type is recommended pending culture and sensitivity of the vaginal tissue or fetus?
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What is the likely outcome regarding recovery of fertility after CEH?
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For what condition is the use of hormonal dysfunction considered manageable?
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What precaution should be taken when administering drugs that require extensive liver metabolism in dogs?
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At what time frame may methemoglobinemia lead to death in cats after ingestion?
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Which treatment may potentially reverse methemoglobinemia in dogs and cats?
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What is a possible consequence of liver necrosis in dogs after drug toxicity?
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Which of the following conditions may develop in small-breed dogs as a result of drug toxicity?
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Which substances are controversially associated with added benefits in treating liver toxicity?
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What is the recommended dosage of S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) for dogs as an initial treatment?
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What serious concern can arise 12–24 hours after ingestion of hepatotoxic substances in dogs?
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What is a common consequence of primary hypoluteoidism in queens during pregnancy?
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Which factor is most significant when analyzing nutritional requirements for a pregnant queen?
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Which condition can lead to the return to estrus sooner than expected in queens?
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What is the significance of a CBC in the case of pregnancy complications in queens?
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Which of the following would be considered a pathologic finding in a queen experiencing pregnancy loss?
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Which laboratory finding might indicate dehydration in a pregnant queen?
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What health care approach is recommended for stable queens experiencing noninfectious issues?
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What symptom may indicate a severe issue during pregnancy, particularly related to the uterus?
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What is the significance of performing a biopsy in suspected cases of nodular panniculitis?
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What is the primary reason for avoiding the use of estrogens in terminating an unwanted pregnancy?
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What complications may arise from delayed drainage of an abscess?
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What diagnostic method is recommended for confirming pregnancy in bitches after the luteinizing hormone surge?
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Which laboratory test is crucial for identifying specific mycobacterial infections?
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What effect does impaired embryo transport through the oviduct have on pregnancy maintenance in dogs and cats?
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What underlying health condition may predispose an animal to infections leading to abscess formation?
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What immediate action can be taken to prevent further tissue damage in case of an abscess?
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Why is it important to measure serum relaxin concentration in bitches during pregnancy diagnostics?
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What are the implications of conducting culture and susceptibility testing on affected tissue?
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What is the best treatment option for a dog that does not desire any litters?
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Which factor can affect the prognosis following an abscess-related intervention?
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What common side effect should be discussed with clients when considering treatment options for unwanted pregnancies?
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What type of staining is suitable for detecting fungal organisms during diagnostics?
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What is the appropriate time frame for abdominal ultrasound in queens to confirm pregnancy?
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Which condition is NOT a differential diagnosis during the examination of abnormal pregnancy situations in dogs?
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What is the primary consequence of glutathione depletion in the context of acetaminophen poisoning?
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Which action is essential in the acute management of a patient who has ingested a toxic dose of acetaminophen?
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In the case of suspected methemoglobinemia, which symptom should be monitored closely?
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Which of the following substances is known to cause oxidative damage to red blood cells in dogs?
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What form of therapy may be required for a patient exhibiting methemoglobinemia?
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Which clinical condition may develop later in patients with acetaminophen poisoning?
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Which class of drugs is classified as having the potential for causing liver necrosis in dogs?
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In cases of poisoning with substances causing methemoglobinemia, which ingredient might be beneficial to warn clients about?
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What is the recommended treatment for a bitch requiring cloprostenol and cabergoline combination therapy for pregnancy termination?
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Which of the following best describes the expected interestrous interval in bitches treated with prostaglandins and PRL inhibitors?
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What must be confirmed before proceeding with the treatment protocol for pregnancy termination in dogs?
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What is a critical consideration when using dopamine (D2) antagonists in conjunction with cabergoline?
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How is the effectiveness of cabergoline and bromocriptine measured in terms of pregnancy termination success?
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What dosage of aglepristone is recommended for treatment in queens?
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What is the effect of administering cabergoline after 28 days post-LH surge?
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What side effect is commonly associated with the administration of cabergoline?
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Which of the following skin conditions is associated with the presence of Demodex injai?
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What is a possible sign of ocular dysfunction linked to meibomian gland issues in dogs?
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Which of the following diagnostic tests would NOT typically be used for detecting dermatophyte infections?
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In cases with chronic meibomianitis, which bacterium may commonly be isolated?
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What skin condition is indicated by pruritus and excoriation in animals?
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Which imaging technique is most likely to reveal the presence of foreign materials in soft tissues?
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What is most indicative of purulent exudate in an affected area when performing an ultrasound?
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What is the most significant risk factor for anal sac issues in animals?
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In which organ is bacterial prostatitis most likely to occur?
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What condition is least likely to result from foreign object aspiration or migration in small animals?
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What is the expected nucleated cell count typically observed in cases involving fine-needle aspiration?
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Which type of imaging would be least effective for diagnosing issues in the mammary gland?
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What is the primary reason for monitoring fluid density during imaging assessments?
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What is a potential consequence of using altrenogest during the last days of pregnancy in queens?
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Which infectious agent is a protozoan associated with abortion in cats?
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What dietary precaution should be observed for queens during pregnancy?
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What is a potential benefit of administering bromocriptine and cloprostenol in a treatment combination for a bitch?
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Which testing method is appropriate to confirm feline leukemia in queens?
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What is a common misinterpretation about the diets of pregnant queens?
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What is a primary contraindication for using PGF2α and its analogues in animal treatments?
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What specific management approach is recommended for queens who are systemically ill during pregnancy?
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What is the appropriate timing for initiating treatment with bromocriptine and cloprostenol in a bitch?
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Which laboratory finding is most indicative of dehydration in a pregnant queen?
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What adverse effect may occur as a side effect of using aglepristone and cloprostenol?
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What is the maximum time frame for completing abortion when using aglepristone and intravaginal misoprostol?
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How can infection during pregnancy influence the outcome of fetal viability?
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What is a common complication associated with hormonal treatments in bitches?
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What consideration should be made when using cabergoline and bromocriptine in treatments?
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What is the role of cloprostenol in managing pregnancy in bitches?
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What is the primary mechanism by which acetaminophen causes oxidative damage to red blood cells (RBCs)?
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Which of the following substances is least likely to cause methemoglobinemia?
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What is a recommended supportive treatment for a patient exhibiting symptoms of hepatotoxicity?
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What is a critical aspect of nursing care for a patient poisoned with as little as 50–60 mg/kg of a toxic substance?
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What laboratory finding may indicate a need for whole blood transfusion in cases of acetaminophen poisoning?
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Which of the following conditions is characterized by slower-developing hepatotoxicosis that may complicate acute poisoning?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the potential causes of liver injury mentioned?
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What symptom might suggest the need for oxygen therapy in a patient with heavy metal toxicity?
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What is a common condition that may lead to the loss of one or two conceptuses within a litter in queens?
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Which factor is most associated with an increased incidence of pregnancy complications in queens?
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Which diagnostic procedure is crucial for evaluating fetal abnormalities in queens?
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What dietary issue is mentioned as a risk factor for pregnancy complications in queens?
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Which condition could indicate fetal death or malformation in a pregnant queen?
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Which procedure is recommended for further analysis after an abortion has occurred in a queen?
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What does karyotyping help evaluate after abortion in queens?
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Which underlying health condition could jeopardize pregnancy outcomes in queens?
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What is a condition associated with sebaceous gland inflammation in dogs?
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Which test is most appropriate for diagnosing dermatophytosis?
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What is a common symptom seen in patients with meibomian gland dysfunction?
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Which condition is characterized by yellow-white, painless swellings in the eyelid?
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What type of culture would typically not be successful in recovering Staphylococcus in chronic eyelid conditions?
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What is the protocol for initiating treatment with bromocriptine and cloprostenol in bitches?
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Which of the following conditions poses a risk when using PGF2α and its analogues?
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What is the potential outcome of combining cloprostenol and aglepristone for abortion in bitches?
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What is a common side effect associated with the use of aglepristone and misoprostol in the abortion process?
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Which drug should be avoided in animals hypersensitive to ergot alkaloids?
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When might a veterinarian consider using caution when administering reproductive drugs to brachycephalic breeds?
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Which potential complication can arise from untreated pyometra during treatment for pregnancy termination?
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What is the expected time frame for an abortion to be complete when using aglepristone with intravaginal misoprostol?
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What is the recommended method to encourage drainage of an anal sac abscess?
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What laboratory finding is most characteristic of acetaminophen toxicosis in cats?
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What condition is considered when dealing with recurrent prostatic abscesses?
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What is the primary objective during the treatment of mastitis according to the guidelines?
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What sign typically develops within 1 to 4 hours after acetaminophen ingestion?
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What situation should prompt the use of active drainage for an anal sac abscess?
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Which symptom is indicative of severe liver toxicity in dogs following drug exposure?
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What can result from the inhibition of normal biotransformation mechanisms during acetaminophen toxicosis?
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What can lead to the development of toxic cytochrome P450 metabolites?
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What condition is caused by the oxidative damage to RBCs due to acetaminophen deacetylation?
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Which treatment is recommended to maintain hydration and electrolyte balance in poisoned patients?
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What type of drugs can lead to hemolytic anemia and hemoglobinuria due to glutathione depletion?
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What is a potential consequence of slowly developing hepatotoxicosis?
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Which of the following is identified as a common environmental toxin leading to liver necrosis?
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What symptom may indicate the need for oxygen therapy in a patient poisoned by certain substances?
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Which agents are known to cause oxidative damage to hemoglobin, leading to methemoglobinemia?
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Which condition is specifically associated with chronic meibomian gland dysfunction in dogs?
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Which diagnostic method is most appropriate for evaluating systemic fungal infections in cases of ocular discharge?
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What primary symptom is a common manifestation of conjunctivitis in affected animals?
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Which type of testing would be essential to identify demodicosis in dogs presenting with skin issues?
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Which condition is characterized by granulation tissue formation due to persistent inflammation in dogs?
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What potential consequence may arise from the administration of progesterone during pregnancy?
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What is a likely result of severe systemic disease during pregnancy in queens?
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What is the advised precaution for introducing new cats to a breeding facility?
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Which condition is associated with a higher incidence of lower litter size and infertility in queens?
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What is a potential risk of not vaccinating queens prior to pregnancy?
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What adverse effect is associated with the administration of dopamine agonists during pregnancy?
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How should nutritional requirements for pregnant queens be assessed?
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What condition is indicated by poor maternal behavior in the first days postpartum?
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Which factor contributes to the significant inflammatory response in the conjunctiva?
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What is the typical underlying cause of generalized bacterial blepharitis and meibomianitis in dogs?
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Which laboratory test is most important for assessing conjunctival issues resulting from systemic disorders?
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Which type of tumor is most commonly associated with meibomian gland dysfunction?
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What dosing schedule is recommended for S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) in dogs after the initial treatment?
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Which of the following conditions is linked to chronic blepharoconjunctivitis in cats?
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What is the most significant risk associated with acetaminophen ingestion in dogs and cats?
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Which procedure is essential for diagnosing underlying mechanical factors affecting the eyelid?
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What mechanism does inflammation in the conjunctiva often utilize?
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What potential consequence can occur in dogs within 72 hours of severe liver necrosis?
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Which among the following conditions may develop as a result of drug toxicity in small-breed dogs?
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What effect do altered lipases in the meibomian glands typically have?
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What is a contraindication when administering drugs that contribute to methemoglobinemia?
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How long after ingestion can methemoglobinemia lead to fatal outcomes in cats?
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What treatment option's benefits in reversing methemoglobinemia are considered controversial?
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Which of the following is a possible clinical sign following the ingestion of hepatotoxic substances in dogs?
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What is the most significant factor associated with the increased incidence of pregnancy loss in queens?
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What diagnostic procedure is essential for evaluating fetal health and potential complications after 45 days of gestation?
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Which condition is highly correlated with the heritability of susceptibility to reproductive issues in cats?
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What is a common pathologic finding in cats that experience abortion or fetal loss?
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Which factor does NOT contribute to secondary hypoluteoidism in queens?
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What type of sample is recommended to be submitted for analysis after an abortion event?
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What is indicated by the presence of gas pockets in the uterus during diagnostic imaging?
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Which of the following is NOT a recommended precaution in evaluating pregnancy complications in queens?
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What is the preferred method for surgical intervention in stable nonbreeding patients?
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Which diagnostic procedure is primarily used to identify the source of vulvar discharge?
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What is the common duration for administering Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) for treating conditions in dogs?
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Which of the following is a recommended action for monitoring Brucellosis in dogs?
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What is the significance of the increased mucoid content in discharge during diagnostic assessments?
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What common condition may necessitate surveillance programs in breeding environments?
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In regards to abortion treatment using Prostaglandin F2α, what effect might prolonged administration lead to?
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Which procedure is primarily used to establish an inflammatory process in the reproductive tract?
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What is a recommended dosage for Cabergoline to induce luteal regression in bitches?
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Which of the following may reduce the effectiveness of PGF2α and its analogues?
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Which of the following is a potential side effect of Dexamethasone treatment?
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What is a common complication associated with prolonged use of Dexamethasone beyond two weeks?
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Which treatment is indicated for terminating pregnancy in dogs after day 40 of gestation?
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Monitoring is recommended for how long after treatment for pregnancy termination?
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What should be considered when dosing hormonal treatments for pregnancy termination?
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What condition may lead to delayed liver function recovery post-toxicity?
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Which of the following treatments is associated with a slight risk of developing pyometra in dogs?
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What adverse effects can be observed after administering aglepristone and cloprostenol?
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In which case should caution be exercised when using PGF2α and its analogues?
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What is the effect of estrogen related to cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH)?
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What is the specified dosage of cloprostenol for initiating treatment in a pregnant bitch?
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What combination of treatments is indicated for completing an abortion within a specified time frame?
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Which situation would contraindicate the use of cabergoline and bromocriptine?
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What is the risk associated with administering PGF2α analogues intravenously in animals?
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What role does progesterone play in the maintenance of pregnancy in dogs and cats?
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What is the recommended method for confirming pregnancy in bitches after the LH surge?
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What is a significant risk associated with using estrogens to impede embryonic transport in the oviduct?
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In assessing the possibility of pregnancy loss in bitches, which of the following conditions would be seen on differential diagnosis?
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What diagnostic method is most effective for evaluating the health of a pregnant queen after breeding?
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Why should special precautions be taken regarding diet prior to treatment for an unwanted pregnancy?
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Which of the following statements accurately describes a cause of pregnancy diagnosis failure in bitches?
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What is a common characteristic of the drugs recommended for terminating established pregnancies?
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What is the role of meibomian gland dysfunction in ocular health?
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Which type of skin condition is often associated with blepharoconjunctivitis in cats?
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What are common causes of exaggerated inflammatory responses in the conjunctiva?
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Which of the following conditions is likely to affect the meibomian glands?
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Which diagnostic test is crucial for assessing tear production?
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What is a potential consequence of lipase alterations in the meibomian lipids?
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Which laboratory test is indicated for systemic disorders leading to eyelid inflammation?
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What is a potential neoplastic condition originating from the meibomian gland?
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What is the initial dosage of Cabergoline for a bitch undergoing treatment to induce luteal regression?
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What is one of the side effects associated with prolonged use of Dexamethasone in patients?
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Which treatment option might enhance the effects of oxytocin when used together?
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What is a potential complication of using Cabergoline in bitches after day 40 of gestation?
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What is the risk associated with the use of PGF2α in conjunction with progestins?
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What is a common side effect of Dexamethasone when given in high doses?
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What is the final dosing adjustment of Dexamethasone for a pregnant bitch at the end of the treatment course?
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During which gestational period might the ultrasound confirmation of pregnancy be impossible for a bitch?
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What is a potential effect of using progestogenic therapy in pregnant cats?
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Which condition may indicate that the prognosis for live kittens is poor?
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What complication could arise from administering tocolytics indiscriminately?
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What is a contraindication for the use of altrenogest in pregnant queens?
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Which monitoring method is essential during progestogen treatment for pregnant queens?
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What is a notable complication of untreated pyometra in pregnant cats?
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What issue may arise from a contaminated uterus in a pregnant cat?
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What can increase the risk of fetal loss in a queen during pregnancy?
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Which treatment is suggested for the management of pyometra in dogs, considering possible complications?
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What is the potential consequence of untreated brucellosis in dogs?
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In a treatment plan for hormonal dysfunction in dogs, what factor is critical when adjusting progesterone dosage?
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What is the expected recovery rate of fertility in cases of CEH (cystic endometrial hyperplasia)?
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What might be an indication for the use of altrenogest in canine therapy?
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For which condition is outpatient treatment indicated even after a medically stable patient's abortion?
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What condition results in a high likelihood of recurrence during subsequent cycles if not managed appropriately?
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Which of the following describes a potential risk associated with the use of progesterone to maintain pregnancy?
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What is a potential result of the rupture of a chronic abscess?
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Which laboratory finding in a CBC may suggest severe infection?
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Which bacterium is classified as a pyogenic organism associated with abscess formation?
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What condition may arise from the presence of foreign objects in the body?
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Which of the following does NOT typically indicate cholestasis on a serum chemistry profile?
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In which of the following systems is mycetoma most commonly found?
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What type of pathogens are usually responsible for pyogenic abscesses?
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What is the role of progesterone in maintaining pregnancy in dogs and cats?
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Which meeting criterion is not used for evaluating chronic abscesses through urinalysis?
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Which diagnostic method is least reliable for confirming pregnancy in bitches?
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What is a significant risk associated with the use of estrogens in pregnancy termination treatments?
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What condition could potentially occur due to impaired embryo transport in the oviduct?
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Which outcome is expected if a bitch is diagnosed with pseudopregnancy?
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When should abdominal radiographs be utilized to confirm pregnancy in bitches?
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Which method is not commonly recommended for terminating a pregnancy in dogs and cats?
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What is a primary consideration in educating clients regarding reproductive health options after an unwanted pregnancy?
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What hormonal dysfunction is considered more common in dogs that can affect pregnancy outcomes?
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Which of the following conditions may have a documented association with fetal loss in dogs due to environmental exposure?
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What is the minimum serum progesterone concentration required to maintain a pregnancy in dogs?
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What breed is known for its predisposition to hypothyroidism which may impact reproductive outcomes?
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Which age demographic is indicated as at risk for hormonal dysfunction affecting pregnancy?
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Which condition is associated with mid-gestation abortion in dogs?
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Which laboratory method differentiates true positives from false positives in agglutination tests?
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What factor is stated to require monitoring weekly starting from the third week of pregnancy in dogs?
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What primary action should be taken if a queen is identified to have an infectious disease during pregnancy?
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Which dietary caution is crucial for queens during pregnancy to avoid potential complications?
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What complication can arise from using altrenogest in pregnant queens?
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What laboratory test is suggested for detecting feline leukemia in pregnant queens?
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Which bacterial species is associated with ascending infection that may lead to abortion in queens?
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What is a significant risk factor for pregnancy loss due to nutritional deficiencies in queens?
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Which condition would most likely recur if a queen with a genetic abnormality is bred to a tom with a similar pedigree?
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What consequence does the failure to adjust progesterone levels during pregnancy in queens likely lead to?
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What are the potential side effects associated with the use of PGF2α and its analogues in dogs and cats?
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What long-term effect can result from administering dexamethasone to patients?
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In which scenario should ultrasound examinations be utilized following the administration of progesterone receptor antagonist drugs?
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What condition should be closely monitored in animals treated with luteolytic drugs?
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Which condition could exacerbate side effects when administering cabergoline and bromocriptine?
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What immediate responses may occur due to side effects of PGF2α in treated animals?
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What is a described potential consequence of prolonged dexamethasone therapy?
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Which is a study recommended to monitor pregnancy termination in bitches treated with prostaglandins?
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What is the recommended dosing for a pregnant bitch treated with cabergoline and cloprostenol for pregnancy termination?
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What effect does bromocriptine have in the treatment of pregnancy termination?
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Why is it important to monitor for hypotension when administering cabergoline?
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How does treatment with prostaglandins and PRL inhibitors affect the interestrous interval in bitches?
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What is the effective treatment approach if pregnancy persists after the initial termination protocols?
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What is the expected outcome for queens regarding estrous behavior after pregnancy termination?
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For what specific reason is abdominal ultrasound performed at 28–30 days after treatment initiation?
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Which of the following drugs is used in bitches but is not readily available in the United States?
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What is the recommended monitoring frequency for methemoglobinemia in animals after exposure to toxic substances?
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What is the primary risk associated with single-dose acetaminophen administration in young and small dogs and cats?
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Which serum liver enzyme must be monitored every 12 hours to assess liver damage?
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In cases of metabolic acidosis, what is the expected change in heart rate and cardiac output when the pH is slightly above 7.2?
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What condition may result from significant elevation of serum liver enzyme activities in animals?
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In terms of therapeutic response, what should be the approach when treating a patient with ulcers after drug administration?
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What potential outcome can develop due to hepatotoxic substances in dogs within a critical timeframe?
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What health risk is indicated when monitoring a patient experiencing metabolic acidosis?
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Which bacterium is commonly associated with ascending infections leading to abortion in cats?
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What is a potential effect of using altrenogest in a pregnant queen?
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Which dietary choice should be avoided to reduce the risk of pathogenic bacterial ingestion in pregnant queens?
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What type of tests should be performed to diagnose feline leukemia virus (FeLV) in queens?
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In case of systemic illness, which nursing care approach is recommended for pregnant queens?
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Which infectious protozoal agent is known to affect pregnancy outcomes in cats?
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What management strategy should be implemented for queens diagnosed with infectious diseases?
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What environmental condition should be minimized during pregnancy to ensure lower risks for the fetus?
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Which antimicrobial therapy is appropriate for a dog with a suspected exudate-containing mass lesion?
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What is the recommended action for prostatitis secondary to Brucella canis?
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Which of the following factors does NOT influence the selection of an antimicrobial agent?
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Which drug should NOT be used in cats for infections involving Mycoplasma and L-forms?
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What is a potential consequence of administering progesterone during the second half of pregnancy?
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In the management of systemic inflammation, which treatment option is NOT suitable for outpatient care?
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Which of the following factors increases the likelihood of pregnancy loss in queens?
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Which condition is associated with the need for aggressive intravenous antimicrobial therapy?
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What are the possible side effects associated with the use of PGF2α?
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What type of bacteria should a broad-spectrum antimicrobial target in cases of significant infection?
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What is a critical nursing care consideration for managing an exudate in an abscess?
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Which condition is associated with an increased risk of dystocia and poor maternal behavior?
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What is crucial for effective breeding management in queens?
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What should be monitored closely in queens with previous pregnancy loss?
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What is an important consideration when advising on nutrition for pregnant queens?
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What is a significant risk of maternal illness during pregnancy?
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What is the main role of Prostaglandin F2α in the management of pregnancy complications in queens?
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Which medication is contraindicated if live fetuses are still present in a pregnant queen?
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What is the purpose of monitoring health and attitude in a pregnant queen following pregnancy complications?
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In treating pregnancy loss in a queen, what is the recommended action if the uterus is free of fluid?
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Which treatment may be indicated to prevent uterine contractions after an abortion in queens?
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What factor can dictate the timing of treatment for pregnancy complications in a queen?
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What is the initial recommended dosage of enrofloxacin for use in pregnant queens?
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What might indicate the need for a cesarean section in a pregnant queen post-pregnancy loss?
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What is the consequence of not properly isolating most bitches during diagnosis?
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Which condition is associated with a high risk of recurrence during subsequent cycles?
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What is the role of progesterone in maintaining pregnancy when given at the appropriate dosage?
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Which antibiotic treatment is indicated pending culture and sensitivity testing for bacterial infections in pregnant bitches?
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What is a potential risk associated with the use of cloprostenol in pregnant bitches?
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What aspect of brucellosis complicates its management in dogs?
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What is the expected fertility recovery outcome for dogs after experiencing chronic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH)?
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When should treatment with progesterone be adjusted?
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What condition may be indicated by darkened mucous membranes after acetaminophen ingestion?
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Which laboratory finding typically increases due to acetaminophen toxicosis?
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What is a recommended approach for managing a prostatic abscess?
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What is a common sign seen within 1–4 hours after acetaminophen exposure?
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What type of abscess should not allow chewing on foreign objects to prevent further issues?
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What characteristic finding is prominent in red blood cells (RBCs) in cases of acetaminophen toxicosis in cats?
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If anal sac abscesses recur frequently, which surgical option may be considered?
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What other condition is mastitis associated with, requiring prevention measures?
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What is the main purpose of combining cabergoline with cloprostenol during treatment?
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Which of the following best describes an expected course after administering cabergoline in bitches?
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What dosage of cabergoline is recommended for cats (queens) during treatment?
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What is a potential complication of using concomitant dopamine (D2) antagonists with cabergoline?
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What initial step should be taken if pregnancy termination is not achieved after the first treatment protocol?
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Which statement is true regarding the administration of cabergoline in conjunction with meal times?
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What is the primary concern associated with S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) when administered to dogs?
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How does cloprostenol function in the context of pregnancy termination protocols?
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What is the significance of performing an abdominal ultrasound 28–30 days after treatment with cabergoline?
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How long after ingestion might cats potentially succumb to methemoglobinemia?
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What is a possible consequence of liver necrosis in dogs as a result of drug toxicity?
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What potential complication may arise from using substances that exacerbate methemoglobinemia?
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Which treatment option is noted as controversial in its effectiveness for mitigating liver necrosis?
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What is the recommended dosage for continued SAMe administration after the initial treatment in dogs?
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In the context of small-breed dogs, which condition can develop as a sequela following toxicity?
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What reaction may occur if drugs requiring extensive liver metabolism are administered to dogs?
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What is a key characteristic of a granuloma compared to an abscess?
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What type of tissue change is commonly seen when an abscess forms and is not drained?
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Which clinical sign is not typically associated with an abscess formation?
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How do hematomas and abscesses differ in their pain characteristics?
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What best describes the relationship between inflammation and abscess formation?
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Which organism is least likely to be associated with abscess formation based on the content?
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What type of lesion might develop if an abscess ruptures to the external surface?
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Which pathological finding best corresponds to neoplasia in the context of abscess differential diagnosis?
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What is the primary goal when addressing accumulated exudate in a surgical scenario?
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Which of the following is essential during patient monitoring after treatment for abscesses?
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What surgical consideration should be taken when dealing with percutaneous abscesses?
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What is a common treatment approach for sepsis related to abscesses?
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Which statement best describes the role of corticosteroids in managing sterile nodular panniculitis?
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What is a critical preventative measure for abscess formation in pets?
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In the context of wound management, what is the primary focus when using protective bandaging?
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What is one of the key responsibilities of client education regarding abscess treatment?
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Which of the following is NOT a common cause of abortion in dogs?
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What is the role of Brucella canis in pregnancy loss among dogs?
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Which condition is indicated by hypoluteoidism in dogs?
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In cases of abortion, which laboratory findings may be expected?
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What type of infections can lead to indirect causes of abortion in dogs?
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Which bacterial species is specifically indicated as a cause of uterine infection potentially leading to abortion?
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What is a potential effect of systemic diseases on pregnancy outcomes in dogs?
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Which of the following statements about infectious agents in abortion cases is accurate?
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Which of the following conditions is NOT associated with the anal sac?
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What diagnostic imaging technique is particularly useful for assessing a pericardial abscess?
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Which of the following is a potential finding on ultrasonography for assessing an affected mass?
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Which organ's disorders can manifest as echogenic fluid suggesting purulent exudate?
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What is the typical cell count range associated with fine-needle aspiration in various conditions?
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In which of the following conditions might you see a soft-tissue mass on radiography?
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Which of the following is likely to be found in the lung due to aspiration?
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What type of infection could lead to mastitis in the mammary gland?
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Which type of discharge is associated with ocular conditions as highlighted in the content?
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What condition is characterized by painful, swollen eyelids due to meibomian gland dysfunction?
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Which diagnostic test is least likely to be utilized for assessing fungal infections in the context described?
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What skin condition is specifically associated with parasites, including Demodex and Sarcoptes?
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What consequence may arise from chronic meibomianitis as indicated by the description?
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What is a common method for confirming pregnancy in a bitch?
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Which drug is not commonly recommended for terminating an established pregnancy due to potential side effects?
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What is indicated by a serum relaxin concentration in the bitch that is tested after 28 days post LH surge?
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Which option best captures the concept of impaired embryo transport through the oviduct?
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What percentage of mismated bitches do not achieve pregnancy?
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What is the recommended nursing care after termination of an unwanted pregnancy?
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Which condition is effectively resolved through ovariohysterectomy in cases of unwanted pregnancies?
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What dietary instruction should be given to a client before administering medications?
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What is a primary cause of sterile abscesses?
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Which laboratory finding is likely in a case of prostatic abscess in dogs?
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What type of bacteria is commonly associated with chronic draining abscesses?
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Which condition may lead to an increased cellularity in cerebrospinal fluid?
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What sign on a serum chemistry profile might indicate cholestasis due to obstruction?
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How does the presence of foreign objects relate to abscess formation?
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What bacteria are specifically noted for their role in eumycotic mycetoma?
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What type of infection might result in chronic or intermittent discharge from a draining tract?
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What could be the expected duration of time before a queen returns to estrus after experiencing early pregnancy loss?
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Which of the following conditions could lead to the presence of a sanguineous vaginal discharge in pregnant queens?
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What laboratory findings could suggest systemic illness in a queen during pregnancy?
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Which nutritional factor is particularly critical for queens fed homemade or raw diets during pregnancy?
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Which pathologic finding is most likely associated with dystocia in queens?
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What are the clinical signs that may indicate severe complications during pregnancy in queens?
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Which treatment is deemed appropriate for noninfectious, stable queens experiencing issues during pregnancy?
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Which laboratory test is primarily useful in evaluating dehydration levels in pregnant queens?
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When a queen is systemically ill, which medication is typically used to lower progesterone levels?
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What is the dosage range for Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) used in treating pregnant queens?
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What monitoring should be performed to assess the viability of remaining fetuses after abortion in queens?
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Which of the following could potentially delay parturition in the presence of live fetuses?
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What is the role of Tocolytics like Terbutaline in the context of pregnancy complications?
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If a pregnant queen is exhibiting signs of fetal mummification, which action should be considered?
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What is the function of Enrofloxacin in the treatment of pregnant queens?
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How often should ultrasound monitoring occur when tracking a queen's pregnancy loss?
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What can lead to chronic or intermittent discharge from a mycetoma?
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Which laboratory finding could suggest pancreatitis in a patient with an abscess?
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What is a likely consequence of irritants leading to sterile abscesses?
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What imaging technique may show foreign objects in the lung due to aspiration?
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Which pathogen is commonly involved in pyogenic infections leading to abscess formation?
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In cases of sepsis, what abnormality is most likely to be found in a CBC?
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Which laboratory finding indicates a high protein content associated with infection or inflammation?
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What condition associated with the prostate gland is characterized by bacterial infection?
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What might indicate an increased risk of complications from a brain abscess?
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Which bacterial species are associated with mycetoma infections?
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What imaging technique might reveal a soft-tissue density mass potentially indicating a neoplasia?
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What is a common consequence of an abscess within the liver parenchyma?
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Which condition is NOT a known complication of anal sac issues?
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What is a common cause of lung infection indicated by aspiration of a foreign object?
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Which diagnostic procedure is least likely to yield results in cases of anal sac conditions?
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What is one symptom that can indicate serious complications from abscesses if not treated timely?
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What is the maximum effectiveness rate of cabergoline in preventing pregnancy when combined with cloprostenol for treatment?
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What should be avoided when treating with cabergoline and bromocriptine?
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What is the recommended dosage of aglepristone for effective management of pregnancy in bitches?
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How soon after treatment with cloprostenol can estrous behavior be expected to resume in queens?
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Which of the following is a common side effect of administering cabergoline?
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What is the recommended method to ensure the successful completion of pregnancy termination with the combination therapy?
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In terms of dosage, how do the treatment protocols for bitches and queens differ in response to progesterone inhibition?
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What outcome is expected regarding fertility after the treatment protocols are carried out?
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What is the primary reason for avoiding the use of estrogens in terminating a pregnancy?
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Which diagnostic method is least effective in confirming pregnancy in bitches?
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What signifies the importance of maintaining progesterone production after fertilization?
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In the context of pregnancy maintenance, which condition is least likely to be diagnosed as a differential in a bitch?
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Why is abdominal radiography typically not performed until over 45 days after the LH surge in bitches?
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What should be avoided in a patient's diet prior to treatment for pregnancy termination?
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Which statement about the treatment planning conversation with the client is incorrect?
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What is the main factor contributing to embryonic degeneration in cases of impaired transport through the oviduct?
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What is the primary purpose of performing a biopsy in cases of nodular panniculitis?
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What staining technique should be utilized to detect mycobacteria in tissue samples?
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Which condition may lead to complications such as peritonitis or pleuritis if an abscess ruptures?
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What is a likely outcome of delayed drainage of an abscess?
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What is the primary reason for conducting culture and susceptibility testing on affected tissue?
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What primary factor could affect the expected course and prognosis of tissue damage?
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What is a critical aspect of 5-Fluorouracil's mechanism of action?
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What type of immune dysfunction could be associated with fewer neutrophils and increased risk of infection?
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What laboratory finding typically develops first after exposure to 5-Fluorouracil?
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What is a common sign of inflammation that may accompany the primary symptoms of tissue infection?
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Which treatment option is NOT typically indicated for managing 5-Fluorouracil toxicosis?
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What adverse effect is associated with the metabolism of 5-Fluorouracil?
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When should CBC monitoring occur after exposure to 5-Fluorouracil?
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Which agent is recommended for gastrointestinal protection following 5-Fluorouracil exposure?
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What potential complication may arise as a result of 5-Fluorouracil toxicity?
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At what moment can acute anemia occur in relation to 5-Fluorouracil exposure?
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What is the expected outcome for bitches treated with prostaglandins and PRL inhibitors regarding their interestrous interval?
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What is a major consideration when using cabergoline in conjunction with dopamine antagonists?
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How long after the LH surge should treatment with cabergoline be initiated in bitches?
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What is the dosing regimen for cabergoline when used in queens?
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What is a necessary procedure to ensure the success of the pregnancy termination with the chemical protocol?
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What is the primary concern when prescribing bromocriptine for the treatment of pregnancy termination?
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What dosage of aglepristone is recommended for bitches to ensure effective pregnancy termination?
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What is a significant side effect of cabergoline treatment in bitches?
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What is the recommended course of action if fluid therapy for sepsis is ineffective?
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Which surgical approach is advised for percutaneous abscesses?
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What is the primary monitoring goal post-surgery for an abscess?
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When is it most appropriate to implement antimicrobial therapy following surgical drainage?
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What should be considered to prevent future abscess formations?
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What constitutes a major sign of improvement when monitoring a patient after abscess drainage?
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During follow-up care, which of the following signs is critical to monitor for indicating potential complications?
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What is an appropriate precaution regarding the activity of a pet recovering from an abscess?
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Which potential complication can arise from metritis during pregnancy?
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What risk is increased due to the administration of progesterone during pregnancy?
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What measure should be taken to ensure disease prevention in pregnant queens?
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What is a common side effect of PGF2α administration?
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Which condition is associated with an increased risk in queens over 6 years old?
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What complication may arise from the administration of tocolytics during pregnancy?
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What dietary recommendation is generally advised for pregnant queens?
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What should be monitored closely in queens with a history of pregnancy loss?
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What histopathologic examination is necessary to confirm nodular panniculitis?
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Which stain would be used to detect mycobacteria in a sample?
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What is a possible consequence of delayed drainage of an abscess?
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What type of bacteria must be cultured and tested for susceptibility in suspected abscess cases?
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Which condition is associated with fewer macrophages and neutrophils due to immunosuppression?
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What should be included in the biopsy sample for histopathologic examination?
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Which complication might arise from an intra-abdominal abscess if it were to rupture?
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What general effect does immunosuppressive therapy have on the immune system?
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Which antimicrobial drug is recommended for cats with Mycoplasma and L-forms?
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What broad-spectrum agent is treatment recommended for prostatitis secondary to Brucella canis?
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What is the prescribed dosage of clindamycin for dogs according to the guidelines?
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Which condition may carry zoonotic potential according to the provided information?
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When should aggressive IV antimicrobial therapy be considered?
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What is an essential component of appropriate health care for managing abscess situations?
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What is the correct dosage for amoxicillin administrated to dogs?
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Which laboratory method can guide therapy in exudate-containing lesions?
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What hormone is primarily responsible for supporting the corpus luteum during the second half of gestation?
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What is a typical change observed in hematocrit levels during the second half of pregnancy in certain species?
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Which method is commonly used to confirm pregnancy before initiating treatment protocols?
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What role does Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) play in pregnancy management?
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Which of the following is a recommended screening test for patients with suspected underlying diseases prior to treatment?
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What effect does a drug that antagonizes progesterone receptors have during pregnancy?
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During which stage of pregnancy is it critical to monitor serum progesterone concentrations?
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What does a decrease in progesterone levels during pregnancy indicate?
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What is the primary caution when administering PGF2α and its analogues?
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What potential side effects may arise from the use of aglepristone and cloprostenol combination?
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What is the timeframe for pregnancy termination using aglepristone and cloprostenol combination?
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What is a significant risk associated with the use of bromocriptine in treating pregnancy-related issues?
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In what situation is the use of cloprostenol contraindicated?
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Which statement best describes how administering cloprostenol affects pregnancy duration?
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What is a potential consequence of using estrogens in pregnant dogs?
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What is the recommended action if gastrointestinal upset occurs after administration of bromocriptine?
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Which condition is associated with a propensity for sebaceous glands and can lead to ocular dysfunction in dogs?
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What type of culture is often performed when examining chronic cases of meibomian gland dysfunction in dogs?
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Which of the following signs is NOT typically associated with ocular issues in dogs and cats?
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What is a notable characteristic of chalazia observed in dogs?
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What is a common consequence associated with chronic cases of meibomianitis in dogs?
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What is the main risk factor for developing hypoluteoidism in pregnant queens?
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Which diagnostic procedure is used to evaluate the condition of a queen's reproductive tract after abortion?
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What anatomical assessment can be conducted through abdominal radiographs to evaluate fetal health?
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What is a potential consequence of cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) observed in queens?
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Which symptom is most indicative of a potential early pregnancy complication in dogs?
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What is the primary method of imaging to confirm pregnancy in dogs after 45 days of gestation?
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Which factor could contribute to a high coefficient of inbreeding (COI) in cats?
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Which of the following findings would be most concerning if observed during a physical examination of a pregnant dog?
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What is the recommended dosage of Dexamethasone for a bitch during treatment?
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What underlying condition may complicate pregnancy outcomes in queens, as indicated by concurrent systemic issues?
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Which substance is a prolactin antagonist used to induce luteal regression?
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How should fetuses be submitted for effective diagnosis after abortion in queens?
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What is the likely implication of administering dexamethasone during the first trimester of a dog's pregnancy?
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Which of the following side effects is NOT associated with prolonged use of Dexamethasone?
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Which complication may arise due to prolonged stress in pregnant queens?
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Which organism is specifically noted as being of immediate zoonotic concern during pregnancy loss in dogs?
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What condition can result from the use of ketoconazole during pregnancy?
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What is a key consideration when administering PGF2α in conjunction with other treatments?
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What would an abrupt decrease in a pregnant dog's abdominal size typically indicate?
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Which aspect of pregnancy status in bitches is uncertain during early diestrus?
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What is the recommended dosage for cabergoline in an unpregnant bitch?
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Which of the following treatments is typically avoided in pregnant bitches due to its potential adverse effects on the fetus?
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What is a common complication that may arise from prolonged administration of medications for pregnancy termination?
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What potential effect does administering progestins have on the treatment with PGF2α?
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What is the primary metabolic consequence of 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) exposure?
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Which of the following treatments is not used for managing gastrointestinal issues caused by 5-Fluorouracil?
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What laboratory monitoring is crucial after exposure to 5-Fluorouracil?
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What is a potential hematological effect observed within days after exposure to 5-Fluorouracil?
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What treatment class is indicated for managing acute pain in cases of 5-Fluorouracil toxicity?
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What is the mechanism of action for 5-Fluorouracil in cellular metabolism?
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Which of the following is the earliest manifestation of bone marrow suppression due to 5-Fluorouracil?
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What is the recommended administration frequency for filgrastim in treating bone marrow suppression post-5-Fluorouracil exposure?
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What is the most common physical examination finding in queens experiencing pregnancy loss?
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Which of the following is a recognized cause of early pregnancy loss in queens?
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What laboratory test result may indicate an existing systemic illness in pregnant queens?
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Which symptom is least likely to be associated with early pregnancy complications in queens?
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In cases of early pregnancy loss, what does an increase in systemic hemorrhage typically indicate?
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How is primary hypoluteoidism typically managed in non-infectious, stable queens?
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Which of the following might cause a queen to return to estrus sooner than expected?
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What could the presence of mucoid or sanguineous vaginal discharge suggest in a queen?
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What is a potential consequence of administering progesterone during pregnancy?
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What should be monitored closely in queens with a history of pregnancy loss?
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What is a recommended practice for managing infectious diseases in pregnant queens?
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What side effect may be associated with the use of PGF2α in pregnant queens?
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What dietary recommendation is suggested for queens during pregnancy?
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What is the primary toxic metabolite produced from P450-mediated oxidation?
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Which of the following symptoms is NOT commonly associated with acetaminophen toxicosis in dogs?
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In cases of methemoglobinemia, which physical examination finding is typically observed?
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Which of the following is contraindicated when using PGF2α and its analogues?
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What combination treatment involves administering aglepristone with misoprostol for abortion completion?
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Which agent is NOT associated with causing hepatotoxicity in dogs?
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In cases of methemoglobinemia, which treatment may be necessary to restore normal hemoglobin function?
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Which method can be used to evaluate fetal maturity in pregnant queens?
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Which diagnostic procedure can assist in identifying reproductive tract infections in queens?
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Why is it recommended to discontinue progesterone supplementation 2–3 days before the due date in pregnant bitches?
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What complication can arise from administering isotonic crystalloid fluids to a dehydrated dog during a partial abortion?
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What is a key zoonotic concern associated with B.canis in pregnant bitches?
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Which age-related factor is more likely to cause cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) in female dogs?
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Which laboratory method is crucial for confirming the presence of nodular panniculitis?
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What type of staining method would be used to identify mycobacteria in a tissue sample?
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What type of toxicity is primarily induced by P450-mediated oxidation in dogs?
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Which of the following clinical signs is commonly associated with methemoglobinemia in dogs?
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What is the primary organ affected by acetaminophen toxicity in dogs?
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At what dosage of acetaminophen may hepatic necrosis develop in dogs?
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What side effect is associated with prostaglandin treatment in canines?
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Why is bacterial culture significant in cases of abortion in dogs?
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What anatomical region is specifically examined during cytologic examinations to assess potential abortion causes?
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Which of these conditions is typically associated with bacterial pneumonia or abscesses in the lung?
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What serum concentration is needed to maintain pregnancy in dogs during gestation?
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What does cystic endometrial hyperplasia typically occur in?
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Which of the following conditions is described as an uncommon risk factor for dog abortions?
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Which condition is NOT associated with meibomian gland dysfunction?
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Which of the following is commonly indicated for chronic blephoconjunctivitis in cats?
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What medication is indicated for luteal regression in bitches?
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Which staining technique is specifically used to detect mycobacteria or Nocardia?
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Following the administration of cloprostenol in queens, how long until they typically resume estrous behavior post-abortion?
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Which condition may lead to resorption of the fetus in early pregnancy?
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What systemic condition may contribute to anemia during pregnancy in queens?
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What age-related factor increases the likelihood of cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) in bitches?
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Which side effect is commonly associated with the administration of PGF2α?
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When does pregnancy loss typically occur during gestation?
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What is a common predisposition for bacterial prostatitis in dogs?
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A fine-needle aspiration shows what characteristic cell count for potential diagnostic purposes?
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Which condition is least likely to be indicated by echocardiography?
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Which diagnostic procedure can help determine if a mass is fluid-filled?
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What is the primary reason for early drainage of an abscess?
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Which staining method is specifically used to detect mycobacteria or Nocardia?
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Which of the following complications is NOT associated with delayed drainage of an abscess?
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In cases of severe infection, what role does culture and susceptibility testing play?
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Which tissue sample is required to confirm the diagnosis of nodular panniculitis?
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What are common signs associated with inflammation?
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What is a potential complication of progressive tissue damage in high-motion areas?
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Which underlying predisposing condition could exacerbate immune dysfunction?
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What is a major contraindication for using terbutaline in pregnant queens?
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Which complication is related to the use of altrenogest in queens?
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What is the expected prognosis for kittens in cases of severe pregnancy complications?
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Which of the following is an expected course of action when using tocolytics in queens?
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Which scenario may lead to the loss of an entire litter in queens?
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What is a risk associated with using oral progestogens in queens that may affect fetal development?
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What monitoring is advisable during pregnancy when using altrenogest for maintaining pregnancies in queens?
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Why is accurate breeding date crucial when using tocolytics in queens?
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What is the primary purpose of vaginoscopy in the assessment of pregnancy loss in dogs?
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Which of the following statements regarding brucellosis management in dogs is accurate?
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What factor is critical for determining the timing of prostaglandin treatment in dogs experiencing abortion?
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What is a significant concern associated with prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) treatment in nonbreeding bitches?
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Which diagnostic method is least effective for revealing uterine infections in dogs?
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When assessing fetal viability, at what heart rate is a dog considered to be experiencing distress?
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What is considered a pathologic finding in the analysis of a queen experiencing pregnancy loss?
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Which of the following is true regarding the use of antibiotic therapy for canine reproductive disorders?
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What is a potential side effect of Dexamethasone that may impact fluid balance?
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Which of the following conditions necessitates the cautious use of cabergoline and bromocriptine?
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In patients treated with luteolytic drugs, what is the purpose of performing transabdominal ultrasound examinations?
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What is a potential long-term effect of administration of Dexamethasone?
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What is a key monitoring aspect when using progesterone receptor antagonist drugs?
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What is a common side effect of PGF2α and its analogues?
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When assessing patient monitoring after administering luteolytic drugs, which assay is particularly important?
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What is a potential consequence of using luteolytic drugs in patients with preexisting health issues?
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What is the appropriate management step for surgical drainage of necrotic tissue in the case of accumulated exudate?
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What is an essential precaution to take when treating percutaneous abscesses?
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What indicates the need for follow-up in a patient with an abscess?
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What is a common treatment for sterile nodular panniculitis?
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What is the irreversible condition affecting the endometrium that may lead to infertility in nonbreeding patients?
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During patient monitoring post-abscess treatment, which aspect should primarily be observed?
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In monitoring pregnancy health, what aspect should not be overlooked in the event of vulvar discharges?
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What preventive strategy may be necessary to reduce the risk of abscess formation?
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What is a critical factor to consider when ensuring adequate drainage of an abscess?
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What factor may enhance the understanding of genetic influences in pregnancy loss in highly linebred animals?
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Which symptom suggests that an abscess may have become infected and requires immediate attention?
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What is the recommended follow-up method to assess the viability of remaining fetuses in cases of partial abortion?
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Which treatment approach for pregnancy termination is noted to potentially have reduced efficacy if administered too early in diestrus?
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What is the primary concern when a dam experiences decreasing amounts of vulvar discharge during pregnancy monitoring?
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What role does prostaglandin F2α play during the management of reproductive health in dogs and cats, particularly in regards to pregnancy termination?
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What complication may arise despite successful immediate treatment of infertility or pregnancy loss?
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What is a possible complication associated with the use of progestogens like altrenogest in pregnant queens?
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Which condition poses a contraindication for the use of terbutaline in pregnant queens?
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In managing pregnancy complications in queens, what is the importance of accurate breeding dates?
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What is the expected prognosis for live kittens when a queen is experiencing severe pregnancy complications?
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What potential risk is associated with progesterone therapy in pregnant queens that can lead to abnormal fetal development?
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What is a critical complication that could arise from a contaminated uterus in pregnant queens?
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Which of the following treatments is mentioned as monitoring options for a queen during pregnancy?
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What is a potential future risk for pregnant queens if current pregnancy complications are not properly treated?
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What is the role of estrogens in pregnancy termination?
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Which diagnostic method is least likely to confirm pregnancy in a bitch?
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What potential side effect should be discussed with clients when considering treatment for unwanted pregnancy?
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What time after fertilization is significant for subsequent imaging diagnostics in determining pregnancy status in a queen?
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What primarily directs maintenance of pregnancy in dogs and cats post-fertilization?
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Which of the following is NOT considered a differential diagnosis for reproductive abnormalities?
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What is a common treatment option for unwanted pregnancy in animals?
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What is the recommended administration interval for bromocriptine in the treatment protocol?
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Which risk is associated with the use of cloprostenol during pregnancy according to the guidelines?
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What is the ideal timing for administering abdominal radiographs to confirm pregnancy in dogs?
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What is the recommended initial treatment for acetaminophen toxicosis in dogs?
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What should be avoided when administering cabergoline and bromocriptine to certain animals?
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Which of the following complications is associated with acetaminophen overdose in cats?
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In what time frame is abortion expected to be completed following the administration of aglepristone and cloprostenol?
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What is the primary mechanism of toxicity in acetaminophen cases?
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What side effects have been reported following the use of cloprostenol treatment?
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What is one significant outcome that may occur after severe acetaminophen toxicity in cats?
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Acetaminophen can lead to liver injury in affected animals. What is a likely long-term consequence?
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Which condition is noted as a potential complication arising from hormonal treatment in dogs?
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Which laboratory finding may indicate acetaminophen toxicosis?
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What specific caution is advised when administering PGF2α and analogues?
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What is a precaution when using misoprostol in conjunction with aglepristone for abortion?
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What precaution should be taken when administering drugs that undergo extensive liver metabolism in dogs?
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What is a characteristic clinical sign of methemoglobinemia in affected animals?
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Which factors can lead to an exaggerated inflammatory response in the conjunctiva?
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What is a common infectious cause of chronic blepharoconjunctivitis in cats?
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Which type of cancer is associated with meibomian gland dysfunction in dogs?
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Which laboratory test is used to evaluate the presence of keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS)?
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What type of lesion may be indicative of severe sebaceous gland dysfunction?
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Which inflammatory condition in dogs is most commonly linked to bacterial involvement?
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Which anatomical structure is primarily involved in meibomian gland dysfunction?
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What type of tumors are likely to occur in older dogs along the margins of the eyelids?
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What is the primary reason for requiring more extended treatment with higher doses for queens compared to bitches?
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What dosage of cloprostenol should be administered to a pregnant bitch every 8-12 hours?
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What is a recommended dosage for a pregnant queen under standard treatment after day 40 of gestation?
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Which diagnostic procedure is suggested as an essential step before initiating treatment in pregnant dogs or cats?
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During what time frame is it typical for dosage adjustments of cloprostenol to be deemed necessary after initiating treatment in queens?
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What complication is associated with the administration of tocolytics during pregnancy?
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Which of the following is a side effect of PGF2α administration?
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What is the recommended initial low dose protocol for a clam pregnant queen?
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Which condition in queens is associated with a higher risk of subsequent pregnancy loss?
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What is a key consideration for adjusting dosages of cloprostenol in both bitches and queens during treatment?
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What is a risk factor associated with administering progesterone during the first half of pregnancy?
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What is a common sign of pregnancy that may lead to further diagnostic procedures if presented?
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What health issue may arise from malnutrition during pregnancy in queens?
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Which of the following is an important measure for disease surveillance in pregnant queens?
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What potential outcome is associated with severe systemic disease in queens during pregnancy?
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What effect does chronic malnutrition have on the reproductive performance of queens over 6 years old?
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What is the recommended time frame to initiate treatment using bromocriptine and cloprostenol in bitches?
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What medication is indicated for use in combination with cloprostenol for terminating a pregnancy in dogs?
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Which of the following is a potential side effect after administering cloprostenol?
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What contraindication should be considered when administering PGF2α and analogues?
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What complication can arise from treatment with estrogens in pregnant animals?
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What is a common risk associated with the use of cabergoline and bromocriptine in veterinary medicine?
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What is the main role of Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) in the management of pregnancy complications?
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Which medication is contraindicated if live fetuses are present during pregnancy management?
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Which statement correctly describes the consequences of misoprostol treatment in dogs?
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What is the primary reason to adjust the dosage of progesterone in pregnancy management?
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What is the primary consequence of glutathione depletion in patients exposed to toxic substances?
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What is the recommended method for monitoring remaining fetuses and uterine health after a pregnancy loss?
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Which treatment may be required for animals showing signs of hepatotoxicity?
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In what situation might a Cesarean section be necessary for managing pregnancy complications?
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What is the potential outcome of administering glutathione-depressing drugs to dogs?
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What is the preferred dosage of Enrofloxacin in the treatment regime for a pregnant queen?
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Which of the following substances is NOT typically associated with methemoglobinemia?
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What is the main purpose of using tocolytics like terbutaline in the management of a pregnant queen?
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What clinical sign would most likely indicate the onset of hemolytic anemia due to toxic exposure?
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Why is it critical to monitor the queen's health and attitude during treatment for pregnancy complications?
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Which of the following conditions may develop as a result of ingesting hepatotoxic agents?
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What is a common consequence of using excessive doses of PGF2α during pregnancy management?
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What symptom may indicate fluid imbalance following acute liver injury?
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Study Notes
5-Fluorouracil Toxicosis
- Antimetabolite, antineoplastic agent
- Blocks methylation of deoxyuridylic and thymidylic acids
- Results in thymine deficiency and DNA synthesis interruption
- Targets rapidly growing cells like bone marrow and intestinal crypts
Clinical Signs
- Anemia, Leukopenia, Thrombocytopenia
- Echinocytes on CBC
Causes of exposure
- Accidental ingestion of medications
- Ingestion of toxins: iron, metaldehyde, mushrooms, sodium fluoroacetate, strychnine
Diagnosis
- CBC, biochemistry, urinalysis
Treatment
- Antiemetics: maropitant, ondansetron, metoclopramide
- GI Protection: proton pump inhibitors, H2 blockers, sucralfate
- Analgesia: buprenorphine, butorphanol
- Antibiotics: broad-spectrum antibiotics
- Bone marrow stimulation: filgrastim
- Transfusion therapy
Complications
- Death due to methemoglobinemia
- Liver necrosis
- Keratoconjunctivitis sicca
Prognosis
- Prompt treatment may lead to full recovery
- Death may occur within 72 hours in dogs, 18-36 hours in cats
Miscellaneous
- Dogs may have progressively rising serum liver enzymes
- Cats may develop methemoglobinemia
- Use of methylene blue, cimetidine, or ascorbic acid to reverse methemoglobinemia
Early Pregnancy Loss
- Early pregnancy loss can be caused by failure to ovulate, failure to conceive, chromosomal disorders, or disorders of sexual development.
- Signs of early pregnancy loss can include lack of pregnancy or reduced litter size, return to estrus sooner than expected, discovery of fetal tissues or placenta, and behavior change.
Vaginal Discharge
- Vaginal discharge in a pregnant animal can be caused by pyometra, uterine stump pyometra, mucometra, vaginitis, neoplasia, cystitis, active labor or impending abortion, trauma to the urogenital tract, and dystocia.
- A mass or tissue from the vaginal vault may indicate dystocia, neoplasia, hemorrhage/blood clot, or uterine prolapse.
Pregnancy Termination
- Pregnancy termination can be accomplished by drugs that alter embryo transport in the oviduct and/or cause luteal regression, terminating an established pregnancy.
- Drugs that impair embryonic transit through the oviduct are not commonly used or recommended due to possible side effects.
Bromocriptine
- Bromocriptine is a prolactin antagonist that causes luteal regression.
- It is effective in bitches at 50-100 μg/kg IM/PO q12h for 4-7 days.
- It is effective in queens at 5 μg/kg PO q24h with additional cloprostenol.
Cloprostenol and Cabergoline
- Cloprostenol and cabergoline combination is recommended for pregnancy termination in bitches.
- Dosage: 5 μg/kg PO q24h for 10 days plus cloprostenol 2.5 μg/kg SC at the start of treatment or 1 μg/kg SC at start of treatment and at day 5.
- Treatment should be initiated more than 28 days post luteinizing hormone (LH) surge.
- Cloprostenol and cabergoline combination is recommended for pregnancy termination in queens.
- Dosage: 5 μg/kg PO q24h plus cloprostenol 5 μg/kg SC q48h until abortion is complete (approximately 9 days).
Pregnancy Diagnosis
- Abdominal palpation can confirm pregnancy in a bitch at 31-33 days after LH surge and a queen at 21-25 days after breeding.
- Transabdominal ultrasound can confirm pregnancy in a bitch at more than 25 days after LH surge and a queen at more than 16 days after breeding.
- Abdominal radiographs can confirm pregnancy in a bitch at more than 45 days after LH surge and a queen at more than 38 days after breeding.
- Serum relaxin concentration can confirm pregnancy in a bitch at more than 28 days after LH surge.
Acetaminophen Toxicity
- Cats are particularly sensitive to acetaminophen, developing toxic cytochrome P450 metabolite at much lower doses than dogs.
- A toxic dose can be as low as 50-60 mg/kg.
- Acetaminophen toxicity causes oxidative damage to red blood cells (RBCs), rapidly producing methemoglobinemia by binding to sulfhydryl groups on hemoglobin.
Treatment of Acetaminophen Toxicity
- Induced emesis and gastric lavage are recommended within 4-6 hours of ingestion.
- Fluid therapy is necessary to maintain hydration and electrolyte balance.
- Oxygen therapy may be needed.
- Food should be offered 24 hours after initiation of treatment.
Abscessation
- Abscessation can be caused by a variety of bacteria, fungi, and other organisms.
- Treatment for abscessation includes early drainage, removal of foreign objects and necrotic tissue, and administration of antibiotics or antifungals.
Possible Complications of Abscessation
- Potential complications of abscessation include sepsis, peritonitis/pleuritis, compromise of organ function, and delayed evacuation.
- Delayed evacuation can lead to chronic, draining fistulous tracts.
Spontaneous Abortion (Early Pregnancy Loss)—Cats
-
Infectious Causes
- Bacterial
- E.coli, Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Chlamydia spp., Pasteurella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Salmonella spp., Mycoplasma spp., and Ureaplasma spp.
- Protozoal
- Toxoplasma gondii
- Viral
- Feline leukemia virus (FeLV)
- Feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1)
- Bacterial
-
Management
-
Inpatient
- Recommended for cats who are systemically ill, debilitated, severely dehydrated, or for medical management of ongoing fetal loss or pyometra.
-
Activity
- Isolation for queens with infectious disease.
- No activity restrictions for most cats, restrict activity as indicated if due to trauma.
-
Inpatient
Diet
- Feed commercially available diet labeled for use in pregnancy.
- Correct diets with inappropriate taurine or vitamin A concentrations.
- Avoid feeding raw meats or allowing queens to hunt during pregnancy to reduce the risk for ingestion of pathogenic bacteria and T. gondii.
Causes of Spontaneous Abortion
-
Infectious
- Ascending infection through the vaginal vault and cervix.
-
Hormonal
- Cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH).
-
Environmental
- Trauma, hypertension leading to hemorrhage from placental sites during parturition or at the time of Cesarean section.
-
Medications
- Altrenogest may cause agalactia and failure of parturition leading to the death of the litter.
-
Genetic Abnormalities
- Likely to recur if the queen is bred to a tom with a similar pedigree.
Prognosis
- Fair for successful pregnancy with treatment for primary hypoluteoidism.
- Significant monitoring is required for a good outcome.
Signalment
-
Species
- Cats and dogs.
- No Breed Predilections
-
Mean Age and Range
- Not specified.
Risk Factors
-
Age-related Factors
- Not specified.
-
Geographic Distribution
- Not specified.
- Genetics N/A
Diagnostic Procedures
-
Cytology and bacterial culture
- Of vaginal discharge, fetus, fetal membranes, or uterine contents.
-
FeLV
- Test for antigens in queens using ELISA or indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA).
-
FHV-1
- IFA or PCR from corneal or conjunctival swabs, viral isolation from conjunctival, nasal, or pharyngeal swabs.
Nursing Care
-
Gentle Handling
- Imperative for clinically affected patients.
-
Induced Emesis and Gastric Lavage
- Useful within 4-6 hours of ingestion.
-
Anemia, hematuria, or hemoglobinuria
- May require whole blood transfusion.
-
Fluid Therapy
- Maintain hydration and electrolyte balance.
-
Oxygen Therapy
- May be needed.
-
Activity
- Restricted.
-
Diet
- N/A
Client Education
- Warn client that treatment in clinically affected patients may be complicated by other health conditions.
Systems Affected
-
Hemic/lymph/immune
- RBCs damaged by glutathione depletion, allowing oxidation of hemoglobin to methemoglobin.
-
Hepatobiliary
- Liver necrosis, more common in dogs.
-
Cardiovascular
- Primarily cats.
- Edema of the face, paws, and (to a lesser degree) forelimbs through an undefined mechanism.
Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP)
- Difficult to accurately assess incidence because early pregnancy may go undiagnosed.
- Resorption of one or two fetuses within a litter is common.
- Increased prevalence in queens over 5 years old, particularly purebred cats with high inbreeding coefficients.
Risk Factors for FIP
- High coefficient of inbreeding (COI)
- Prior pregnancy loss
- History of small litter size
- Cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) on ultrasound
- Concurrent systemic disease or recent trauma
- Older queens (over 6 years old)
- Malnourishment
- Unsanitary housing conditions
- Raw food diets
Diagnosis of FIP
- Submit aborted, stillborn, or mummified fetuses and fetal membranes (fresh or refrigerated on ice) for necropsy, histopathology, and virology.
- Collect reproductive tract samples (uterus, ovaries,oviducts) for culture.
- Submit aborted and stillborn fetus samples for karyotyping.
- Conduct pedigree analysis to assess COI.
Treatment for FIP
- There is no effective treatment for FIP
Acetaminophen (APAP) Toxicosis
- Cats are more susceptible than dogs because of differences in metabolism.
- Acetaminophen toxicity can occur after accidental ingestion, veterinary administration, or owner administration of over-the-counter medications.
- A dose as low as 50-60 mg/kg (1/2 tablet) can be toxic.
- Toxic effects on red blood cells and liver, leading to potentially rapid development of methemoglobinemia.
Symptoms of Acetaminophen Toxicity
- General depression
- Darkened mucous membranes
- Signs may develop within 1-4 hours of dosing
- Heinz bodies may be prominent in red blood cells
- Hemoglobinemia and hemoglobinuria
- Icterus
- Hyperventilation
Other Causes of Liver Injury
- Hepatotoxic mushrooms
- Blue-green algae
- Aflatoxins
- Iron, copper, zinc
- Xylitol
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
- Cycad palms
Other Causes of Methemoglobinemia
- Onions/garlic
- Naphthalene
- Chlorates
- Nitrites
Treatment for Acetaminophen Toxicity
- Gentle handling
- Induced emesis or gastric lavage if within 4-6 hours of ingestion
- Whole blood transfusion if needed
- Fluid therapy for hydration and electrolyte balance
- Oxygen therapy as needed
- Restricted activity
- Withhold food for 24 hours following treatment initiation
Ophthalmic Conditions
- Serous, mucoid, or mucopurulent ocular discharge
- Blepharospasm
- Eyelid hyperemia, edema, and thickening
- Pruritus
- Excoriation
- Depigmentation of skin and hair, especially in Siamese-type cats with color-point patterns
Ophthalmic Infections
- Dermatophytosis
- Demodicosis
- Sarcoptic mange
- Notoedres cati
- Cuterebra
- Chalazia
- Granulomatous blepharitis
- Meibomian gland dysfunction
Treatment for Ophthalmic Conditions
- Wood's light evaluation
- Dermatophyte culture
- KOH preparation
- Referral to a dermatologist for refractory cases
- Aerobic bacterial culture and sensitivity testing
- Consider oral medications for chronic meibomianitis and suspected Staphylococcus to stop infection
Other Conditions
- Anal sac abscesses
- Prostatic abscesses
- Mastitis
- Periorbital abscesses
Pregnancy Loss in Cats
- Causes: Feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV), prostaglandin exposure, prolonged stress, and vaccines.
- Incidence/Prevalence: Difficult to determine as pregnancy may not be diagnosed early. Loss or resorption of one or two conceptus within a litter is not uncommon.
- Risk Factors: High coefficient of inbreeding (COI), previous pregnancy loss, previous history of reduced litter size, cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH), concurrent systemic disease or recent trauma, older queens (over 6 years), malnutrition, unsanitary housing conditions, raw diets.
- Signs: May be subtle. Clients may report decreased appetite, reduced activity, or changes in behavior.
- Diagnosis: Abdominal radiographs, ultrasound examination, and laboratory tests are used to diagnose pregnancy loss.
- Treatment: There is no specific treatment for pregnancy loss. Supportive care may be provided.
- Prognosis: The prognosis for pregnancy loss is dependent on the underlying cause and the overall health of the queen.
- Prevention: Vaccination against FIPV is recommended for all cats. Proper nutrition, stress reduction, and breeding management are also important.
Meibomian Gland Dysfunction
- Definition: A condition involving the meibomian glands (oil-producing glands in the eyelids) which influences tear film stability and ocular surface health.
- Pathophysiology: Inflammation, infectious agents, endocrine causes, trauma, and parasites can be factors. Meibomian gland dysfunction is usually caused by a combination of factors.
- Signs: Ocular discharge, blepharospasm, eyelid hyperemia, edema, and thickening, pruritus, excoriation, and depigmentation.
- Diagnosis: Detailed history, ophthalmic exam, fluorescein stain, Schirmer tear test, cytology, and culture of the exudate.
- Treatment: Topical antibiotics, anti-inflammatory medications, and meibomian gland expression.
- Prognosis: The prognosis for individuals with meibomian gland dysfunction is variable and depends on the underlying cause and the severity of disease.
- Prevention: Maintain good hygiene, use proper eye care products, and address any underlying medical conditions.
Abortion, Termination of Pregnancy
- Pregnancy status in early diestrus is unknown.
- Ultrasound confirmation of pregnancy not possible until ~4 weeks after breeding.
- Dexamethasone – mode of action Progesterone receptor antagonism.
- Impaired oviductal transport.
- Luteal regression.
- Possible side effects of Dexamethasone include vomiting, defecation, hypersalivation, hyperpnea, micturition and tachycardia.
- Bitch – 0.2 mg/kg PO q8–12h for 5 days, then decreasing incrementally from 0.16 to 0.02 mg/kg over last 5 days; treatment failures not uncommon.
- Cabergoline (PRL antagonist) – causes luteal regression.
- Bitch – 1.65 μg/kg SC q24h for 5 days or 5 μg/kg PO q24h for 5 days (>day 40).
- Queen – 1.65 μg/kg SC for 5 days (>day 30) or 5 μg/kg PO q24h for 5 days (>day 35).
- Cloprostenol and bromocriptine combination.
- Bitch – bromocriptine 30 μg/kg PO q8h for 10 days plus cloprostenol 2.5 μg/kg SC or 1 μg/kg SC at start of treatment and at day 5 of treatment; treatment should be initiated >28 days post-LH surge.
-
Aglepristone and cloprostenol combination:
- Aglepristone (10 mg/kg SC) combined with cloprostenol (1 μg/kg SC) q24h for 2 days >25 days’ pregnancy; pregnancy terminated within 6 days.
- Side effects after treatment include vomiting and diarrhea; vaginal discharge may be observed.
-
Aglepristone (10 mg/kg SC q24h for 2 days) with intravaginal misoprostol (200–400 μg depending on body size) daily until abortion complete; abortion complete within 7 days.
- Vomiting, diarrhea, polydipsia, anorexia not observed with this regimen.
Abortion, Spontaneous (Early Pregnancy Loss) – Dogs
-
Diagnostic procedures.
- Vaginoscopy – identify source of vulvar discharge and vaginal lesions; use scope of sufficient length (16–20 cm) to examine entire length of vagina.
- Cytologic examination, bacterial culture – may reveal inflammatory process (e.g., uterine infection): use guarded swab to ensure anterior sample (distal reproductive tract is heavily contaminated with bacteria), or collect secretions by transcervical catheterization.
-
Pathologic findings.
- Histopathologic examination and culture of contents; assess fluid and its consistency; assess fetal viability (heartbeats: normal, >200 bpm; stress, 280 bpm).
- Prostaglandin treatment – discuss side effects (e.g., abortion).
-
Infectious disease – establish surveillance and control measures.
- B.canis – monitor after neutering and antibiotic therapy; yearly serologic testing (identify recrudescence).
-
Surgical considerations.
- OHE preferred for stable nonbreeding patients.
-
Medications.
- Drug(s) of choice: Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α; Lutalyse®, dinoprost).
-
Prevention/avoidance.
- Brucellosis, other infectious agents – surveillance programs to prevent spread to kennel.
- OHE – for nonbreeding bitches. ### Termination of an Unwanted Pregnancy
-
Confirm pregnancy first, ~60% of mismated bitches do not become pregnant.
- Abdominal palpation – bitch: 31–33 days after luteinizing hormone (LH) surge; queen: 21–25 days after breeding.
- Transabdominal ultrasound – bitch: >25 days after LH surge; queen: >16 days after breeding.
- Abdominal radiographs – bitch: >45 days after LH surge; queen: >38 days after breeding.
- Serum relaxin concentration in the bitch (>28 days after LH surge; Witness® Relaxin, Synbiotics/Zoetis).
- Differential diagnosis: Hydrometra, Mucometra, Hematometra, Pyometra, Pseudopregnancy.
- Multimodal treatment improves efficacy of drugs given alone.
- Nursing care: N/A
- Activity: Normal
- Diet: Avoid feeding prior to each treatment and for 1–2 hours after treatments (reduces nausea and vomiting).
- Client education: Discuss patient’s reproductive future with owner. If no litters are desired, then ovariohysterectomy (OHE) is the best option. Discuss with client potential side effects of treatment options; reach mutual agreement on treatment plan. ### Blepharitis
- Definition: Inflammation of the eyelid margins.
-
Types of blepharitis:
- External: Inflammation located on the skin surface of the eyelid margins (e.g., sty in young dogs, glands of Zeis) or internal portions of eyelid, usually with secondary inflammation of palpebral conjunctiva.
- Generalized: Bacterial blepharitis and meibomianitis – usually Staphylococcus or Streptococcus.
- Bartonella henselae: Chronic blepharoconjunctivitis in cats.
- Pyogranulomas.
-
Neoplastic:
- Sebaceous adenomas and adenocarcinomas – from meibomian gland.
- Squamous cell carcinoma – white cats.
- Mast cell – may appear as swollen, hyperemic lesion.
- External trauma: Eyelid lacerations.
-
Pathphysiology:
- Inflammation – immune mediated, infectious, endocrine mediated, self- and external trauma, parasitic, radiation, nutritional.
- Inflammatory response is often exaggerated because conjunctiva is rich in mast cells and densely vascularized.
- Lipases alter meibomian lipids and plug gland; produce irritating fatty acids, enhance bacterial growth, and destabilize tear film.
-
Meibomian gland dysfunction:
- Bacterial lipases alter meibomian lipids and plug gland; produce irritating fatty acids, enhance bacterial growth, and destabilize tear film. ### Diagnostic Procedures
- Eye examination: Inciting cause, corneal ulcer, foreign body, distichia, ectopic cilia, keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS).
- Ancillary ocular tests: Fluorescein, Schirmer tear test.
- Thorough history and dermatologic exam: Cytology – deep skin scrape, conjunctival scrape, or exudate from glands and pustules. ### Other Laboratory Tests
- CBC/Biochemistry/Urinalysis: Usually normal unless metabolic cause (e.g., diabetic dermatosis).
- Indicated for systemic disorders, including hypothyroidism.
Abortion, Termination of Pregnancy
- Pregnancy status in early diestrus is unknown
- Ultrasound confirmation of pregnancy is not possible until approximately 4 weeks after breeding
-
Causes for pregnancy termination:
- Impaired oviductal transport
- Luteal regression
Medications for Pregnancy Termination in Bitches
-
Dexamethasone:
- Mode of action: Progesterone receptor antagonism
- Dosage: 0.2 mg/kg PO q8–12h for 5 days, then decreasing incrementally from 0.16 to 0.02 mg/kg over the last 5 days.
- Potential side effects: Vomiting, defecation, hypersalivation, hyperpnea, micturition, tachycardia
- Treatment failures are not uncommon
-
Cabergoline:
- Mode of action: Prolactin (PRL) antagonist
- Dosage: 1.65 μg/kg SC q24h for 5 days or 5 μg/kg PO q24h for 5 days (>day 40)
- Prolonged use (>2 weeks) may cause coat color changes
Medications for Pregnancy Termination in Queens
-
Cabergoline:
- Dosage: 1.65 μg/kg SC for 5 days (>day 30) or 5 μg/kg PO q24h for 5 days (>day 35)
-
Altrenogest:
- Dosage: 0.088 mg/kg PO q24h to maintain pregnancy
- Will not interfere with progesterone assay
- Can monitor queen’s progesterone levels
Considerations for Pregnancy Termination
-
Possible complications:
- Loss of entire litter
- Metritis, chronic endometritis, uterine rupture, sepsis, shock
- Masculinization of female fetuses with progesterone therapy
-
Expected course and prognosis:
- Poor prognosis for live kittens for the current litter, even with aggressive monitoring and treatment.
- May recur in future pregnancies depending on the cause and treatment.
- Poor prognosis for a normal pregnancy with severe fetal and placental tissue damage.
- Recovery of fertility is unlikely; pyometra is a common complication.
-
Prevention/avoidance:
- Ovariohysterectomy (OHE) for bitches and queens not intended for breeding.
- Estrus suppression or confinement of bitches and queens intended for breeding during a later cycle to avoid mismating.
- Avoid exposure to abortifacient, teratogenic, or fetotoxic drugs.
Other Medications Used for Pregnancy Termination
-
Pentoxifylline (tromethamine):
- Dose: 0.05–0.1 mg/kg SC q8–24h
- Use after abortion for uterine evacuation.
-
Cloprostenol (Estrumate®, cloprostenol):
- Dose: 1–5 μg/kg SC q24h
- Not approved for use in dogs, but adequate documentation for use exists.
- Use only if all living fetuses are expelled.
-
Progesterone:
- For documented hypoluteoidism only to maintain pregnancy.
- Dose: 0.088 mg/kg (1 mL/25 kg PO q24h) or 2 mg/kg IM q48–72h.
- Requires accurate due date to know when to discontinue therapy.
- Inadvertently prolonging gestation results in fetal death.
Diagnosis of Pregnancy Termination
-
Confirmation of pregnancy first:
- Abdominal palpation:
- Bitch: 31–33 days after luteinizing hormone (LH) surge
- Queen: 21–25 days after breeding
- Transabdominal ultrasound:
- Bitch: >25 days after LH surge
- Queen: >16 days after breeding
- Abdominal radiographs:
- Bitch: >45 days after LH surge
- Queen: >38 days after breeding
- Serum relaxin concentration in the bitch (>28 days after LH surge)
- Abdominal palpation:
Differential Diagnosis For Pregnancy Termination:
- Hydrometra
- Mucometra
- Hematometra
- Pyometra
- Pseudopregnancy
Causes of Pregnancy Termination:
- **Infectious**:
- Canine Brucellosis (Brucella canis)
- **Non-infectious**:
- Viral
- Hormonal
- Uterine pathology
- Unknown
Client Education for Pregnancy Termination:
- Discuss the patient’s reproductive future with the owner.
- If no litters are desired, then ovariohysterectomy (OHE) is the best option.
- Discuss with the client potential side effects of treatment options.
- Reach a mutual agreement on the treatment plan.
Nursing Care:
- Medically stable patients with noninfectious pregnancy loss can be treated outpatient.
- Hospitalization is required for infectious patients.
- Multimodal treatment improves the efficacy of drugs given alone.
Activity and Diet for Pregnancy Termination:
- Activity should be normal.
- Avoid feeding prior to each treatment and for 1–2 hours after treatments to reduce nausea and vomiting.
Spontaneous Abortion in Cats
-
Infectious causes:
- Bacterial: E.coli, Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Chlamydia spp., Pasteurella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Salmonella spp., Mycoplasma spp., and Ureaplasma spp.
- Protozoal: Toxoplasma gondii
- Viral: Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV), Feline Herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1)
-
Risk factors:
- Exposure to carrier animals
- Old age
- Hereditary factors
-
Diagnosis:
- Cytology and bacterial culture of vaginal discharge, fetus, fetal membranes, or uterine contents
- FeLV: ELISA or indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test for antigens in queens
- FHV-1: IFA or PCR from corneal or conjunctival swabs
-
Nursing care:
- Inpatient management if systemically ill, debilitated, severely dehydrated, or for medical management of ongoing fetal loss or pyometra
- Isolation for queens with infectious disease.
- No activity restrictions for most; restrict activity as indicated if due to trauma.
Hormonal Dysfunction in Dogs
-
Endocrine causes:
- Hyperadrenocorticism
- Hypothyroidism (less common, role in pregnancy loss unclear)
-
Diagnosis:
- Serum progesterone concentration (hypoluteoidism)
- Baseline T4 serum concentration (hypothyroidism)
- Agar gel immunodiffusion differentiates between false positives and true positives in agglutination tests
-
Prognosis:
- Fair prognosis for successful pregnancy with treatment for primary hypoluteoidism; significant monitoring required for good outcome.
- Pregnancy loss due to genetic abnormalities likely to recur if the queen is bred to a tom with a similar pedigree.
Treatment for Spontaneous Abortion
-
Pharmacological agents:
- Altrenogest: can cause agalactia and failure of parturition, leading to death of litter; discontinue use 2 days before due date.
- Bromocriptine (PRL antagonist): causes luteal regression, common side effect is vomiting, reduce dose and give with meal
- Cabergoline and bromocriptine (PRL antagonist): effects may be reduced with concomitant treatment with dopamine (D2) antagonists; avoid concomitant treatment with drugs causing hypotension.
- Cloprostenol and cabergoline combination: highly effective in preventing pregnancy (>95% treatment efficacy); abdominal ultrasound at 28–30 days essential to insure treatment success.
- Aglepristone (progestin and glucocorticoid receptors antagonist): highly effective in preventing pregnancy (>95% treatment efficacy)
Miscellaneous
-
Associated conditions:
- Cystic endometrial hyperplasia (usually >6 years old)
- Hypothyroidism (familial lymphocytic hypothyroidism)
Client Education
- Feeding: Feed commercially available diet labeled for use in pregnancy. Correct diets with inappropriate taurine or vitamin A concentrations. Avoid feeding raw meats or allowing queens to hunt during pregnancy to reduce risk for ingestion of pathogenic bacteria and T. gondii.
- Activity: No activity restrictions for most; restrict activity as indicated if due to trauma.
Abortion in Cats
- Infectious Abortion in Cats: Caused by various organisms including bacteria, protozoa and viruses.
- Bacterial Agents: Examples include Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Chlamydia spp., Pasteurella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Salmonella spp., Mycoplasma spp., and Ureaplasma spp..
- Protozoal Agent: Toxoplasma gondii is a common cause of abortion in cats.
- Viral Agents: Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and Feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) can cause abortion in cats
- Nursing Care for Infectious Abortion: Inpatient management is required if the cat is systemically ill, debilitated, severely dehydrated, or if there is ongoing fetal loss or pyometra.
- Diagnostic Tests: Cytology and bacterial culture of vaginal discharge, fetus, fetal membranes, or uterine contents are helpful for diagnosing the cause of abortion.
Abortion in Dogs
- Infectious Abortion in Dogs: Caused by various organisms including bacteria, protozoa, viruses, and fungi.
- Bacterial Agents: Examples include Brucella canis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., and Leptospira spp..
- Protozoal Agents: Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum can cause abortion in dogs.
- Viral Agents: Canine adenovirus and Canine parvovirus can cause abortion in dogs.
- Nursing Care for Infectious Abortion: Inpatient management is preferred if the dog is systemically ill or if the abortion is accompanied by sepsis.
Dietary Considerations for Pregnant Cats
- Feed commercially available diets labeled for pregnant cats.
- Ensure diets are providing adequate taurine and vitamin A.
- Avoid feeding raw meats or allowing cats to hunt during pregnancy to prevent exposure to pathogenic bacteria and T. gondii.
Breeding Management for Cats
- Verify vaccination status for all pregnant cats and ensure proper quarantine facilities are available for pregnant queens and new arrivals.
- Keep detailed records of reproductive performance, pedigree analysis, and social behavior of queens.
Genetic Considerations in Cats
- Discuss the risks of genetic diseases and the potential for coefficient of inbreeding (COI).
Zoonotic Potential
- Be aware of the possibility of zoonotic infections, particularly from T. gondii.
Progesterone Administration in Cats
- Progesterone administration during pregnancy can cause masculinization of female fetuses and should be avoided in the first half of pregnancy.
- Use only with informed consent, and discontinue 2 days before the due date.
Tocolytics
- Tocolytics can be used to prevent uterine contractions and may be associated with increased risk of dystocia, failure of placental separation, lack of milk production, and poor maternal behavior in the first days postpartum.
Alternative Treatment Options for Abortion in Cats
- Dopamine agonists (e.g., cabergoline) can be used to lower progesterone and facilitate uterine emptying.
- Use in conjunction with a low dose of PGF2α.
Medications for Abortion in Cats
-
Drugs of Choice:
- Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (13.75 mg/kg PO q12h): Safe for pregnancy.
- Enrofloxacin (5 mg/kg/day PO): Excellent penetration to the uterus, contraindicated if live fetuses are present.
- Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α; dinoprost/Lutalyse®), 80–100 μg/kg IM q8–12h: Promotes uterine contractions, loss of corpus luteum, and cervical opening to expel aborted materials.
- Tocolytics: Terbutaline 0.03–1.0 mg PO as needed based on tocodynamometry; 0.03 mg/kg PO q8h if tocodynamometry is not available.
Patient Monitoring for Cats
- Serial ultrasounds should be performed to follow pregnancy loss, uterine emptying, or viability of remaining fetuses.
- Monitor the queen's health and attitude.
- Delayed parturition may occur with progesterone or terbutaline treatment.
Pregnancy Loss and Subsequent Pregnancy in Cats
- Queens with previous pregnancy loss are at higher risk of subsequent pregnancy loss or infertility.
- Close monitoring is recommended.
Abortion in Dogs
- Infectious Agents: Brucella canis, E. coli, Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Leptospira spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Canine adenovirus, and Canine parvovirus.
- Nursing Care: Isolation of dogs infected with B. canis to prevent spread of infection.
- Diagnostic Procedures: Perform blood and urine tests if systemic disease is suspected.
- Pathologic Findings: Exudate-containing mass lesions accompanied by inflammation.
Medications for Abortion in Dogs
-
Drugs of Choice:
- Amoxicillin (22 mg/kg PO q12h), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (22 mg/kg PO q12h), clindamycin (5–10 mg/kg PO q12h), trimethoprim-sulfadiazine (15 mg/kg PO q12h), or pradofloxacin (7.5 mg/kg PO q24h).
- Doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO q12h) is used for Mycoplasma and L-forms infections in dogs.
Nursing Care for Abscesses in Dogs and Cats
- Establish and maintain adequate drainage.
- Surgical removal of the nidus of infection or foreign objects may be necessary.
- Initiate appropriate antimicrobial therapy depending on the culture and sensitivity results.
Treatment for Abscesses in Dogs and Cats
- Outpatient management is preferred for minor abscesses, localized infections, and nodular panniculitis.
- Inpatient management is preferred for sepsis, peritonitis, pyothorax, or extensive surgical procedures requiring hospitalization.
- Aggressively treat systemic inflammation with IV antimicrobial therapy.
Zoonotic Potential in Dogs
- Some mycobacteria and systemic fungal infections carry a zoonotic potential.
Subsequent Pregnancy in Dogs
- Recurrent pyometra is likely during subsequent cycles unless the female is pregnant (up to 70%).
- Recovery of fertility is unlikely following cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH), and pyometra is a common complication.
- Hormonal dysfunction is manageable, but heritability should be considered.
- Brucellosis is guarded, and infection can be extremely difficult to eliminate, even with neutering.
Cabergoline and Bromocriptine
- Pregnancy Termination: May not be achieved after one treatment protocol. May require continuation or change in treatment protocol.
-
Bitch:
- 50 - 100 µg/kg IM/PO q12h for 4 - 7 days
- Effective after day 35 (50% effective)
- Side Effect: Vomiting. Reduce dose and give with meal
-
Cloprostenol and Cabergoline Combination:
-
Bitch:
- Cabergoline 5 µg/kg PO q24h for 10 days + Cloprostenol 2.5 µg/kg SC at start of treatment or 1 µg/kg SC at start of treatment and at day 5.
- Treatment should be initiated >28 days post-LH surge.
-
Queen:
- Cabergoline 5 µg/kg PO q24h + Cloprostenol 5 µg/kg SC q48h (>30 days after breeding) until abortion complete (~9 days)
-
Bitch:
-
Alternative Drugs:
-
Aglepristone:
- 10 mg/kg SC q24h for 2 days >14 days post-LH surge
- Highly effective in preventing pregnancy (>95% treatment efficacy)
- Abdominal ultrasound at 28-30 days essential to ensure treatment success.
- If pregnancy still present, repeat injection protocol.
-
Aglepristone:
Abscess
- Definition: Focal collection of purulent exudate within a confined tissue space or cavity
-
Pathophysiology:
- Bacteria enter tissue by:
- Penetrating trauma
- Spread from another source of infection (hematogenous or adjacent infected tissues)
- Migration of a contaminated object (e.g., plant awn)
- Most often, bacteria are inoculated under the skin via puncture or bite wounds.
- When bacteria or foreign objects persist in tissue, purulent exudate accumulates.
- If exudate not quickly resorbed or drained, fibrous capsule forms to "wall off" infection.
- Abscess may eventually rupture.
- Bacteria enter tissue by:
-
Clinical Signs:
- Classic signs of inflammation (heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function) associated with specific anatomic location of abscess.
- May be nonspecific (e.g., lethargy, anorexia)
-
Treatment:
- Apply hot packs to inflamed area as needed.
- Use protective bandaging, Elizabethan collar as needed.
- Drain abscess surgically:
- Debridement of necrotic tissue
- Administer fluid therapy, antimicrobial therapy, intensive care for sepsis, peritonitis, pyothorax.
- Administer corticosteroids for sterile nodular panniculitis.
-
Prevention:
- Prevent fighting in animals with percutaneous abscesses.
- Consider castration to reduce roaming or aggressive behavior.
- Prevent anal sac impaction, consider anal saculectomy for recurrent cases.
- Consider castration for prostatic abscesses.
- Prevent lactation (spay) for mastitis.
- Do not allow chewing on foreign objects for periorbital abscesses.
Acetaminophen Toxicosis
- Definition: Results from accidental animal ingestion/owner administration of over-the-counter acetaminophen-containing analgesic and antipyretic medications.
-
Pathophysiology:
- When normal detoxification mechanisms (glucuronidation and sulfation) are saturated, cytochrome P450 enzymes convert acetaminophen to a toxic metabolite (N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine).
-
Signs:
- General Comments: Relatively common owing to widespread human use.
-
Historical Findings:
- May develop 1 - 4 hours after dosing.
- Darkened mucous membranes
- Depression
-
Clinical Signs:
- Anemia, hemoglobinemia, and hemoglobinuria or hematuria within 72 hours.
- Hyperventilation.
- Progressively rising serum liver enzymes (alanine aminotransferase [ALT], aspartate transaminase [AST]) – characteristic.
- Decreased blood urea nitrogen (BUN), cholesterol, and albumin.
- Increased serum bilirubin.
- Heinz bodies (cats) - prominent in RBCs within 72 hours.
-
Laboratory Findings:
- Acetaminophen plasma, serum, or urine concentrations.
-
Treatment:
- S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) as a glutathione donor:
- 40 mg/kg PO × 1 dose, then 20 mg/kg q24h PO × 7 days.
- Methylene blue, cimetidine, and/or ascorbic acid may be used, but usefulness is controversial.
- S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) as a glutathione donor:
-
Prognosis:
- Dogs: Death from liver necrosis may occur within 72 hours.
- Cats: Death from methemoglobinemia occurs 18 - 36 hours after ingestion.
- Animals receiving prompt treatment that reverses methemoglobinemia and prevents excessive liver necrosis may recover fully.
Miscellaneous
-
Cabergoline/Bromocriptine:
- Interestrous interval in bitches treated with prostaglandins and PRL inhibitors may be shortened (~1 month)
- Queens may resume estrous behavior 7-10 days after pregnancy termination.
- Subsequent estrus fertility is not affected.
-
Abscess:
-
Associated Conditions:
- Feline leukemia virus (FeLV)
- Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV)
-
Associated Conditions:
-
Acetaminophen Toxicosis:
-
Associated Conditions:
- Keratoconjunctivitis sicca may develop in small-breed dogs as a sequela.
-
Associated Conditions:
-
Acetaminophen Toxicosis (Treatment):
- Expect clinical signs to persist for 12 - 48 hours
- Death owing to methemoglobinemia is possible at any time.
-
Acetaminophen Toxicosis (General):
- Drugs requiring extensive liver metabolism or biotransformation: use with caution.
- Expect their half-lives to be extended.
-
Cabergoline/Bromocriptine (Treatment):
- Avoid concomitant treatment with drugs causing hypotension.
-
Cabergoline/Bromocriptine:
- Side effects may be reduced with concomitant treatment with dopamine (D2) antagonists.
Spontaneous Abortion (Early Pregnancy Loss) in Dogs
-
Causes:
- Infectious agents: Brucella canis, canine herpesvirus, Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus, Campylobacter, Salmonella, distemper, parvovirus, adenovirus
- Other causes: Systemic disease, uterine infection, viral infection, endocrine abnormalities, congenital abnormality, trauma, infectious placentitis, abnormal ovarian function, abnormal uterine environment, neoplasia
-
Pathophysiology:
- Direct causes: congenital abnormality, infectious disease, trauma
- Indirect causes: infectious placentitis, abnormal ovarian function, abnormal uterine environment
-
Systems Affected:
- Reproductive system
- Any major body system dysfunction can adversely affect pregnancy
-
Diagnosis:
- Confirm pregnancy first: ~60% of mismated bitches do not become pregnant
- Abdominal palpation: bitch: 31–33 days after luteinizing hormone (LH) surge; queen: 21–25 days after breeding
- Transabdominal ultrasound: bitch: >25 days after LH surge; queen: >16 days after breeding
- Abdominal radiographs: bitch: >45 days after LH surge; queen: >38 days after breeding
- Serum relaxin concentration in the bitch: >28 days after LH surge (Witness® Relaxin, Synbiotics/Zoetis)
-
Differential Diagnosis:
- Hydrometra, Mucometra, Hematometra, Pyometra, Pseudopregnancy
-
Treatment:
- Multimodal treatment improves efficacy of drugs given alone
-
Nursing Care:
- General care: N/A
- Activity: Normal
- Diet: Avoid feeding prior to and for 1–2 hours after treatments (reduces nausea and vomiting)
-
Client Education:
- Discuss patient’s reproductive future with owner
- If no litters are desired, then ovariohysterectomy (OHE) is the best option
- Discuss with client potential side effects of treatment options and reach mutual agreement on treatment plan
Abscesses
-
Definition:
- Localized collection of purulent exudate
-
Causes:
- Infectious: Pyogenic bacteria, obligate anaerobes, mycotic agents, parasitic infections, infectious agents (e.g., FeLV, FIV)
- Noninfectious: Pancreatitis, suture reaction, vaccination, other injectable drug administration, stinging insects, snake envenomation, immune-mediated panniculitis, dermatitis, neoplasia
-
Systems Affected:
- Skin/exocrine (cats > dogs); anal sac (dogs > cats)
- Ophthalmic: periorbital tissues
- Hepatobiliary: liver parenchyma
- Respiratory: pulmonary parenchyma
- Reproductive: prostate gland (dogs > cats); mammary gland
- Gastrointestinal: pancreas (dogs > cats)
-
Incidence/Prevalence:
- N/A
-
Geographic Distribution:
- N/A
-
Signalment:
- Species: Cat and dog
- Breed Predilections: N/A
- Mean Age and Range: N/A
- Predominant Sex: N/A
-
Signs:
- Fever, but may be absent if abscess has ruptured
- May lead to chronic or intermittent discharge of exudate from a draining tract
- Sepsis or infection of body cavity (e.g., pyothorax) may be seen if abscess ruptures internally
-
Diagnosis:
- CBC/Biochemistry/Urinalysis: CBC - normal, neutrophilia with or without left shift, neutropenia and degenerative left shift (severe infection); Serum chemistry profile - depends on severity, system affected; Urinalysis - pyuria (prostatic abscess)
- Other Laboratory Tests: Serologic testing (FeLV, FIV), cerebrospinal fluid evaluation (increased cellularity and protein with brain abscess)
- Imaging: Radiography, ultrasonography, CT or MRI
- Diagnostic Procedures: Fine-needle aspiration, aerobic bacterial culture and sensitivity, mycotic culture, KOH preparation, intradermal skin testing, Wood’s light evaluation
-
Genetics:
- N/A
-
Risk Factors:
- Anal sac: impaction, anal sacculitis
- Brain: otitis interna, sinusitis, oral infection
- Liver: omphalophlebitis, sepsis
- Lung: foreign object aspiration or migration, bacterial pneumonia
- Mammary gland: mastitis
- Periorbital: dental disease, chewing of wood or other plant material
- Prostate gland: bacterial prostatitis
- Fighting, trauma, or surgery
- Thermal or chemical burns
-
Treatment:
- N/A
- May be treated with antibiotics, drainage, and surgery
-
Prognosis:
- Depends on the location, size, and cause of the abscess
- The prognosis is generally good if the abscess is treated appropriately
Chalazia (Meibomian Gland Dysfunction)
-
Definition:
- Sterile, yellow-white, painless meibomian gland swellings caused by granulomatous inflammation
-
Causes:
- Demodex injai
- N/A
-
Systems Affected:
- Ophthalmic
-
Signalment:
- See causes (most commonly seen in dogs)
-
Signs:
- Serous, mucoid, or mucopurulent ocular discharge
- Blepharospasm (eyelid spasms)
- Eyelid hyperemia (redness), edema (swelling), and thickening
- Pruritus (itching)
- Excoriation (scratching)
- Depigmentation (loss of color) of skin, hair (in Siamese-type cats with color)
-
Diagnosis:
- N/A
- May be diagnosed based on clinical signs and examination findings, but may need further diagnostic testing to confirm.
-
Treatment:
- N/A
- Treatment options include warm compresses, topical antibiotics, and surgical removal.
Early Pregnancy Loss
- Can occur for many reasons including failure to ovulate, failure to conceive, chromosomal disorders, disorders of sexual development, and vaginal discharge.
- May present clinically as lack of pregnancy or reduced litter size.
- Historically, this can be seen as a return to estrus sooner than expected (approximately 45 days after breeding), discovery of fetal tissues or the placenta, behavior change, or systemic illness.
- Physically, signs range from normal to dehydration, fever, abdominal straining, and discomfort to the presence of purulent, mucoid, watery, or sanguineous vaginal discharge.
Treatment
- For noninfectious, stable queens, no treatment is necessary.
- For valuable breeding animals, a Cesarean section can be performed to remove deceased fetuses.
- Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α; dinoprost/Lutalyse®) 80–100 μg/kg IM q8–12h can be used to lower progesterone and facilitate uterine emptying.
- Use PGF2α in conjunction with a low dose of terbutaline (0.03–1.0 mg PO as needed based on tocodynamometry).
Monitoring and Follow-Up
- Serial ultrasounds are recommended to follow pregnancy loss, uterine emptying and the viability of remaining fetuses.
- Monitor the queen's health and attitude.
- Delayed parturition may occur following treatment with progesterone or terbutaline in cases where live fetuses are present, Cesarean section may be necessary.
- Subsequent estrus fertility is not affected by early pregnancy loss.
Prevention
- Institute infectious disease prevention, control, and surveillance in order to prevent early pregnancy loss.
- Replace subfertile animals with infertile ones.
5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) Toxicosis
- Antimetabolite and antineoplastic agent
- Metabolized to thymidine, which blocks methylation of deoxyuridylic and thymidylic acids.
- This results in thymine deficiency, crucial for DNA and RNA replication, leading to cell death.
- Targets rapidly growing cells like bone marrow and intestinal crypts.
-
CBC/BIOCHEMISTRY/URINALYSIS
- CBC: monitor for echinocytes, leukopenia (day 7 to 13), thrombocytopenia (day 7 to 21), acute anemia due to blood loss (day 9 to 21).
-
Clinical Signs
- Determined by organ system or tissue affected.
- Associated with inflammation (pain, swelling, redness, heat, loss of function).
Abscessation
-
General Comments
- Signs: pain, swelling, redness, heat, loss of function
- Associated with infection (inflammation)
- Causes: Foreign objects, necrotic tissue, bacteria, fungi, parasites
-
Diagnosis:
- CBC: elevated white blood cell count (WBC)
- Cytology: primarily degenerate neutrophils, fewer macrophages, lymphocytes, and bacteria
- Culture & Susceptibility Testing: aerobic and anaerobic bacterial and fungal
- Biopsy: necessary to confirm nodular panniculitis
-
Treatment Goals:
- Drainage
- Debridement
- Antimicrobial therapy
- Support care
-
Treatment:
- Early drainage: prevents further tissue damage and abscess wall formation
- Removal of foreign objects, necrotic tissue, and nidus of infection.
- Surgical Drainage & Debridement: may need to leave wound open or place a drain
- Fluid Therapy, Antimicrobial therapy, Intensive care: for sepsis, peritonitis, or pyothorax
- Sterile Nodular Panniculitis: corticosteroids
-
Complications:
- Sepsis
- Peritonitis/pleuritis: if intra-abdominal or intrathoracic abscess ruptures
- Compromise of organ function
- Delayed evacuation: may lead to chronic, draining fistulous tracts.
-
Client education:
- Maintain adequate drainage
- Continue antimicrobial therapy
- Correct or prevent risk factors
-
Prevention/Avoidance:
- Prevent fighting
- Consider castration to reduce roaming and aggressive behavior.
Feline Reproductive Management
- Infectious Diseases: Vaccinate cats before pregnancy and implement disease surveillance measures. Quarantine pregnant cats and new arrivals.
- Breeding Management: Maintain detailed records of reproductive performance, pedigree analysis, and social behavior.
- Nutrition: Feed pregnant queens commercial cat food.
- Genetics: Discuss the risk of zoonotic disease from Toxoplasma gondii.
- Progesterone Administration: Avoid administering progesterone during the first half of pregnancy due to masculinization of female fetuses.
- Tocolytics: Tocolytics may increase the risk of dystocia, failure of placental separation, lack of milk production, and poor maternal behavior for the first days postpartum.
- Previous Pregnancy Loss: Queens with previous pregnancy loss have a higher risk of subsequent pregnancy loss or infertility and require intensive monitoring.
Feline Ovariohysterectomy (OHE)
- OHE is recommended for cats with no reproductive value or when owners do not desire future litters.
Feline Abortion
-
Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α): Causes luteal regression, decreasing progesterone concentrations and inducing uterine contractions.
- Side Effects: Vomiting, hypersalivation, defecation, urination, and tachypnea.
-
Aglepristone: Terminates pregnancy within 6 days.
- Combined with cloprostenol for more effective termination.
- Side Effects: Vomiting and diarrhea.
-
Aglepristone with Intravaginal Misoprostol: Completes abortion within 7 days.
- Side Effects: Vomiting, diarrhea, polydipsia, and anorexia.
-
Bromocriptine and Cloprostenol: Treatment initiated >28 days post-LH surge.
- Side Effects: Mild reactions at the injection site and mild vaginal discharge.
Feline Abscessation
- Abscesses are associated with inflammation, pain, swelling, redness, heat, and loss of function.
- Causative Agents: Bacteria, mycobacteria, Nocardia, and fungi..
-
Diagnosis:
- Cytology: Evaluate the presence of inflammatory cells.
- Culture and Susceptibility Testing: Identify the infectious agent to guide antimicrobial therapy.
-
Treatment:
- Drainage: Early drainage is critical to prevent further tissue damage and abscess wall formation.
- Antimicrobial Therapy: Initiate appropriate antimicrobial therapy based on culture and sensitivity results.
- Surgical Removal: If necessary, surgically remove the nidus of infection or foreign objects.
-
Complications:
- Sepsis: Develops if the abscess ruptures into the abdomen or thorax.
- Organ Function Compromise: Damage to surrounding organs.
- Fistulous Tracts: Delayed evacuation can lead to chronic drainage.
Canine and Feline Abortion
- Abortion in pregnant dogs and cats can occur due to various factors, including impaired oviductal transport, luteal regression, and progesterone receptor antagonism.
- Prostaglandins (PGF2α) and their analogs are commonly used to induce abortion in dogs and cats, but their effectiveness may be reduced by concurrent progestin administration.
- Dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid, can cause abortion in dogs and cats due to its ability to suppress the immune system and interfere with fetal development.
- Cabergoline, a dopamine agonist, acts as a prolactin antagonist and can induce luteal regression, leading to abortion in animals.
- Prolonged use of dexamethasone (>2 weeks) in dogs and cats can cause coat color changes, while cabergoline can cause side effects such as vomiting and anorexia.
5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) Toxicosis
- 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is an antimetabolite drug that inhibits DNA and RNA synthesis by interfering with the methylation reaction of deoxyuridylic and thymidylic acids, leading to thymine deficiency.
- 5-FU is used as an antineoplastic agent and is toxic to rapidly growing cells like bone marrow and intestinal crypts.
- Toxicosis can result in various clinical signs, including hematological abnormalities, gastrointestinal distress, hepatotoxicity, and neurological dysfunction.
- Monitoring of complete blood count (CBC), biochemistry, and urine analysis is crucial to assess the severity and progression of toxicosis.
Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIPV)
- Feline infectious peritonitis (FIPV) is a fatal viral disease caused by feline coronavirus (FCoV).
- The virus can cause a wide range of clinical signs depending on the immune response, including serous or mucoid ocular discharge, blepharospasm, eyelid hyperemia, edema, and thickening, pruritus, excoriation, and depigmentation.
- The incidence and prevalence of FIPV are difficult to determine due to the variable nature of the disease and the possibility of subclinical infection.
- FIPV is thought to be highly heritable, with cats with high coefficients of inbreeding at increased risk.
- Clinical diagnosis of FIPV often involves serological testing, cytological examination, and post-mortem histopathology.
- Differentiating FIPV from other infectious and non-infectious conditions is crucial due to the potential zoonotic nature of the virus.
Early Pregnancy Loss
- Can be caused by failure to ovulate, failure to conceive, chromosomal disorders, or disorders of sexual development
- Can also be caused by vaginal discharge, such as pyometra, uterine stump pyometra, mucometra, vaginitis, neoplasia, cystitis, active labor or impending abortion, or trauma to the urogenital tract.
- A mass or tissue from the vaginal vault can indicate dystocia, neoplasia, hemorrhage/blood clot, or uterine prolapse
Pathologic Findings
- Variable depending on the cause of early pregnancy loss
- Inflammatory leukogram with infection or systemic disease
- Anemia of pregnancy, hemoconcentration and azotemia may be seen with dehydration or hypovolemia
Treatment
- None is necessary for noninfectious, stable queens
- Primary hypoluteoidism is managed on an outpatient basis
- Uterus may keep infection within it, causing metritis and systemic illnesses. Monitor pregnancy using ultrasound.
- PGF2α is administered in a dose that is dependent and self-limiting. Side effects include vomiting, hypersalivation, defecation, urination, and tachypnea
Miscellaneous
- Associated conditions include severe systemic disease of any kind and malnutrition
- Possible interactions include progesterone administration during pregnancy, and tocolytics - both may affect fetus development
- Age-related factors include a higher incidence of lower litter size and infertility in queens over the age of six years old
- Zoonotic potential: Toxoplasmosis gondii infection can be passed to humans
Surgical considerations
- Ovariohysterectomy (OHE) may be necessary in some cases
Acetaminophen Toxicity
- Progressive depression, salivation, vomiting, abdominal pain, tachypnea and cyanosis or muddy mucous membranes are signs of acetaminophen toxicity
- Methemoglobinemia may develop at doses above 200 mg/kg
- Treatment includes fluid therapy to maintain hydration and electrolyte balance, and oxygen therapy if needed
- Restricted activity and food offered 24 hours after the initiation of treatment
- Cats are more susceptible to acetaminophen toxicity than dogs, due to their limited capacity for acetaminophen elimination
- Cats may be poisoned by as little as 50-60 mg/kg, and as little as half a tablet
- Acetaminophen toxicity can be fatal.
5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) Toxicosis
- Antimetabolite, antineoplastic agent that blocks methylation of deoxyuridylic and thymidylic acids, resulting in thymine deficiency
- Thymine is critical for DNA and RNA replication, leading to cell death due to interruption of normal DNA and RNA synthesis
- Primarily targets rapidly growing cells like bone marrow and intestinal crypts
- Various active metabolites delay clearance
Pathophysiology
- Metabolism to thymidine blocks methylation reaction of deoxyuridylic and thymidylic acids, leading to thymine deficiency
- Liver is most susceptible to toxicity in dogs
- Cats have limited capacity for acetaminophen elimination, relying on glucuronidation and sulfation biotransformation
Clinical Signs
- Determined by organ system and/or tissue affected
- Common signs include progressive depression, salivation, vomiting, abdominal pain, tachypnea, cyanosis, muddy mucous membranes, methemoglobinemia, icterus, hypothermia, and shock.
Risk Factors
- Nutritional deficiencies of glucose and/or sulfate
Diagnosis
- Monitor for echinocytes, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia
Treatment
- Antiemetics: maropitant, ondansetron, metoclopramide
- GI protection: proton pump inhibitors, H2 blockers, sucralfate
- Analgesia: buprenorphine, butorphanol
- Broad-spectrum antibiotics
- Bone marrow stimulation : filgrastim (Neupogen®)
- Transfusion therapy may be indicated for low PCV
- Metabolic support
Acetaminophen Toxicosis
- Dogs can effectively glucuronidate acetaminophen, while cats have a limited capacity.
- Red blood cells (RBCs) are most susceptible to oxidative injury following glutathione depletion.
Causes
- Methemoglobinemia may develop at doses >200 mg/kg in both cats and dogs.
Treatment
- Prompt evaluation when methemoglobinemia is suspected.
Abortion, Spontaneous (Early Pregnancy Loss)—Dogs
-
Diagnostic Procedures:
- Vaginoscopy: Identify source of vulvar discharge and vaginal lesions.
- Cytologic examination, bacterial culture: May reveal inflammatory process (e.g., uterine infection).
-
Pathologic Findings:
-
Signalment:
- Species: Dog
- Breed Predilections: Borzoi (prolonged interestrus interval, poor conception rate, mid-gestation abortion, stillbirths). Many breeds at risk for hypothyroidism, although evidence of role in abortion unclear.
- Mean Age and Range: All ages for infectious causes, pharmacologic agents causing abortion, fetal defects. Usually >6 years old for cystic endometrial hyperplasia.
- Historical Findings: Often nonspecific signs (e.g., lethargy, anorexia). History of trauma or prior infection.
- Physical Examination Findings: Determined by organ system or tissue affected. Classic signs of inflammation (heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function) associated with specific anatomic location of abscess.
-
Signalment:
-
Risk Factors:
- Exposure of brood bitch to carrier animals.
- Old age.
- Hereditary factors.
- Infectious causes, pharmacologic agents causing abortion, fetal defects.
- Cystic endometrial hyperplasia.
-
Basics:
- Definition: An abscess is a focal collection of purulent exudate within a confined tissue space or cavity.
- Pathophysiology: Bacteria may enter tissue by penetrating trauma, spread from another source of infection (hematogenous or adjacent infected tissues), or migration of a contaminated object (e.g., plant awn). Most often, bacteria are inoculated under the skin via puncture or bite wounds.
-
Diagnosis:
-
Differential Diagnosis:
-
Mass Lesions
- Cyst: Transiently painful, slower growing, no overt signs of inflammation.
- Fibrous scar tissue: Firm, nonpainful.
- Granuloma: Less painful, slower growing, firmer without fluctuant center.
- Hematoma/seroma: Variable pain, nonencapsulated, rapid initial growth but slows once full size attained, fluctuant initially, may become more firm over time.
- Neoplasia: Variable growth, variable pain.
-
Draining Tracts
- Fungal infection: Blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis.
- Mycobacterial disease.
- Genetics: N/A
- Adrenal function: Hyperadrenocorticism.
-
Mass Lesions
-
Differential Diagnosis:
-
Imaging:
- Radiography: Soft-tissue density mass in affected area, may reveal foreign material.
- Ultrasonography: Determine if mass is fluid filled; may reveal foreign object; echogenic fluid suggests purulent exudate.
- Echocardiography: Pericardial abscess, endocarditis.
- CT or MRI: Pulmonary or brain abscess.
-
Diagnostic Procedures:
- Fine-Needle Aspiration: Red, white, yellow, or greenish liquid.
- Percutaneous: Fighting, trauma, or surgery.
- CBC/BIOCHEMISTRY/URINALYSIS: Usually normal unless metabolic cause (e.g., diabetic dermatosis).
- OTHER LABORATORY TESTS: Indicated for systemic disorders, including hypothyroidism.
-
Pathophysiology:
- Inflammation: Immune mediated, infectious, endocrine mediated, self- and external trauma, parasitic, radiation, nutritional. Inflammatory response often exaggerated because conjunctiva is rich in mast cells and densely vascularized.
- Lipases alter meibomian lipids and plug gland; produce irritating fatty acids, enhance bacterial growth, and destabilize tear film.
Medications
- Drug of Choice: Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α; Lutalyse®, dinoprost)
-
Hormonal Dysfunction:
- Hyperadrenocorticism.
- Endocrine-disrupting contaminants documented in human and wildlife fetal loss.
-
Fetal Defects:
- Lethal chromosomal abnormality or organ defects.
Surgical Considerations
- OHE preferred for stable nonbreeding patients.
- **Neutering:**Monitor after neutering and antibiotic therapy, yearly serologic testing (identify recrudescence).
Prevention/Avoidance
- Brucellosis, other infectious agents: Surveillance programs to prevent spread to kennel.
- OHE for nonbreeding bitches.
- Hypothyroidism: See Hypothyroidism.
Other Information
- PGF2α Continued for 5 days or until most of discharge ceases (range 3–15 days).
- B. canis: Monitor after neutering and antibiotic therapy; yearly serologic testing (identify recrudescence).
- Baseline T4 serum concentration: Hypothyroidism possible cause for fetal wastage; role in pregnancy loss unclear.
- Serum progesterone concentration: Dogs depend on ovarian progesterone production throughout gestation (minimum of 2 ng/mL required to maintain pregnancy); determine as soon as possible after abortion; in subsequent pregnancies, start weekly monitoring at week 3 (may be before administration).
- Agar gel immunodiffusion: Differentiates between false positives and true positives in agglutination tests; detects cytoplasmic and cell surface antigens.
Pregnancy Termination
- Termination of pregnancy in dogs and cats is most commonly performed in early pregnancy (between 25 and 40 days)
- Termination of pregnancy is often performed due to mismating, unexpected pregnancy, or other complications.
- Monitor for signs of side effects (vomiting, diarrhea, hypersalivation, hyperpnea, micturition, tachycardia) after treatment.
Pregnancy Termination in Dogs
- Dogs are often treated with cabergoline (PRL antagonist) or cloprostenol (prostaglandin analogue).
- Common side effects of treatment include vomiting, anorexia, and coat color changes.
Pregnancy Termination in Cats
- Cats are often treated with cabergoline (PRL antagonist) and cloprostenol (prostaglandin analogue).
- Treatment should begin after day 30 in cats.
Abscessation
- Abscessation is a localized collection of pus in a cavity - Caused by infection and inflammation.
- Abscessation can occur in any tissue or organ, but common locations include skin, mammary glands, prostate, and subcutaneous tissues.
- Treatment involves draining the abscess, debridement of necrotic tissue, and antimicrobial therapy.
- May require hot packs, protective bandages, and an Elizabethan collar.
Abscessation in Cats
- Abscessation in cats can be caused by bacterial, fungal, or protozoal infections.
- Common causes include bite wounds, abscesses from mammary glands, and abscesses from the skin, lymph nodes, and liver.
- If the abscess is large or deep-seated, surgery may be required.
Abscessation in Dogs
- Abscessation in dogs is often caused by bacterial and fungal infections.
- The cause of abscessation should be identified through bacterial culture and sensitivity testing.
- Often treated with antibiotics and possibly surgery to drain the abscess.
Abortion (Early Pregnancy Loss) in Dogs
- Spontaneous abortion can occur due to infectious, systemic, or endocrine diseases.
- Infectious causes include Brucella canis, canine herpesvirus, Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, and some bacteria like Escherichia coli, Streptococcus, Campylobacter, and Salmonella.
- Systemic diseases include distemper, parvovirus, and adenovirus.
- Endocrine abnormalities can also lead to abortion.
- Other causes include congenital abnormalities, trauma, uterine infection, and abnormal ovarian function.
- Diagnosis requires a necropsy of aborted fetuses, stillborn puppies, and placentas.
- Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include antibiotics, antiviral medications, and supportive care.
Termination of Pregnancy in Dogs
- Definition: Termination of pregnancy involves ending the pregnancy before term, either intentionally or due to complications.
- Causes: Termination of pregnancy is usually performed by the veterinarian using prostaglandins or other medications.
Abscesses in Dogs
- Definition: An abscess is a localized collection of pus surrounded by a capsule of inflamed tissue.
- Causes: Abscesses can be caused by bacteria, fungi, foreign objects, or inflammation.
- Types: Abscesses can occur in different locations, including the skin, anal sacs, prostate gland, mammary gland, liver, lungs, and brain.
- Common bacteria: Staphylococcus spp. , Eschericha coli, β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp., Pseudomonas, Mycoplasma and Mycoplasma-like organisms (l-forms), Pasteurella multocida, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces spp., Nocardia, Bartonella, Bacteroides spp., Clostridium spp., Peptostreptococcus, and Fusobacterium.
- Diagnosis: Physical examination, cytology of the abscess, and bacterial culture can help diagnose the condition.
- Treatment: Abscesses are usually treated with antibiotics and surgical drainage.
Blepharitis in Dogs
- Definition: Blepharitis is inflammation of the eyelid margins.
- Causes: It can be caused by bacteria, allergies, mites, or other inflammatory conditions.
- Treatment: Blepharitis is usually treated topically with antibiotics and corticosteroids.
Early Pregnancy Loss In Cats
- Cause: Failure to ovulate, failure to conceive, chromosomal disorder, disorder of sexual development, vaginal discharge (pyometra, uterine stump pyometra, mucometra, vaginitis, neoplasia, cystitis), active labor or impending abortion, trauma to urogenital tract, mass or tissue from vaginal vault (dystocia, neoplasia, hemorrhage/blood clot, uterine prolapse).
- Clinical Symptoms: Frequently none other than lack of pregnancy or reduced litter size, return to estrus sooner than expected, discovery of fetal tissues or placenta, behavior change, systemic illness.
- Pathologic Findings: Variable based on the cause.
- CBC/BIOCHEMISTRY/URINALYSIS: Generally normal. Inflammatory leukogram with infection or systemic disease. Anemia of pregnancy, hemoconcentration and azotemia may be seen with dehydration or hypovolemia.
- Treatment: No treatment needed for noninfectious, stable queens. Queens with primary hypoluteoidism can be managed on an outpatient basis.
Treatment for Early Pregnancy Loss In Cats
- Altenogest: Oral progestogene (0.088 mg/kg PO q24h) to maintain pregnancy. Can monitor queen’s progesterone, as altrenogest will not interfere with progesterone assay.
- Terbutaline: Contraindicated in queens with cardiac disease, pyometra, infectious disease, hypertension, uterine pathology.
- Altrenogest: Contraindicated in queens with contaminated uterus, systemically ill queens, and cats with previously diagnosed respiratory disease.
Pregnancy Loss In Bitches
- Causes: Noninfectious, infectious (e.g., Brucella canis, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Salmonella).
- Signs: Failure to whelp on time, expulsion of fetuses or placental tissues, decrease in abdominal size, weight loss, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, behavioral changes, bloody or purulent vulvar discharge, disappearance of previously documented vesicles or fetuses, depression.
- Diagnosis: Differentiate infectious from noninfectious causes, vaginal culture, serologic test for B. canis, radiography, ultrasonography.
-
Treatment:
- Bromocriptine (PRL antagonist) : 50-100 μg/kg IM/PO q12h for 4-7 days >day 35
- Cabergoline and cloprostenol: Cabergoline 5 μg/kg PO q24h for 10 days + cloprostenol 2.5 μg/kg SC, or 1 μg/kg SC at start of treatment and day 5
- Cabergoline and bromocriptine: Bromocriptine 30 μg/kg PO q8h for 10 days + cloprostenol 2.5 μg/kg SC or 1 μg/kg SC at start of treatment and day 5.
- Aglepristone (progestin and glucocorticoid receptors antagonist): 10 mg/kg SC q24h for 2 days >14 days post-LH surge.
- Aglepristone and cloprostenol: Aglepristone 10 mg/kg SC + cloprostenol 1 μg/kg SC q24h for 2 days >25 days’ pregnancy
- Aglepristone and misoprostol: Aglepristone 10 mg/kg SC q24h for 2 days + misoprostol 200-400 μg intravaginally daily until abortion is complete.
-
Contraindications:
- Prostaglandins and analogues: Respiratory disease, brachycephalic breeds.
- Cabergoline and Bromocriptine: Hypersensitivity to ergot alkaloids, impaired liver function.
- Expected Course and Prognosis: Poor prognosis for live kittens for current litter. May recur in future pregnancies depending on cause and treatment. Poor prognosis for normal pregnancy with severe pregnancy documented with ultrasound.
- Subsequent Fertility: Subsequent estrus fertility not affected.
- Client Education Handout: Available online.
Miscellaneous Information
- Associated Conditions: N/A
- Age-Related Factors: N/A
- Zoonotic Potential: N/A
- Pregnancy/Fertility/Breeding: N/A
- Synonyms: Induced abortion
-
Abbreviations:
- CEH = cystic endometrial hyperplasia
- LH = luteinizing hormone
- OHE = ovariohysterectomy
- PGF2α = prostaglandin F2α
- PRL = prolactin
Pregnancy Loss
- Pregnancy loss in dogs typically occurs during the seventh week of gestation.
- Causes can be infectious or non-infectious.
- Infectious causes include Brucella canis, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Salmonella, and other bacteria.
- Recognizing signs of pregnancy loss:
- Failure to whelp on time
- Expulsion of recognizable fetuses or placental tissues
- Decrease in abdominal size and weight loss
- Anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea
- Behavioral changes
- Sanguineous or purulent vulvar discharge
- Disappearance of previously documented vesicles or fetuses
- Depression
- Abdominal straining and discomfort
- Non-infectious causes can include drug use during pregnancy and hormonal dysfunction.
- Early diagnosis is crucial to differentiate resorption from infertility.
- Progesterone supplementation (Prometrium) can be used with careful monitoring to maintain pregnancy in cases of documented hypoluteoidism.
- Treat Brucella canis with appropriate antibiotics.
- Consider ovariohysterectomy (OHE) in bitches with history of pregnancy loss to prevent future infection.
- Zoonotic Potential: Brucella canis and B. canis can be transmitted to humans; take precautions when handling affected dogs.
- Alternative Drug(S): Oxytocin for uterine evacuation in cases of partial abortion.
Termination of Pregnancy
- Termination of unwanted pregnancies can be achieved with drugs that alter embryo transport or cause luteal regression.
- Common methods include:
- Drugs that impede establishment of pregnancy by altering embryo transport in the oviduct.
- Drugs that cause luteal regression, terminating established pregnancy.
- Estrogens are not commonly used or recommended due to potential side effects.
Blepharoconjunctivitis
- Blepharoconjunctivitis is inflammation of the eyelid margins and conjunctiva.
- Causes:
- Inflammatory response (immune mediated, infectious, endocrine mediated, self- and external trauma, parasitic, radiation, nutritional).
- Neoplastic (sebaceous adenomas, adenocarcinomas, squamous cell carcinoma, mast cell tumors)
- Meibomian gland dysfunction (bacterial lipase alters meibomian lipids, leading to gland blockage and irritating fatty acids).
- Common in young and old dogs.
- Diagnosis: Thorough history, dermatologic exam, cytology.
- Treatment often involves addressing underlying causes.
Notes:
- The text discusses the potential consequences of various drugs used to terminate pregnancy, both in the dog and the cat.
- The text highlights the importance of identifying and differentiating between various causes of blepharoconjunctivitis to implement appropriate treatment plans.
Metabolic Acidosis
- Metabolic acidosis is a condition characterized by a decrease in blood pH, due to increased levels of acids in the blood or decreased levels of bicarbonate.
Causes
- The most common causes of metabolic acidosis in dogs and cats are :
- Renal disease: Inability to filter waste products, leading to buildup of acid in the blood.
- Diabetes mellitus: Excess glucose in the blood is broken down into ketones, which are acidic.
- Gastrointestinal (GI) disease: Loss of bicarbonate through vomiting or diarrhea.
- Ingestion of toxins: Chemicals that alter the body's ability to maintain acid-base balance, such as ethylene glycol, salicylate, paraldehyde, methanol.
Signs
- The signs of metabolic acidosis can vary depending on the severity of the condition, including :
- Respiratory: Increased respiratory rate and depth.
- Cardiovascular: Increased heart rate, weakened pulse, decreased blood pressure (in severe cases).
- Gastrointestinal: Loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhea.
- Neurological: Lethargy, weakness, coma (in severe cases).
Treatment
- Treatment for metabolic acidosis involves addressing the underlying cause, such as :
- Fluid therapy: To help flush out excess acid and correct electrolyte imbalances.
- Sodium bicarbonate: To neutralize the acid in the blood.
- Antibiotics: To treat underlying infections, if present.
Prognosis
- The prognosis for metabolic acidosis depends on the severity of the condition and the underlying cause.
- Prompt treatment is essential for a favorable outcome.
Abortion, Spontaneous (Early Pregnancy Loss)—Dogs
- Vaginoscopy: Used to identify the source of vulvar discharge and vaginal lesions.
- A scope of sufficient length (16–20 cm) is required to examine the entire length of the vagina.
- Cytologic examination, bacterial culture: May reveal inflammatory processes, such as uterine infection.
- Use a guarded swab to ensure an anterior sample, as the distal reproductive tract is heavily contaminated with bacteria.
- Alternatively, collect secretions by transcervical catheterization.
- Pathologic findings:
- Hypoluteoidism: Oral progestogen (altrenogest) can be used to maintain pregnancy.
- Monitor the queen’s progesterone levels, as altrenogest does not interfere with progesterone assays.
- Contraindications:
- Terbutaline: Cardiac disease, pyometra, infectious disease, hypertension, and uterine pathology.
- Altrenogest: Contaminated uterus, systemically ill queen, and cats with previously diagnosed respiratory disease.
- Precautions:
- Use of tocolytics requires accurate breeding dates to know when to stop treatment.
- Tocolytics are most successful in combination with tocodynamometry.
- Surgical considerations :
- OHE (Ovariohysterectomy) is preferred for stable nonbreeding patients
- Medications:
- Drug of choice: Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α; Lutalyse®, dinoprost) 0.088 mg/kg PO q24h to maintain pregnancy.
- Prevention/avoidance:
- Brucellosis and other infectious agents: Surveillance programs to prevent spread to the kennel.
- OHE: For nonbreeding bitches and queens with more reproductively fit individuals.
- Avoid exposure to abortifacient, teratogenic, or fetotoxic drugs.
- Use serial progesterone assays and fetal ultrasound during the next pregnancy.
Abortion, Termination of Pregnancy
- Basics: N/A
- Medications:
- Drug of choice: Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α; Lutalyse®, dinoprost)
- Precautions:
- PGF2α and analogues: Side effects are dose-dependent and include vomiting, defecation, dyspnea, tachycardia, salivation, restlessness, and anxiety.
- Side effects subside within 60 minutes.
- Use extreme caution in dogs and cats with preexisting cardiopulmonary, liver, and renal diseases.
- Dexamethasone: Polydipsia, polyuria, and polyphagia are reported side effects.
- Long-term administration can result in signs of hyperadrenocorticism.
- Cabergoline and bromocriptine: Should be administered with caution in patients with marrow suppression leading to pancytopenia.
- Follow-up:
- Patient monitoring: In animals treated with luteolytic drugs (prostaglandins and PRL antagonists), progesterone assays and transabdominal ultrasound examinations should be performed to monitor the decrease of serum progesterone concentration and complete evacuation of uterine contents.
- Transabdominal ultrasound examinations are recommended to monitor complete evacuation of the uterus in patients treated with progesterone receptor antagonist drugs.
Abscessation
- Basics:
- Definition: A localized collection of pus (exudate) caused by inflammation or infection.
- Abscesses can be caused by bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections.
- Risk factors: N/A.
- Treatment:
- Apply hot packs to the inflamed area as needed.
- Use protective bandaging or Elizabethan collars as needed.
- Accumulated exudate: Surgical drainage and debridement of necrotic tissue.
- Sepsis, peritonitis, pyothorax: Fluid therapy, antimicrobial therapy, and intensive care.
- Activity: Restrict until the abscess has resolved and adequate healing occurs.
- Diet: N/A.
- Client education:
- Maintain adequate drainage and continue antimicrobial therapy for an adequate period of time.
- Surgical considerations:
- Appropriate debridement and drainage: May need to leave the wound open to the external surface or place drains.
- Prevention/avoidance :
- Percutaneous abscesses: Prevent fighting and consider castration to reduce roaming or aggressive behavior.
Pregnancy Loss in Cats and Dogs
- Possible Complications: Loss of entire litter, Metritis, Chronic Endometritis, Uterine Rupture, Sepsis, Shock.
- Contraindications: Terbutaline—Cardiac disease, Pyometra, Infectious disease, Hypertension, Uterine pathology. Altrenogest—Contaminated uterus with systemically ill queen. Prostaglandin—Cats with previously diagnosed respiratory disease.
- Precautions: Use of tocolytics requires accurate breeding dates. Termination of an unwanted pregnancy can be accomplished by drugs that alter embryo transport in the oviduct.
- Pathophysiology: Impaired embryo transport through the oviduct leads to embryonic degeneration and implantation abnormalities. Pregnancy maintenance depends on progesterone production from the corpora lutea.
- Cloprostenol and bromocriptine (Bitch): Bromocriptine 30 μg/kg PO q8h for 10 days plus Cloprostenol 2.5 μg/kg SC or 1 μg/kg SC at the start of treatment and at day 5 of treatment.
- Cloprostenol and bromocriptine (Contraindications): PGF2α and analogues—Animals with respiratory disease. Cabergoline and bromocriptine—Avoid administration in animals hypersensitive to ergot alkaloids.
- Aglepristone and Cloprostenol: Aglepristone (10 mg/kg SC) combined with Cloprostenol (1 μg/kg SC) q24h for 2 days after 25 days of pregnancy.
- Aglepristone and Cloprostenol (Side Effects): Vomiting and diarrhea, vaginal discharge may be observed.
- Aglepristone and Misoprostol: Aglepristone (10 mg/kg SC q24h for 2 days) with intravaginal Misoprostol (200–400 μg depending on body size) daily until abortion complete.
- Alaglpristone and Misoprostol (Side Effects): Abortion complete within 7 days. Vomiting, diarrhea, polydipsia, anorexia not observed with this regimen.
Blepharoconjunctivitis
- Inflammation: Immune-mediated, Infectious, Endocrine-mediated, Self- and external trauma, Parasitic, Radiation, Nutritional.
- Pathophysiology: Inflammatory response often exaggerated because conjunctiva is rich in mast cells and densely vascularized. Lipases alter meibomian lipids and plug glands.
- Causes: Bacterial blepharitis and meibomianitis — Usually Staphylococcus or Streptococcus. Bartonella henselae — Chronic blepharoconjunctivitis in cats. Pyogranulomas — Young and old dogs. Sebaceous adenomas and adenocarcinomas — From meibomian gland. Squamous cell carcinoma — White cats. Mast cell — May appear as swollen, hyperemic lesion.
- Diagnostic Procedures: Eye examination — Inciting cause, corneal ulcer, foreign body, distichia, ectopic cilia, keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS). Ancillary ocular tests — Fluorescein, Schirmer tear test. Thorough history and dermatologic exam.
- Cytology: Deep skin scrape, conjunctival scrape, or exudate from glands and pustules.
Acetaminophen Toxicity
- Synonyms: Paracetamol, Tylenol®.
- Possible Complications: Liver necrosis and resulting fibrosis — May compromise long-term liver function in recovered patients. Rapidly progressive methemoglobinemia — Serious sign.
- Prevention/Avoidance: Never give acetaminophen to cats. Give careful attention to acetaminophen dose in dogs.
- Treatment: Activated charcoal 1–2 g/kg PO with a cathartic; immediately after completion of emesis or gastric lavage. N-acetylcysteine (Mucomyst®) 140 mg/kg diluted in 5% dextrose injection (D5W) as loading dose PO/IV; then 70 mg/kg diluted in D5W PO/IV q6h for 7 additional treatments.
- Expected Course and Prognosis: Methemoglobin concentrations ≥50% - Grave prognosis.
Pregnancy Loss
- Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) is the drug of choice for pregnancy termination
- Bitch low dose protocol - 10 μg/kg SC q6h for 7–10 days
- Bitch standard dose protocol - 100 μg/kg SC q8h for 2 days, then 200 μg/kg SC q8h until termination
- Queen low dose protocol - 25 μg/kg SC q6h for 1–2 days, then 50 μg/kg SC q6h for 3–4 days
- Queen standard dose protocol - 0.5–1 mg/kg SC q12h every other day (after day 40), or 2 mg/kg SC q24h for 5 days (after day 33)
- Cloprostenol (prostaglandin analogue) can be used: 2.5 μg/kg SC q8–12h every 48 hours
- Side effects: vomiting, hypersalivation, defecation, urination, and tachypnea
- Alternative drug(s): dopamine agonists (e.g., cabergoline 5 μg/kg PO q24h) can be used to lower progesterone and facilitate uterine emptying
Acetaminophen Toxicity
- Acetaminophen is toxic to cats
- Cats may exhibit acute toxicity with as little as 50-60 mg/kg
- Acetaminophen toxicity causes RBC damage leading to methemoglobinemia
- Damage occurs through glutathione depletion, leading to hemoglobin oxidation to methemoglobin
- Hepatotoxicosis can occur with slower onset, but methemoglobinemia can be fatal before hepatotoxicity develops
- Symptoms: Anemia, hematuria, hemoglobinuria, cardiovascular edema (primarily in cats),
- Treatment: Induced emesis, gastric lavage, oxygen therapy, fluids, and supportive care
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This quiz explores 5-Fluorouracil toxicosis, focusing on clinical signs, causes of exposure, diagnosis, treatment options, and potential complications. Understand how this antineoplastic agent affects the body and the importance of prompt intervention for recovery.