Instructional Strategies Chapter for California Public Schools PDF

Instructional Strategies Chapter of the Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools: Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve Adopted by the California State Board of Education, November 2013 Published by the California Department of Education...

Instructional Strategies Chapter of the Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools: Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve Adopted by the California State Board of Education, November 2013 Published by the California Department of Education Sacramento, 2015  Instructional Strategies T his chapter is intended to enhance teachers’ repertoire, not prescribe the use of any particular instructional strategy. For any given instructional goal, teachers may choose among a wide range of instructional strategies, and effective teachers look for a fit between the material to be taught and strategies for teaching that material. (See the grade-level and course-level chapters for more specific examples.) Ultimately, teachers and administrators must decide which instructional strategies are most effective in addressing the unique needs of individual students. In a standards-based curriculum, effective lessons, units, or modules are carefully developed and are designed to engage all members of the class in learning activities that aim to build student mastery of specific standards. Such lessons typically last at least 50 to 60 minutes daily (excluding homework). The goal that all students should be ready for college and careers by mastering the standards is central to the California Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CA CCSSM) and this mathematics frame- work. Lessons need to be designed so that students are regularly exposed to new information while building conceptual understanding, practicing skills, and reinforcing their mastery of previously intro- duced information. The teaching of mathematics must be carefully sequenced and organized to ensure that all standards are taught at some point and that prerequisite skills form the foundation for more advanced learning. However, teaching should not proceed in a strictly linear order, requiring students to master each standard completely before they are introduced to another. Practice that leads toward mastery can be embedded in new and challenging problems that promote conceptual understanding and fluency in mathematics. Before instructional strategies available to teachers are discussed, three important topics for the CA CCSSM will be addressed: Key Instructional Shifts, Standards for Mathematical Practice, and Critical Areas of Instruction at each grade level. Key Instructional Shifts Understanding how the CA CCSSM differ from previous standards—and the necessary shifts called for by the CA CCSSM—is essential to implementing California’s newest mathematics standards. The three key shifts or principles on which the standards are based are focus, coherence, and rigor. Teachers, schools, and districts should concentrate on these three principles as they develop a common under- standing of best practices and move forward with the implementation of the CA CCSSM. Each grade-level chapter of the framework begins with the following summary of the principles. Instructional Strategies 1  Standards for Mathematical Content The Standards for Mathematical Content emphasize key content, skills, and practices at each grade level and support three major principles: Focus—Instruction is focused on grade-level standards. Coherence—Instruction should be attentive to learning across grades and to linking major topics within grades. Rigor—Instruction should develop conceptual understanding, procedural skill and fluency, and application. Focus requires that the scope of content in each grade, from kindergarten through grade twelve, be significantly narrowed so that students experience more deeply the remaining content. Surveys suggest that postsecondary instructors value greater mastery of prerequisites over shallow exposure to a wide array of topics with dubious relevance to postsecondary work. Coherence is about math making sense. When people talk Rigor in the Curricular Materials about coherence, they often talk about making connec- “To date, curricula have not always been tions between topics. The most important connections are balanced in their approach to these three vertical: the links from one grade to the next that allow aspects of rigor. Some curricula stress flu- students to progress in their mathematical education. That ency in computation without acknowledg- is why it is critical to think across grades and examine the ing the role of conceptual understanding progressions in the standards to see how major content in attaining fluency and making algorithms develops over time. more learnable. Some stress conceptual understanding without acknowledging that Rigor has three aspects: conceptual understanding, proce- fluency requires separate classroom work dural skill and fluency, and application. Educators need to of a different nature. Some stress pure mathematics without acknowledging that pursue, with equal intensity, all three aspects of rigor in applications can be highly motivating for the major work of each grade. students and that a mathematical edu- The word understand is used in the standards to cation should make students fit for more set explicit expectations for conceptual under- than just their next mathematics course. standing. The word fluently is used to set explicit At another extreme, some curricula focus expectations for fluency. on applications, without acknowledging that math doesn’t teach itself. The stan- The phrase real-world problems (and the star [] dards do not take sides in these ways, symbol) are used to set expectations and indicate but rather they set high expectations for opportunities for applications and modeling. all three components of rigor in the major work of each grade. Of course, that makes The three aspects of rigor are critical to day-to-day and it necessary that we focus—otherwise we long-term instructional goals for teachers. Because of this are asking teachers and students to do importance, they are described further below: more with less.” Conceptual understanding. Teachers need to teach —National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State more than how to “get the right answer,” and School Officers (NGA/CCSSO) 2013, 4 instead should support students’ ability to acquire 2 Instructional Strategies  concepts from several perspectives so that students are able to see mathematics as more than a set of mnemonics or discrete procedures. Students demonstrate solid conceptual understanding of core mathematical concepts by applying these concepts to new situations as well as writing and speaking about their understanding. When students learn mathematics conceptually, they understand why procedures and algorithms work, and doing mathematics becomes meaningful because it makes sense. Procedural skill and fluency. Conceptual understanding is not the only goal; teachers must also structure class time and homework time for students to practice procedural skills. Students develop fluency in core areas such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division so that they are able to understand and manipulate more complex concepts. Note that fluency is not memorization without understanding; it is the outcome of a carefully laid-out learning progres- sion that requires planning and practice. Application. The CA CCSSM require application of mathematical concepts and procedures throughout all grade levels. Students are expected to use mathematics and choose the appro- priate concepts for application even when they are not prompted to do so. Teachers should pro- vide opportunities in all grade levels for students to apply mathematical concepts in real-world situations, as this motivates students to learn mathematics and enables them to transfer their mathematical knowledge into their daily lives and future careers. Teachers in content areas outside mathematics (particularly science) ensure that students use grade-level-appropriate mathematics to make meaning of and access content. These three aspects of rigor should be taught in a balanced way. Over the years, many people have taken sides in a perceived struggle between teaching for conceptual understanding and teaching proce- dural skill and fluency. The CA CCSSM present a balanced approach: teaching both, understanding that each informs the other. Application helps make mathematics relevant to the world and meaningful for students, enabling them to maintain a productive disposition toward the subject so as to stay engaged in their own learning. Throughout this chapter, attention will be paid to the three major instructional shifts (or principles). Readers should keep in mind that many of the standards were developed according to findings from research on student learning (e.g., on students’ [in kindergarten through grade five] understanding of the four operations or on the learning of standard algorithms in grades two through six). The task for teachers, then, is to develop the most effective means for teaching the content of the CA CCSSM to diverse student populations while staying true to the intent of the standards. Standards for Mathematical Practice The Standards for Mathematical Practice (MP) describe expertise that mathematics educators at all levels should seek to develop in their students. These practices rest on important “processes and pro- ficiencies” of longstanding importance in mathematics education. The first of these are the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics process standards of problem solving, reasoning and proof, com- munication, representation, and connections. The second are the strands of mathematical proficiency specified in the National Research Council’s report Adding It Up: adaptive reasoning; strategic compe- Instructional Strategies 3 tence; conceptual understanding (comprehension of mathematical concepts, operations, and relations); procedural fluency (skill in carrying out procedures flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately); and productive disposition, which is the habitual inclination to see mathematics as sensible, useful, and worthwhile, coupled with a belief in diligence and one’s own efficacy (NGA/CCSSO 2010q, 6). Instruction must be designed to incorporate these stan- dards effectively. Teachers should analyze their curricu- Mathematical Practices lum and identify where content and practice standards 1. Make sense of problems and persevere intersect. The grade-level chapters of this framework in solving them. contain some examples where connections between the MP standards and the Standards for Mathematical Con- 2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively. tent are identified. Teachers should be aware that it is 3. Construct viable arguments and critique not possible to address every MP standard in every lesson the reasoning of others. and that, conversely, because the MP standards are them- 4. Model with mathematics. selves interconnected, it would be difficult to address 5. Use appropriate tools strategically. only a single MP standard in a given lesson. 6. Attend to precision. The MP standards establish certain behaviors of math- ematical expertise, sometimes referred to as “habits of 7. Look for and make use of structure. mind” that should be explicitly taught. For example, stu- 8. Look for and express regularity in dents in third grade are not expected to know from the repeated reasoning. outset what a viable argument would look like (MP.3); the teacher and other students set the expectation level by critiquing reasoning presented to the class. The teacher is also responsible for creating a safe atmo- sphere in which students can engage in mathematical discourse that comes with rich tasks. Likewise, students in higher mathematics courses realize that the level of mathematical argument has increased: they use appropriate language and logical connections to construct and explain their arguments and communicate their reasoning clearly and effectively. The teacher serves as the guide in developing these skills. Later in this chapter, mathematical tasks are presented that exemplify the intersection of the mathematical practice and content standards. Critical Areas of Instruction At the beginning of each grade-level chapter in this framework, a brief summary of the Critical Areas of Instruction for the grade at hand is presented. For example, the following summary appears in the chapter on grade five: In grade five, instructional time should focus on three critical areas: (1) developing fluency with addition and subtraction of fractions and developing understanding of the multiplication of fractions and of division of fractions in limited cases (unit fractions divided by whole numbers and whole numbers divided by unit fractions); (2) extending division to two-digit divisors, integrating decimal fractions into the place- value system, developing understanding of operations with decimals to hundredths, and developing fluency with whole-number and decimal operations; and (3) developing understanding of volume (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers [NGA/ CCSSO] 2010l). Students also fluently multiply multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm. The Critical Areas of Instruction should be considered examples of Please see the CA CCSSM expectations of focus, coherence, and rigor for each grade level. publication (CDE 2013a) for The following points refer to the critical areas in grade five: further explanation of these Critical Area (1) refers to students using their understand- Critical Areas for each ing of equivalent fractions and fraction models to develop grade level. The publication fluency with fraction addition and subtraction. Clearly, is available at http://www. this is a major focus of the grade. cde.ca.gov/re/cc/ (accessed September 1, 2015). Critical Area (1) is connected to Critical Area (2), as stu- dents relate their understanding of decimals as fractions to making sense out of rules for multiplying and dividing decimals, illustrating coherence at this grade level. A vertical example (i.e., one that spans grade levels) of coherence is evident by noticing that stu- dents have performed addition and subtraction with fractions with like denominators in grade four and reasoned about equivalent fractions in that grade; they further their understanding to add and subtract all types of fractions in grade five. Finally, there are several examples of rigor in grade five: in Critical Area (1), students apply their understanding of fractions and fraction models; also in Critical Area (1), students develop fluency in calculating sums and differences of fractions; and in Critical Area (3), students solve real-world problems that involve determining volumes. These are just a few examples of focus, coherence, and rigor from the Critical Areas of Instruction in grade five. Critical Areas of Instruction, which should be viewed by teachers as a reference for planning instruction, are listed at the beginning of each grade-level chapter. Additional examples of focus, coher- ence, and rigor appear throughout the grade-level chapters, and each grade-level chapter includes a table that highlights the content emphases at the cluster level for the grade-level standards. The bulk of instructional time should be given to “Major” clusters and the standards that are listed with them. General Instructional Models Teachers are presented with the task of effectively delivering instruction that is aligned with the CA CCSSM and pays attention to the Key Instructional Shifts, the Standards for Mathematical Practice, and the Critical Areas of Instruction at each grade level (i.e., instructional features). This section describes several general instructional models. Each model has particular strengths related to the aforemen- tioned instructional features. Although classroom teachers are ultimately responsible for delivering instruction, research on how students learn in classroom settings can provide useful information to both teachers and developers of instructional resources. Because of the diversity of students in California classrooms and the new demands of the CA CCSSM, a combination of instructional models and strategies will need to be considered to optimize student learning. Cooper (2006, 190) lists four overarching principles of instructional design for students to achieve learning with understanding: 1. Instruction is organized around the solution of meaningful problems. 2. Instruction provides scaffolds for achieving meaningful learning. Instructional Strategies 5  3. Instruction provides opportunities for ongoing assessment, practice with feedback, revision, and reflection. 4. The social arrangements of instruction promote collaboration, distributed expertise, and independent learning. Mercer and Mercer (2005) suggest that instructional models may range from explicit to implicit instruction: Explicit Instruction Interactive Instruction Implicit Instruction Teacher serves as the provider Instruction includes both explicit Teacher facilitates student of knowledge and implicit methods learning by creating situations in which students discover new knowledge and construct their own meanings Much direct teacher assistance Balance between direct and Non-direct teacher assistance non-direct teacher assistance Teacher regulation of learning Shared regulation of learning Student regulation of learning Directed discovery Guided discovery Self-discovery Direct instruction Strategic instruction Self-regulated instruction Task analysis Balance between part-to-whole Unit approach and whole-to-part Behavioral Cognitive/metacognitive Holistic Mercer and Mercer further suggest that the type of instructional models to be used during a lesson will depend on the learning needs of students and the mathematical content presented. For example, ex- plicit instruction models may support practice to mastery, the teaching of skills, and the development of skills and procedural knowledge. On the other hand, implicit models link information to students’ background knowledge, developing conceptual understanding and problem-solving abilities. 5E Model Carr et al. (2009) link the 5E (interactive) model to three stages of mathematics instruction: introduce, investigate, and summarize. As its name implies, this model is based on a recursive cycle of five cogni- tive stages in inquiry-based learning: (a) engage, (b) explore, (c) explain, (d) elaborate, and (e) evaluate. Teachers have a multi-faceted role in this model. As a facilitator, the teacher nurtures creative thinking, problem solving, interaction, communication, and discovery. As a model, the teacher initiates thinking processes, inspires positive attitudes toward learning, motivates, and demonstrates skill-building tech- niques. Finally, as a guide, the teacher helps to bridge language gaps and foster individuality, collabora- tion, and personal growth. The teacher flows in and out of these various roles within each lesson. 6 Instructional Strategies The Three-Phase Model The three-phase (explicit) model represents a highly structured and sequential strategy utilized in direct instruction. It has proved to be effective for teaching information and basic skills during whole- class instruction. In the first phase, the teacher introduces, demonstrates, or explains the new concept or strategy, asks questions, and checks for understanding. The second phase is an intermediate step designed to result in the independent application of the new concept or described strategy. When the teacher is satisfied that the students have mastered the concept or strategy, the third phase is imple- mented: students work independently and receive opportunities for closure. This phase also often serves, in part, as an assessment of the extent to which students understand what they are learning and how they use their knowledge or skills in the larger scheme of mathematics. Singapore Math Singapore math (an interactive instructional approach) emphasizes the development of strong number sense, excellent mental-math skills, and a deep understanding of place value. It is based on Bruner’s (1956) principles, a progression from concrete experience using manipulatives, to a pictorial stage, and finally to the abstract level or algorithm. This sequence gives students a solid understanding of basic mathematical concepts and relationships before they start working at the abstract level. Concepts are taught to mastery, then later revisited but not retaught. The Singapore approach focuses on the devel- opment of students’ problem-solving abilities. There is a strong emphasis on model drawing, a visual approach to solving word problems that helps students organize information and solve problems in a step-by-step manner. For additional information on Singapore math, please visit the National Center for Education Statistics Web site (https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=WWCIRMSSM09 [accessed June 25, 2015]). Concept Attainment Model Concept attainment is an interactive, inductive model of teaching and learning that asks students to categorize ideas or objects according to critical attributes. During the lesson, teachers provide examples and non-examples, and then ask students to (1) develop and test hypotheses about the exemplars, and (2) analyze the thinking processes that were utilized. To illustrate, students may be asked to categorize polygons and non-polygons in a way that is based upon a pre-selected definition. Through concept attainment, the teacher is in control of the lesson by selecting, defining, and analyzing the concept be- forehand and then encouraging student participation through discussion and interaction. This strategy may be used to introduce, strengthen, or review concepts, and as formative assessment (Charles and Senter 2012). The Cooperative Learning Model An important component of the mathematical practice standards is having students work together to solve problems. Students actively engage in providing input and assess their efforts in learning the content. They construct viable arguments, communicate their reasoning, and critique the reasoning of others (MP.3). The role of the teacher is to guide students toward desired learning outcomes. The cooperative learning model is an example of implicit instruction and involves students working either as partners or in mixed-ability groups to complete specific tasks. It assists teachers in addressing the needs of diverse student populations, which are common in California’s classrooms. The teacher pres- ents the group with a problem or a task and sets up the student activities. While the students work to- gether to complete the task, the teacher monitors progress and assists student groups when necessary (Charles and Senter 2012; Burden and Byrd 2010). Cognitively Guided Instruction The cognitively guided (implicit) instruction model calls for the teacher to have students consider different ways to solve a problem. A variety of student-generated strategies are used to solve a partic- ular problem—for example, using plastic cubes to model the problem, counting on fingers, and using knowledge of number facts to figure out the answer. The teacher then asks the students to explain their reasoning process. They share their explanations with the class. The teacher may also ask the students to compare different strategies. Students are expected to explain and justify their strategies and, along with the teacher, take responsibility for deciding whether a strategy that is presented is viable. This instructional model puts more responsibility on the students. Rather than being asked to simply apply a formula to virtually identical mathematics problems, students are challenged to use reasoning that makes sense to them in solving the problem and to find their own solutions. In addition, students are expected to publicly explain and justify their reasoning to their classmates and the teacher. Finally, teachers are required to open their instruction to students’ original ideas and to guide each student according to his or her own developmental level and way of reasoning. Expecting students to solve problems using mathematical reasoning and sense-making and then ex- plain and justify their thinking has a major impact on students’ learning. For example, students who develop their own strategies to solve addition problems are likely to intuitively use the commutative and associative properties of addition in their strategies. When students use their own strategies to solve problems and then justify these strategies, this contributes to a positive disposition toward learn- ing mathematics (Wisconsin Center for Education Research 2007; National Center for Improving Student Learning and Achievement in Mathematics and Science 2000). Problem-Based Learning The MP standards emphasize the importance of making sense of problems and persevering in solving them (MP.1), reasoning abstractly and quantitatively (MP.2), and solving problems that are based upon “everyday life, society, and the workplace” (MP.4). Implicit instruction models, such as problem-based (interactive) learning, project-based learning, and inquiry-based learning, provide students with the time and support to successfully engage in mathematical inquiry by collecting data and testing hypoth- eses. Burden and Byrd (2010) attribute John Dewey’s model of reflective thinking as the basis of the in- structional model: “(a) Identify and clarify a problem; (b) Form hypotheses; (c) Collect data; (d) Analyze and interpret the data to test the hypotheses; and (e) Draw conclusions” (Burden and Byrd 2010, 145). These researchers suggest two approaches for problem-based learning: guided and unguided inquiry. During guided inquiry, the teacher provides the data and then questions the students so that they can arrive at a solution. Through unguided inquiry, students take responsibility for analyzing data and com- ing to conclusions. 8 Instructional Strategies In problem-based learning, students work either individually or in cooperative groups to solve chal- lenging problems with real-world applications. The teacher poses the problem or question, assists when necessary, and monitors progress. Through problem-based activities, “students learn to think for themselves and show resourcefulness and creativity” (Charles and Senter 2012, 125). Martinez (2010, 149) cautions that when students engage in problem solving, they must be allowed to make mistakes: “If teachers want to promote problem solving, they need to create a classroom atmosphere that recog- nizes errors and uncertainties as inevitable accoutrements of problem solving.” Through class discus- sion and feedback, student errors become the basis of furthering understanding and learning (Ashlock 1998). (For additional information, refer to appendix B [Mathematical Modeling].) This is just a sampling of instructional models that have been researched across the globe. Ultimately, teachers and administrators must determine what works best for their student populations. Teachers may find that a combination of several instructional approaches is appropriate. Strategies for Mathematics Instruction As teachers progress through their careers, they develop a repertoire of instructional strategies. This section discusses several instructional strategies for mathematics instruction, but it is certainly not an exhaustive list. Teachers are encouraged to seek other mathematics teachers, professional learning from county offices of education, the California Mathematics Project, other mathematics education professionals, and Internet resources to continue building their repertoire. Discourse in Mathematics Instruction The MP standards call for students to make sense of problems (MP.1), construct viable arguments (MP.3), and model with mathematics (MP.4). Students are expected to communicate their understand- ing of mathematical concepts, receive feedback, and progress to deeper understanding. Ashlock (1998, 66) concludes that when students communicate their mathematical learning through discussions and writing, they are able to “relate the everyday language of their world to math language and to math symbols.” Van de Walle (2007, 86) adds that the process of writing enhances the thinking process by requiring students to collect and organize their ideas. Furthermore, as an assessment tool, student writ- ing “provides a unique window to students’ thoughts and the way a student is thinking about an idea.” Number/Math Talks (Mental Math). Parrish (2010) describes number talks as: classroom conversations around purposefully crafted computation problems that are solved mentally. The problems in a number talk are designed to elicit specific strategies that focus on number relation- ships and number theory. Students are given problems in either a whole- or small-group setting and are expected to mentally solve them accurately, efficiently, and flexibly. By sharing and defending their solutions and strategies, students have the opportunity to collectively reason about numbers while building connections to key conceptual ideas in mathematics. A typical classroom number talk can be conducted in five to fifteen minutes. (Parrish 2010, xviii) During a number talk, the teacher writes a problem on the board and gives students time to solve the problem mentally. Once students have found an answer, they are encouraged to continue finding efficient strategies while others are thinking. They indicate that they have found other approaches by raising another finger for each solution. This quiet form of acknowledgment allows time for students to think, while the process continues to challenge those who already have an answer. When most of the students have indicated they have a solution and a strategy, the teacher calls for answers. All an- swers—correct and incorrect—are recorded on the board for students to consider. Next, the teacher asks a student to defend her answer. The student explains her strategy, and the teacher records the student’s thinking on the board exactly as the student explains it. The teacher serves as the facilitator, questioner, listener, and learner. The teacher then has another student share a different strategy and records his thinking on the board. The teacher is not the ultimate authority, but allows the students to have a “sense of shared authority in determining whether an answer is accurate” (Parrish 2010, 11). Here are a few questions that teachers can ask: How did you solve this problem? How did you get your answer? How is one strategy similar to or different from another strategy? Five Practices for Orchestrating Productive Mathematics Discussions. Smith and Stein (2011) iden- tify five practices that assist teachers in facilitating instruction that advances the mathematical under- standing of the class: Anticipating Monitoring Selecting Sequencing Connecting Organizing and facilitating productive mathematics discussions for the classroom take a great deal of preparation and planning. Prior to giving a task to students, the teacher should anticipate the likely responses that students will have so that they are prepared to facilitate the lesson. Students usually come up with a variety of strategies, but it is helpful if teachers have already anticipated some of the strategies when leading the discussion. The teacher then poses the problem and gives the task to the students. The teacher monitors the responses while students work individually, in pairs, or in small groups. The teacher pays attention to the different strategies that students use. To conduct the “share and summarize” portion of the lesson, the teacher selects a student to present his or her mathematical work and sequences the sharing so that the various strategies are presented in a specific order, to high- light the mathematical goal of the lesson. As the teacher conducts the discussion, he or she deliberately asks questions to connect responses to the key mathematical ideas. Student Engagement Strategies Building a list of robust student engagement strategies is essential for all teachers. When students are engaged in the classroom, they remain focused and on task. Good classroom management and effective teaching and learning result from student engagement. The table below, provided by the Rialto Unified School District, illustrates several student engagement strategies for the mathematics classroom. Student Engagement Description Math Example Strategy Appointment Clock Students partner to make appoint- Students are given a page with a clock ments for discussions or work (a good printed on it. They use the clock to set ap- grouping strategy). pointments with other students to discuss math problems. Carousel-Museum Each group posts sample work on the Each group is given a poster board and Walk wall, and the leader for that group math problem to work on. When all groups stands near the work while the rest of have finished their work, each poster is the group circulates around the room, affixed to the classroom walls. Each leader looking at all the samples. stays close to the poster created by his or her group and explains the work, while the other students walk around the room looking at other groups’ work. Charades Students act out a scenario, individual- Students work in teams to act out word ly or with a team. problems while others try to solve the problems. Clues (Barrier Games) One partner has a picture of informa- Working in pairs, each student commu- tion that the other student does not nicates a different problem to the other have. Sitting back to back or using a student, who has to try to solve the prob- visual barrier, students communicate lem from the information provided by the to complete the task. first student. The students sit with a barrier between them during the activity. Coming to Consensus Sharing their individual ideas, the Each member of the group shares an group comes to a consensus and re- answer to a given problem, the steps used, veals that consensus to the entire class. and so forth. When the group comes to a consensus, they reveal it to the entire class. Explorers and Settlers Assign half the class to be explorers Half of the students are designated as ex- and half to be settlers. Explorers seek plorers who have a math term or problem. a settler to discuss a question. Students The other students are designated as set- may exchange roles and repeat the tlers who have the definitions or answers. process. Explorers seek the settler with the correct answers and discuss the information. Continued on next page Instructional Strategies 11 Student Engagement Description Math Example Strategy Find My Rule Students are given cards and must find Two types of cards are prepared: one with the person who matches their card. a problem and the other with the rule per- One person has a card with a rule, and taining to that problem. Students circulate the other has an example of that rule. throughout the room to match the cards that are connected or related to the rule. This is a great strategy for practicing Once all members of the group have been inductive/deductive reasoning. It also found, group members articulate the rule works well for grouping students ran- and how the group is connected. domly and developing problem-solving skills. Find Your Partner Each student is given a card that Example cards: matches another student’s card in Rectangle: some way. Prime Number: 37 Problem : Solution 16 Polynomial with degree 3: Four Corners Assign each corner of the room a The corners of the room are numbered category related to a topic. Students 2, 3, 4, and 5. Students are divided into write which category they are most four groups, and each group is sent to a interested in, giving reasons, and then corner. The teacher then poses a problem form groups in those corners. whose answer is a multiple of 2, 3, 4, or 5. Students in a corner that is a factor of that The activity could be adapted for number will move to a different corner. If different levels. the teacher calls out 6, students in the cor- ners labeled 2 and 3 will move. The activity ends with a prime-number answer, and students return to their seats. Give One, Get One After brainstorming ideas, students The teacher gives the class a multi-step circulate among other students, giving problem to solve within a specific time lim- one idea and receiving one. Students it. On the “Give one” side of the paper, stu- fold a piece of paper lengthwise to dents name all the steps they know before label the left side “Give one” and the finding a partner. Partner A gives an answer right side “Get one.” to partner B. If partner B has that answer, both students check it off. If partner B does not have the answer, partner B writes it on the “Get one” side. Students repeat the pro- cess with partner B going first. Once both partners have exchanged ideas, they raise their hands, find new partners, and contin- ue until the teacher says to stop. Continued on next page Student Engagement Description Math Example Strategy Inside/Outside Circle Students stand or sit in two concentric Students share information to solve prob- circles, creating partners who face one lems. The teacher (or student) prepares another. The teacher poses a question question cards for each student. The in- to the class, and one partner responds. ner-circle students ask a question from their At a signal, the inner circle or outer card, the outer-circle students answer, and circle rotates, and the conversation then these partners discuss the problem continues. before switching roles. Once both students have asked and answered a question, the in- ner circle rotates clockwise to a new partner. Jigsaw A group of students is assigned a por- “Factoring Jigsaw” is a game in which each tion of text; these students then teach student becomes an expert on a different that portion to the remainder of the concept or procedure in the factoring pro- class. cess and then teaches that concept to other students. KWL A cognitive graphic organizer sets the Math teachers use KWL as a diagnostic tool stage for learning. to determine student readiness, using pre- test questions and a KWL chart. The teacher asks students to identify what they already Know, what they Want to know, and what they need to do to Learn the skill or concept. Line Up Students line up in a particular order Students line up in order by the number (class building) given by the teacher (e.g., alphabetical- given to them: square root, fraction, deci- ly by first name, by birth date, shortest mal, or multiples of a given number. Once to tallest, and so on). in line, they explain how they found their place. This is a good activity for the first day of class. Making a List Two students, using one word or Students receive a multi-step or word phrase, add items to a list. problem and name the steps needed to solve the problem. Continued on next page Student Engagement Description Math Example Strategy Numbered Heads This is a cooperative learning strategy Each group is given a problem to solve. The Together that holds each student accountable student whose number is called explains for learning the material. Students are how the group came up with their answer. placed in groups, and each person is given a number (from one to the maximum number in each group). The teacher poses a question, and students “put their heads together” to figure out the answer. The teacher calls a specific number to respond as spokesperson for the group. With students work- ing together in a group, this strategy ensures that each member knows the answer to problems or questions asked by the teacher. Because no one knows which number will be called, all team members must be prepared. Quiz, Quiz, Trade Using two-sided cards prepared in ad- May be used to help students review math vance by the teacher, students in pairs vocabulary, discuss math facts, or improve quiz each other, trade cards, and then their mental math skills. find another partner. Socratic Seminar A group of students participate in a The teacher presents a distance-versus-time rigorous, thoughtful dialogue, seek- graph and asks students to describe what ing deeper understanding of complex is happening. Alternatively, the teacher ideas. Guidelines and language strate- could present an action with four choices gies are taught and followed during the of graphs that depict the action. Students seminar. choose one of the graphs and explain and defend their choice. Team Share Teams take turns to share their final Students work in teams on different math product. problems. Each team solves its assigned problem cooperatively. The team then has the opportunity to explain its answer with the entire class. Think–Pair–Share After the teacher poses a question, What is the difference between prime num- students are given time to think about bers and composite numbers? their response. The teacher asks Why is it sometimes a good idea to leave an students to pair up in a specific way expression in factored form? (e.g., elbow partners) and share their response only with their partner. This What is special about the number 1? strategy helps students practice and refine their response. Continued on next page  Student Engagement Description Math Example Strategy Think–Write–Pair– This is a variation of think–pair–share. Students are given a word problem to solve. Share Students are asked to think about their First, they are asked to think about what response, write down their response, the problem is asking. Then they are asked pair, and share. This strategy might to write down their idea. Finally, students be used when a more complicated share their idea with a partner. response from students is required. Whiparound The teacher poses a prompt that What are examples of quadrilaterals? has multiple answers. Students write down as many responses as possible. Then the teacher “whips” around the What are some tools you could use to help room, calling on one student at a time. solve this problem? Each student shares one of his or her responses. When called on, students should not repeat a response; they must add something new. Wraparound After students write their ideas about The teacher gives the entire class a problem a topic, each student shares one idea, and then allows time for students to write repeating the statement of the previ- out the steps to solve the problem. Then each ous student. student describes one step in the process. Tools for Mathematics Instruction There are several instructional tools that teachers can use to make mathematics concepts more con- crete for students. A repertoire of tools is especially important in classrooms with English learners or students with disabilities. This section highlights a small number of the tools that teachers can use with their students. (See the Universal Access chapter for more information.) Visual representations. The MP standards suggest that students look for and make use of structure (MP.7), construct viable arguments (MP.3), model with mathematics (MP.4), and use appropriate tools strategically (MP.5). Visual representations can be used to help students achieve proficiency with these standards when used in alignment with the content standards. To develop student understanding, meaningful relationships between mathematical concepts should be highlighted, not taught in isolation. Diagrams, concept maps, graphic organizers, math drawings, and flowcharts can be used to show relationships (Martinez 2010). Visual representations, such as graphic organizers, combine the use of words and phrases with symbols by using arrows to represent relationships (Burden and Byrd 2010). Ashlock (1998) posits that concept maps can be used as an over- view of a lesson to summarize what has been taught and to inform instruction. A concept map is a vi- sual organizer in which students place concepts, ideas, and algorithms in bubbles or boxes and connect the bubbles with lines or arrows and a description of how connected bubbles are related. Ashlock notes that these representations are well suited to depict computational procedures and can be created by teachers as well as by students. Visual representations may also be math drawings (e.g., students draw simple pictures to illustrate a story problem) and charts (e.g., fractions and decimals can be sorted and grouped into categories such as greater than one half, equal to one half, and less than one half). Instructional Strategies 15 Concrete models. The MP standards advocate the use of concrete models (also known as manipula- tives) in order for students to make sense of problems and persevere in solving them (MP.1) and to use appropriate tools strategically (MP.5). Martinez (2010) suggests that learning that utilizes different modes of instruction is necessary to promote both student understanding and recall from long-term memory: “Good teachers know that presenting ideas in a variety of ways can make instruction more effective and more interesting, as well as better able to reach a variety of learners” (Martinez 2010, 229). Concrete models can be utilized to help students learn a wide range of mathematical concepts. For example, students create models to demonstrate the Pythagorean Theorem, they utilize tiles to demonstrate an algebraic expression, and they use base-ten models to demonstrate complex compu- tational procedures. Interactive technology. New teaching applications for tablet computers and laptops are being created continually. Teachers should feel comfortable about using such technology if it is available to them, but they should view teaching applications and software with a discerning eye to be sure that any technol- ogy used in the classroom adheres to the focus, coherence, and rigor of the CCSSM. (See the Technology in the Teaching of Mathematics chapter as well.) A multitude of instructional resources are available for teachers of mathematics. It would not be possi- ble to name them all in this chapter. Teachers are encouraged to seek multiple sources of information and research to build their instructional repertoire. Examples of Tasks and Problems Incorporating the MP Standards The following curricular examples illustrate the types of problems that incorporate the MP standards. The problem below (“Marissa’s Savings”) addresses the grade-two standards 2.OA.1 and 2.MD.8, as well as MP.1, MP.4, MP.5, and MP.6. The problem requires students to count a combination of coins and then demonstrate that they understand subtraction of monetary amounts; they do so by writing a story problem that shows how Marissa spends her money. Marissa’s Savings. Marissa has worked very hard to save money, and now she gets to go to the store. How much money does Marissa have? Write a story problem about how Marissa spends her money. Did she have any money left? This problem demands that students work across a range of mathematical practices. In particular, students practice making sense of problems and persevering in solving them (MP.1) by choosing appro- priate strategies to use. They apply the mathematics they know to solve problems that arise in every- day life (MP.4); utilize available tools, such as concrete models (MP.5); and use mathematically precise vocabulary to communicate their explanations by writing a story problem (MP.6). Understanding Perimeter. The following hands-on activity illustrates the grade-three standard 3.MD.8, as well as MP.1, MP.3, MP.5, and MP.7: Students will solve problems with a fixed area and perimeter and develop an understanding of the concept of perimeter by walking around the room, using rubber bands to represent the perimeter of a plane figure on a geoboard, or tracing around a shape on an in- teractive whiteboard. They find the perimeter of objects, use addition to find perimeters, and recognize the patterns that exist when finding the sum of the lengths and widths of rectangles. Students use geoboards, tiles, and graph paper to find all the possible rectangles that have a given area (e.g., find the rectangles that have an area of 12 square units). Once students have learned to find the perimeter of a rectangle, they record all the possibilities by using dot or graph paper (MP.1); compile the possibilities into an organized list or a table, such as the one shown below (MP.5); and determine whether they have all the possible rectangles (MP.3). The patterns in the table allow the students to identify the factors of 12, connect the results to the commutative property (MP.7), and discuss the dif- ferences in perimeter within the same area (MP.3). This table can also be used to investigate rectangles with the same perimeter. (It is important to include squares in the investigation.) Area (square inches) Length (inches) Width (inches) Perimeter (inches) 12 1 12 26 12 2 6 16 12 3 4 14 12 4 3 14 12 6 2 16 12 12 1 26 Source: Kansas Association of Teachers of Mathematics (KATM) 2012, 3rd Grade Flipbook. After-School Job. This problem addresses the grade-five standard 5.OA.3, as well as MP.1, MP.3, MP.4, MP.5, and MP.6: Leonard needed to earn some money, so he offered to do some extra chores for his mother after school for two weeks. His mother was trying to decide how much to pay him when Leon- ard suggested the following idea: “You could pay me $1.00 every day for the two weeks, or you can pay me 1¢ for the first day, 2¢ for the second day, 4¢ for the third day, and so on, doubling my pay every day.” Which of these two options does Leonard want his mother to choose? Write a letter to Leonard’s mother suggesting the option that she should take. Be sure to include drawings that explain your math- ematical thinking. The problem requires students to generate two numerical patterns using two given rules (“add 1” and “double the sum”), generate terms in the resulting sequences over a 14-day period, and explain why the first option would cost Leonard’s mother much less money. This problem demands that students Instructional Strategies 17 work across a range of mathematical practices. In particular, students practice making sense of prob- lems and persevering in solving them by choosing the strategies to use (MP.1). They make conjectures and build a logical progression through careful analyses (MP.3); apply the mathematics they know to solve problems of interest to them that arise in everyday life (MP.4); utilize available tools, such as con- crete models and calculators (MP.5); and use mathematically precise vocabulary to communicate their explanations through writing and through graphics, such as charts (MP.6). The following problem (“Ms. Olsen’s Sidewalk” [Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium 2011, 111]) addresses the grade-seven standards 7.G.6 and 7.NS.3, the grade-eight standard 8.G.7, and MP stan- dards MP.1, MP.4, and MP.6. In this task, students are given a real-world problem whose solution involves determining the areas of two-dimensional shapes as part of calculating the cost of a sidewalk. Ms. Olsen’s Sidewalk. Ms. Olsen is having a new house built on Ash Road. She is designing a sidewalk from Ash Road to her front door. Ms. Olsen wants the sidewalk to end in the shape of an isosceles trap- ezoid, as shown in this diagram: House 25.0 ft 4.5 ft 7.2 ft 8.5 ft Ash Road The contractor charges a fee of $200 plus $12 per square foot of sidewalk. Based on the diagram, what will the contractor charge Ms. Olsen for her sidewalk? Show your work or explain how you found your answer. A common problem in calculating the area of a trapezoid is the misuse of the length marked 7.2 feet. Students need to make use of this dimension, but they must avoid multiplying in an attempt to find the area of the trapezoid. Once the decision has been made regarding how to best deconstruct the figure, the students need to apply the Pythagorean Theorem to calculate the length of the path connected to the trapezoid. When this has been calculated, the remaining length and area calculations can be undertaken. The final stage of this multi-step problem is to calculate the cost of the paving based on the basic fee of $200 plus $12 per square foot. This task demands that students work across a range of mathematical practices. In particular, they need to make sense of the problem and persevere in solving it (MP.1), analyze the information given, and choose a solution pathway. 18 Instructional Strategies Furthermore, students need to attend to precision (MP.6) in their careful use of units in the cost calcu- lations. In providing a written rationale of their work, both English learners and native speakers may experience linguistic difficulties in formulating their positions. Additional assistance from the teacher may be required. The problem below (“Baseball Jerseys”) comes from the Mathematics Assessment Resource Service (MARS) Web site (http://map.mathshell.org/stds.php [accessed September 1, 2015]). It addresses the grade-seven standards 7.EE.4 and 7.NS.3, the grade-eight standards 8.EE.8 and 8.F.4, and MP standards MP.1, MP.4, and MP.7. Baseball Jerseys. Bill is going to order new jerseys for his baseball team. The jerseys will have the team logo printed on the front. Bill asks two local companies to give him a price for producing the jerseys. The first company, Print It, will charge $21.50 for each jersey. The second company, Top Print, has a setup cost of $70 and then charges $18 for each jersey. Figure out how many jerseys Bill would need to order so that the cost for Top Print would be less than the cost for Print It. Explain your answer. Students may utilize the following approaches to solve this problem: a. Using for the number of jerseys ordered and for the total cost in dollars, write an equation to show the total cost of jerseys from Print It. b. Using to stand for the number of jerseys ordered and for the total cost in dollars, write an equation to show the total cost of jerseys from Top Print. c. Use the two equations from questions (a) and (b) to figure out how many jerseys Bill would need to order so that the total cost for Top Print would be less than the total cost for Print It. This problem considers the costing models of two print companies, and students should be able to produce two equations: and. The third part of this task may be a bit more challenging. Students may construct the inequality and then solve for. This problem also demands that students work across a range of mathematical practices. In particular, students practice making sense of problems and persevering in solving them (MP.1) by choosing what strategies to use. They also look for and make use of structure (MP.7) in that understanding the prop- erties of linear growth leads to a solution for the problem. Finally, students practice modeling (MP.4) as they construct equations. Several Internet resources provide grade-level curricular examples that are aligned with the CA CCSSM (including the MP standards). These include Department of Education Web sites from other states that have adopted the Common Core State Standards. References to these resources can be found through-out this framework. The MARS Web site (http://map.mathshell.org/stds.php) provides a multitude of exercises that focus specifically on the MP standards. Real-World Problems Teachers do not use real-world situations to serve mathematics; they use mathematics to serve and ad- dress real-world situations. Real-world problems provide opportunities for mathematics to be learned and engaged in context. Miller (2011) cautions that when students are assigned the task of performing real-world mathematics, the CA CCSSM do not simply want students to mimic real-world connections; the intent is for students to be able to successfully solve related mathematics problems. Students are already conditioned to do tasks. Even when a task might have strong connections to the real world, it can still be just that: a task to complete. Teachers need to keep this in mind when they ask students to perform real-world mathematics, just as the CA CCSSM suggest (Miller 2011). In “Exploring World Maps,” adapted from the California Mathematics Project (2012), students work toward mastery of standard 6.RP.3, which calls for the use of ratio and rate reasoning to solve real- world and mathematical examples. Students are provided with a world map and are given Mexico’s surface area (750,000 square miles). Then students are asked to use this information and other available tools, such as tracing paper and centimeter grids (MP.5), to estimate areas of several countries and continents. Finally, students are asked to provide short answers to the following questions: a. Which area did you estimate to be larger—Mexico or Alaska? b. Approximately how many times can Greenland fit into Africa? c. Do you feel confident in your estimations? d. What estimation methods did you use? e. Now that you know the actual areas (students are provided with the actual areas prior to an- swering this question), what surprised you the most? f. How does the location of the equator affect how this map is viewed? Once again, teachers should be cognizant of potential linguistic difficulties that may affect English learners and native speakers alike. Schleppegrell (2007) notes that counting, measuring, and other “everyday” ways of doing mathematics draw on everyday language, but that the kind of mathematics that students need to develop through schooling uses language in new ways to serve new functions. It is the teacher’s job to assist all students in acquiring this new language.