Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach PDF

CHAPTER 1 DESIGN ELEMENTS INTRODUCTION This chapter introduces the most basic ideas concerning the ele- ments that make up a visual design. The next chapter will present simple concepts explaining how these elements are org...

CHAPTER 1 DESIGN ELEMENTS INTRODUCTION This chapter introduces the most basic ideas concerning the ele- ments that make up a visual design. The next chapter will present simple concepts explaining how these elements are organized and what types of relationships are established. The goal of these first chapters is to give a general overview of design and how we can use this knowledge to recognize good design, regardless of the technique or medium. The following chapters will focus on the computer and related software as one of many ways to create visual designs. ELEMENTS OF DESIGN Line, shape, negative space, volume, value, color, and texture are the elements of design. These elements, used together or separately to create all visuals, are called the principles of design. To a visual de- signer, the elements of design are the same as notes to a musician or words to a writer. They are the tools used to create their master- pieces. Similarly, design principles can be compared to the rules that apply to composing a musical score or the grammatical structure and rules required for writing a novel. A designer can use the elements and principles of design in many ways, which are discussed in Chapter 2, “Principles of Design.” For now, let’s look at defining each of these elements. 1 2 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Line Lines are the most basic element of design. They are a child’s first visual means of expression and the foundation for most works of art (Figures 1.1 and 1.2). FIGURE 1.1 Child’s drawing. (Monsters © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Oliver Hashimoto.) FIGURE 1.2 Foundation etching and color print. (Sparrow’s Wing and a Prayer © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen.)  Chapter 1 Design Elements 3 Many designers use lines to think through concepts and create preliminary sketches that communicate their ideas quickly (Figures 1.3, 1.4). FIGURE 1.3 Preliminary character studies for a 3D animation. (Illumination © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Jess Ung.) FIGURE 1.4 A preliminary drawing and 3D character models based on this drawing. (Munchin from “After Oz” © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Scott Moore.) The emotional expression and communicative quality of lines are often under- estimated. Lines can be thin and delicate or thick and strong. They are curved and organic or sharp and mechanical (see Figure 1.5). 4 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 1.5 Left: The drawing uses thin and delicate organic lines. (Summer Sunflower © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen.) Right: The design uses thick mechanical lines. (Photography and Digital Art Show Poster © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) A line can define the outside contours of a shape, multiple lines can create value, and repeated lines can produce patterns and textures (Figures 1.5, 1.6, 1.7). FIGURE 1.6 This design uses lines to describe the outside contours of a shape. The petals located in the upper part of the flower, as well as inside the flower, are shapes created by contour lines. In contrast, the lines at the lower part of the petals located by the stem are not exactly contour lines but lines that are placed close together to create the illusion of form. (Tulipomania: Priscilla’s © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen.)  Chapter 1 Design Elements 5 In Figures 1.7 and 1.8, notice how the subtle differences in cross-hatching or use of the direction of the lines creates different visual textures and values. FIGURE 1.7 This print uses lines to describe a variety of patterns. (Kadode © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Koichi Yamamoto.) FIGURE 1.8 A print that uses multiple lines to create value. (Kai no shiro © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Koichi Yamamoto.) Line and Design Line can be defined as having only length or one dimension. There are two types of lines: visual lines and implied lines. The more commonly used visual line is defined as a line that can be seen. Figures 1.1 through 1.8 are examples of visual lines. In mathematical terms, a line is the distance between two points. 6 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach A true 1D line cannot be seen because it has length but no visible width. This type of line is called an implied line. An implied line forms an invisible connection between other elements to form a line. Figure 1.9 gives a few examples of visual and implied lines. The line at the top is a visual line. The line in the middle is an implied line. Notice how the footprints do not touch but seem to connect to form a line. The line at the bottom is an im- plied line using type. Notice how each letter is separate but seems to connect to form a line. FIGURE 1.9 Visual and implied lines. Line Direction One of the most important characteristics of a line is direction. Line direction is the feeling of movement created by the structure and placement of elements in a composition. This feeling of motion, or lack of motion, is based on our experi- ences with gravity. For example, vertical lines suggest stability because when we stand up perfectly straight and well balanced, we feel stable. A soldier standing at attention is a good example. Large buildings surging straight up into the sky also seem well planted and powerful. Figure 1.10 with the vertical line direction dia- grammed on the right is a good example of vertical line direction. The asparagus shows strength and stability. Figure 1.11 is another example of vertical line direction. Although there are other line directions, the vertical lines dominate. Notice how the vertical shapes of the warrior and horse express the feelings of power and stability. The diagonal line direction pointing upward creates action and also adds to the feeling of power. The horizontal line direction is very subtle and not dominant. Horizontal lines may also feel stable, but they can provide a sense of calmness that vertical lines do not have. Think about how landscapes and seascapes stretch- ing out horizontally seem relaxed and soothing. When we are at rest, our bodies are usually horizontal, providing the sense of calm required for sleep. Figure 1.12 shows a horizontal line direction that gives the painting a tranquil feeling.  Chapter 1 Design Elements 7 FIGURE 1.10 Vertical line direction. The diagram at the right helps illustrate line direction. (Asparagus with Goat © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) FIGURE 1.11 The vertical line direction dominates other line directions. The diagram at the right helps illustrate this point. (Young Warrior© 2008. Reprinted with permission from Glen Edwards.) 8 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 1.12 The horizontal line direction is identified more clearly by the right composition. (Chest Deep © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Glen Edwards.) Diagonal lines communicate motion and tension. When you are running or participating in any physical sport, your body is usually angled forward. Likewise, an object that is tilting and about to fall gives you a tense feeling as you anticipate the action. See an example of this in Figure 1.13. FIGURE 1.13 A composition using diagonal line direction to communicate action. The diagonal line direction is identified more clearly by the composition on the right. (Over the Ridge © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Glen Edwards.) Figure 1.14 is a perfect example of how line direction affects the mood and feeling of a design. The design on the left is a painting that has been cropped to show a horizontal line direction. The design on the right is the same painting but left in its original state. Notice how different each composition feels even though the colors and objects are basically the same.  Chapter 1 Design Elements 9 FIGURE 1.14 The composition on the left has a distinct horizontal line direction. The composition on the right is the original painting with an obvious implied vertical line direction. (Squash © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Christopher Terry.) Shape Shape has both length and width and is 2D without mass or depth. When we see an object at a great distance, the first thing we notice is its shape. We do not see specific lines, values, or colors because details at a distance blend together to form a basic shape. From far away, we can only recognize the basic shape of a person. As the person approaches, we will be able to discern gen- der or basic attire because more details will come into focus. Shape is the element that communicates the identity of objects most immediately and directly. We usu- ally do not need to see every line, value, color, or texture to recognize an object. We identify objects by their shapes. The main objective of any successful graphic designer is to communicate visual information in a unique and efficient way. The competition for visual attention in an environment bombarded by images, coupled with the public’s short atten- tion span, makes the understanding and creative use of shapes a necessity because of its ability to communicate visual messages quickly and directly. Shape and Design Shapes can be designed in several different ways. They can be realistic, distorted, stylized, abstract, and nonobjective. 10 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Realism Realism is the way we observe images in nature with all the proportions and dimensions of the natural world. Figure 1.15 is an example of realism. All the ob- jects are represented in a way we would expect to see them without distortion or exaggeration. The object placement is natural and not unusual. The textures and lighting obey the laws of nature and do not seem to be manipulated. FIGURE 1.15 A painting using realism. (Bowl of Oranges © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Christopher Terry.) Realism is used to communicate a visual image accurately to the largest audi- ence possible. Everyone can relate to the images we see in real life. A well-drafted painting or drawing of a mountain can be easily understood as a mountain by almost anybody. Most designs for mass communication use realism to ensure the visual message is understood with little or no doubt. It may not be the most unique or efficient way of using shape, but the images are interpreted with little effort.  Chapter 1 Design Elements 11 Distortion When realistic shapes are manipulated or changed but are still recognizable as natural objects, it is called distortion. Distortion can be used to emphasize or deem- phasize a natural shape to aid in expressing a particular feeling or idea. The legs of an athlete are drawn extremely long to emphasize his ability to run. The head of a person may be painted larger in proportion to the body to portray that the person is really smart or extremely thick headed. Figure 1.16 shows designs that are all examples of distortion. The illustration on the right and the drawing in the center use distortion to emphasize the eating habits of Idaho. The illustration on the left is a watercolor that distorts the lower part of these figures to emphasize their lack of mobility. FIGURE 1.16 Designs that use distortion. (Right: Scenic Idaho © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Marcella Gillenwater. Center: Scenic Idaho Drawing © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Marcella Gillenwater. Left: Old © 2006 Reprinted with permission from Marcella Gillenwater.) Abstraction Another way designers and artists use shape and distortion is through abstraction. Abstraction is the process of reducing natural shapes down to their simplest form. Trademarks and other commercial symbols use abstraction to communicate the maximum amount of visual information delivered through a minimal amount of shapes. Pictographs or information symbols are just one example of how ab- straction is used. Road signs, buttons on a DVD player, and Web site navigation symbols must be simple and read quickly. Trademarks are another example of how abstracted symbols deliver information simply and directly. At a glance, all the aspirations, products, services, and integrity of a company are represented in a single image. Figure 1.17 shows five trademarks (and related type) that commu- nicate using abstracted shapes. Notice how these five simple graphic examples express the essence of what might be very complex objects or ideas. 12 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 1.17 Simple graphics express the essence of objects or ideas. (Top left: Powerplug Logo © 2008. Top right: Angel Moon Spa Logo © 2008. Bottom left: Global Organics Logo © 2008. Bottom right: Keane Optics Logo © 2008. Center: RMI Logo © 2008. All logos are reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) Stylization There are varying degrees of abstraction depending on the amount of visual infor- mation needed to communicate the content of a design. If more realism is needed, and the abstraction is slight, it is called stylization. Many artists and illustrators use stylization to create and establish a unique look to their work. Their simplified images may also be interpreted with less effort, which makes the specific visual message more obvious (see Figure 1.18). FIGURE 1.18 Movie poster concept using stylization to emphasize the dynamics of the city and mysterious futuristic atmosphere. (Future Quest © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.)  Chapter 1 Design Elements 13 Nonobjective When shapes in a design have no recognizable visual representation to anything in nature, they are defined as nonobjective. Figure 1.19 shows two designs that use nonobjective shapes. The design on the left is a digitally enhanced photographic design. The design on the right is a computer-generated virtual 3D model. Even though there are no recognizable objects, nonobjective designs, such as these, are still visually interesting. The types of shapes, their placement, and color relation- ships can be designed to create interest. FIGURE 1.19 Designs that use nonobjective shapes. (Left: The Rapture © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Christopher Gauthier, gauthierphotography.com. Right: Shades of Blue © 2008. Reprinted with the permission of Anson Call.) Because there is no subject matter distracting the viewer, elements and princi- ples of design are isolated and observed clearly. We have to rely on the element or principle itself to begin to understand and appreciate these types of compositions. A successful nonobjective design can still carry emotional content. In fact, the design may be easier to recognize because we are not trying to find meaning in “real” objects or concerning ourselves with how the subjects are being repre- sented or presented. We can simply see the color blue and feel cool, or look at a large shape next to a small shape and sense the contrast. Rectilinear Shapes There are two very different types of shapes, rectilinear and curvilinear. Rectilinear shapes are sharp and angular. They often reflect the characteristics of man-made mechanical objects that are rigid and geometric in nature. Figure 1.20 shows a composition using rectilinear shapes. Around the turn of the century, during the Industrial Revolution, rectilinear shapes were commonly seen in design and in fine art. They reflected the new mechanized world and related social issues that dominated society at that time. 14 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 1.20 The angular and mechanical quality of the shapes gives the feeling of organization and structure, which is typical of designs using rectilinear shapes. (Beamrider © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) Futurism, Constructivism, Cubism, and Art Deco were a few of the art and design movements that were influenced by the new world of mass production and machines. These movements are still very popular and often imitated by contemporary designers involved in every facet of design from graphic design to architecture. The following is a brief description of a few of the historic design styles and art movements that use rectilinear shapes and are still relevant to contemporary design. Cubism (1908–1920): Cubism was developed in Paris and can be described as the breaking up of space and realism into abstract or nonobjective shapes or forms. Cubists created this effect by overlapping or connecting rectilinear shapes. Multiple points of view seen at one time are also char- acteristic of Cubism. Futurism (1909–1919): Futurism began in Italy and was based on the glori- fication of the machine and denunciation of classical art and culture of the past. Aggressive praise of new technology led to violent manifestos. Motion, dynamics, and speed are characteristics of Futurism. Many of the Futurist attitudes and beliefs are the beginnings of the more contemporary punk movement. Figure 1.21 shows a contemporary book design about Futurism.  Chapter 1 Design Elements 15 FIGURE 1.21 This cover, etched on a copper plate, uses typography design influenced by the Futurists. (Futurista © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Holly Craven.) Constructivism (1910–1921): Constructivism in relationship to art is a movement that incorporated minimal, geometric, and orderly nonobjec- tive shapes with an idealistic attitude that tried to find a new approach to art and architecture that could deal with the social and economic prob- lems of the day. The early principles of constructivism began in Russia and were heavily influenced by both the Cubist and Futurist art movements. Constructivism is still used today in industrial, interior, and graphic design. Figure 1.22 shows a few examples of Constructivist influenced designs. The design on the left is a Constructivist influenced trademark. The example on the right is a contemporary title design dealing with Constructivism using typography design from the period. The larger design at the top is the main title. The three designs below are minor titles. FIGURE 1.22 Constructivist influenced designs. (Van Doesburg © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Mike Clayton. Constructivist Titles © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Nancy Wride.) 16 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Art Deco (1920s and 1930s): Geometric simple shapes and streamlined design of machines characterize Art Deco. It began in Europe as an orna- ment and surface decoration style based on the concepts of Art Nouveau. Art Deco gained popularity in the United States in interior design and architecture. The Chrysler Building and Empire State Buildings in New York City are examples. Theaters, restaurants, hotels, ocean liners, furniture, sculpture, clothing, jewelry, and graphic design became heavily influenced by Art Deco. Figure 1.23 shows a few examples of Art Deco. The two fonts on the left reflect the simple geometric shapes characteristic of Art Deco. The package illustration and two trademarks are contemporary examples of the commercial influence of Art Deco. FIGURE 1.23 The commercial influence of Art Deco. (Hypothetical Logo for Mercury Fabrication © 2006, Hill Real Estate Logo © 2006, and Wine Label proposed for Marquee Wines © 2006 are reprinted by permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) Curvilinear Shapes In contrast, shapes that are organic, curved, and round are called curvilinear. They are based on life forms that exist in nature (see Figure 1.24). Art Nouveau and some Psychedelic art of the 1960s are just two examples of art and design move- ments that use curvilinear shapes.  Chapter 1 Design Elements 17 FIGURE 1.24 Curvilinear compositions influenced by Art Nouveau. (Left: Vinegar Label © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto. Right: Visio Communications Holiday Promotions © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) The following is a brief description of design styles and art movements that use curvilinear shapes and are still relevant to contemporary design. Art Nouveau (1880s and 1890s): Art Nouveau is a decorative art style characterized by detailed patterns of curving lines and shapes. The Art Nouveau artists wanted to unify all arts and center them on man and his life. This movement had many names in other countries based on the major artists’ names, magazine titles, or firm names. In France, it was known as Style Guimard; in Germany, Jugendstil; and in Italy, Stile Liberty. Figure 1.25 shows examples influenced by Art Nouveau. The trademark on the left and illustration on the right are contemporary examples of the organic, free-flowing shapes that are characteristic of Art Nouveau. Psychedelic Art (1969–1978): Psychedelia is a style of design influenced by the hippie culture of the 1960s. It borrowed from past art movements such as Art Nouveau, Op Art, and Pop Art. Bright colors, organic shapes, and decorative typefaces are typical of Psychedelic art. Graffiti artists and Gen X designers often use images and designs based on Psychedelic art. (Figure 1.26). 18 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 1.25 Designs influenced by Art Nouveau. (Holiday Promotions © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) FIGURE 1.26 These designs for the Ashbury Pub are contemporary examples of a logo influenced by Psychedelic art and design. (Ashbury Pub © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.)  Chapter 1 Design Elements 19 Many more historic art and design movements contributed to the contempo- rary design of rectilinear and curvilinear shapes. Some of these are Arts and Crafts, Baroque, Bauhaus, De Stijl, Pre-Raphaelites, and Rococo. Negative Space Negative space is the empty area surrounding a positive shape. When designing with recognizable subject matter, identifying positive shape and negative space is easy. The relationship between this shape and space is called figure/ground. The figure is the positive shape, and the background is the negative space. In Figure 1.27, the larger image to the left is the original illustration as it was published. The smaller darkened image at the top right indicates the figure or positive shape. The smaller darkened image at the bottom right indicates the ground or negative space. FIGURE 1.27 Figure/ground. (Green Thumb Olympics © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) When a design is composed of nonobjective shapes, the term figure/ground does not necessarily apply. Any nonobjective shape may be viewed as either a positive shape or a negative space. This becomes important because it emphasizes the fact that as we design positive shapes, we are also designing negative space. 20 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach In some designs, the negative space is confused with the positive shape and vice versa. This technique adds interest to designs and reminds us that negative space is a design element not to be ignored. In Figure 1.28, the example on the left is a painting that combines color and shapes that confuse. Which is the figure? Which is the ground? The example on the upper right is a design where the pos- itive shape and negative space are interchangeable and confused to add interest to a design. The logo on the bottom right purposely uses figure/ground confusion to form the letters e and c. FIGURE 1.28 Figure/ground confusion. (Detail: Hell’s Kitchen d © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Woody Shephard. Zoo Figure Ground Tee-Shirt Illustration © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Bob Winward. Ecology Center © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) To understand negative space fully, the surface boundaries around a design must be defined. This area is called the picture frame. The picture frame will aid in creating and defining those areas that are positive shapes or negative space. Figure 1.29 shows examples of how the picture frame affects these elements. Notice how the absence of a picture frame in the top-left design makes the positive shape feel like part of the entire page. The picture frames in the other examples illustrate the change in negative space and how different formats can affect the entire design. The upper-right design feels much more active because there is less negative space. The lower-left design is more tranquil because of the horizontal line direction and added negative space. The lower-right design is more stoic in nature because of the added vertical negative space and line direction.  Chapter 1 Design Elements 21 FIGURE 1.29 The picture frame affects the entire design. (Beethoven © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) Volume Volume defines 3D visuals that have length, width, and depth. Images of this ele- ment can be represented in 2D in this book; however, realistically, volume must be observed from an assortment of angles and observed in an actual environment. This could be done virtually using a time-based medium such as a CD-ROM, DVD, or video, but because it would be viewed on a monitor, it would still technically be a 2D image. This book deals with volume indirectly and attempts to include 3D examples when discussing the elements and principles. Interior design, archi- tecture, industrial design, and sculpture share the same basic principles of design as 2D shapes. Value Value describes light and dark. It is dependent on light, without which value does not exist. Light permits us to see the contrast of values that make up shape and form. Extreme contrast of values in a design gives a sense of clarity and depth, as shown in the painting on the right in Figure 1.30. Similar values may give a sense of subtlety, as shown in the design on the left in Figure 1.30. 22 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 1.30 Left: Similar values. Right: Extreme contrast of values. (Left: Quaking Aspen © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen. Right: Winter Forest © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen.) Value and Design When values are very light, the term high key is used. Lighter values suggest a brighter, happier mood, as seen in the painting on the left in Figure 1.31. Con- versely, dark values are called low key. They usually feel somber and serious, as seen in the design on the right in Figure 1.31. Value is also used to describe volume in 2D by imitating the way light reveals a form or object. The lightest values are in the direct line of light whereas the darker values are in shadow, as seen in Figure 1.32. This print uses a light source coming from the right to reveal the beehive. The light is so direct and intense that the shaded part of the beehive is lost in the long shadow stretching to the left. There will be more information concerning value and design in Chapter 10, “Design Project 4: Value.” It includes a project that will analyze value as a design element.  Chapter 1 Design Elements 23 FIGURE 1.31 Left: High-key design. Right: Low-key design. (Left: Jacob’s Chair© 2006. Reprinted with permission from Koichi Yamamoto. Right: Sheep Skull © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen.) FIGURE 1.32 Compositions using light to reveal form. (Beehive © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen.) 24 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Color Color is essentially an element of light. If you have ever looked at natural light shining through a prism, you can see how light can be broken down into various colors. A surface that is painted red reflects only the red rays and absorbs the rest of the colored rays. Green paint absorbs all the rays except the green rays, which are reflected. This kind of color produced from reflected light is called subtractive. Color that is made from emitted light, such as a computer monitor, is combined to make that color and is referred to as additive. When discussing color mixing, these two systems are very different from each other. If you combine the primary subtrac- tive colors of yellow, red, and blue, you will get a muddy gray. If you combine the primary additive colors of red, green, and blue, you will get a white light. Many other theories associated with color will be discussed in Chapter 11. Color as a design element will also be included in design projects from Chapters 10, “Design Project 4: Value,” 11, “Design Project 5: Color and Color Theory,” and 12, “Design Project 6: Typeface Design.” Texture Texture is the surface quality of an object. There are two types of texture: tactile and implied. Implied texture is texture that we can see but cannot feel or touch. Technically, it is not texture at all—it is the illusion of texture. Tactile texture is texture we can actually touch and feel. Looking at Figure 1.33, the painting on the left uses implied textures on almost every surface. The actual ceramic jar portrayed by a photograph on the right is an example of tactile texture; however, the photograph itself is an example of implied texture. SUMMARY Now that the elements have been identified, you should be able to point out many examples of these elements in the art and design you observe every day. Look at the type and images in a printed poster, art book, or design magazine. What kind of line direction is being used for the image? What kind of line direction is being used for the layout? What kinds of shapes are being used? Are the shapes examples of realism, nonobjective, distortion, abstraction, or stylization? Are the shapes organic, mechanical, or a mixture of both? Look at examples of trademarks. Are they using abstraction or stylization to communicate the identity of their business? Is the negative shape or space being used as an example of figure/ground to increase the communicative content of their identity?  Chapter 1 Design Elements 25 FIGURE 1.33 Left: Implied texture. Right: Tactile texture. (Left: Offering © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Christopher Terry. Right: Bottle © 2008. Reprinted with permission from J. Daniel Murphy.) Take a closer look at your own photographs or photographs in a book or magazine. What kind of value is being used? Is it high key or low key? Are the values contrasting or similar? Try to find examples of tactile texture and implied texture. Observe the differ- ence. As a visual designer, you should try to increase your observation skills by looking more carefully at images. In many ways, it is like physical exercise. If you practice, it becomes more natural. The more you observe, the broader your visual vocabulary will become. The more images you have in your vocabulary, the more options you will have to create your own original art and design. This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 2 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN INTRODUCTION This chapter is a general overview of the “principles of design.” There have been volumes of books dealing with this subject. The purpose of this book is to summarize and generalize all of this mate- rial. There should be enough content to give the reader a little in- sight into the process of looking at designs and determining why they are interesting or boring. Through observation and making many of your own conclusions, the images in this book should help you begin to understand what makes a design and why you may or may not like or understand it. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN The elements of design refer to “what” are used and the principles of design refer to “how” they are used. The use of each principle is spe- cific to the individual problem to be solved. Once the problem is researched and well defined, the elements can be selected, and the principles can be applied. Design is about making these visual choices. This chapter will concentrate on the many ways that design elements can be used and what to be aware of when creating and analyzing successful design projects. 27 28 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach GESTALT Understanding how the eye and mind work together to perceive and organize vi- suals is an absolute necessity for any designer. The principles of design outlined in this chapter use results from psychological studies based on human perception of visual elements. The most widely accepted study on this subject is included in the Gestalt theory of visual perception. Generally speaking, it states that humans inherently look for order or a relationship between various elements. They ob- serve and analyze individual parts of an image as separate components and have the tendency to group these parts into a larger, greater image that may be very different from the components (see Figure 2.1). The design on the upper left in Figure 2.1 is an example of how similar shapes group themselves to form a diamond. This diamond shape is clearly evident to a viewer and can be seen with little effort on the viewer’s part. The lower-left design is an example of how similar colors, symbols, and letters have grouped themselves to form the American flag. The design on the right is an example of shapes, which are not physically connected, but form a relationship between each other and become a greater shape, different from its parts. FIGURE 2.1 Gestalt theory examples. (Upper left: Gestalt Example © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto. Lower left: Assembly @ 2006. Reprinted with permission from Phillip Kesler. Right: Transcendental Birthday Party © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Brisida Magro.)  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 29 These three examples represent just a few of the many fundamental ideas as- sociated with Gestalt theory. The following sections will explore the relationship between the elements and principles of design using Gestalt theory as evidence of how we naturally organize images. Unity or Harmony Unity expresses the idea that things belong together. Harmony is another word that might be used in place of unity. The idea that we tend to group similar elements visually and try to find the relationships that exist between them is an example of how the design principle of unity is incorporated into the Gestalt theory of visual perception. A design that is void of unity is usually chaotic and uncomfort- able to view. The simple design on the left in Figure 2.2 is an example of unity. Notice how the similarity of shapes and their placement creates unity throughout the entire composition, even though the sizes or the shapes vary. In contrast, the simple design on the right is void of unity. Notice how the lack of unity between shapes causes the composition to feel chaotic. FIGURE 2.2 Left: Unity. Right: Lack of unity. Unity can be accomplished in many different ways, including placement, repetition, and continuation. Each of these principles connected to unity can be applied to any element of design, including line, shape, and value. These ideas will be defined and discussed in the following sections. Unity and color will be discussed in Chapter 11, “Design Project 5: Color and Color Theory.” 30 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Unity and Placement Using Line The placement of elements next to each other is one way to create unity. In creat- ing text for a layout, notice how lines of type are organized to group information that is related. The design on the left in Figure 2.3 is a page from an article that uses the placement of lines of type and surround space to create a relationship between various forms of information. The design on the right emphasizes the shapes and values that are formed by these lines of type. FIGURE 2.3 Lines of type that are organized to group information. The placement of lines or type in relationship to each other can affect the en- tire look of the shape, value, and legibility of a paragraph. The space between each line of type is referred to as leading. The closer the lines of type, or less leading there is, the denser and darker the shape of the paragraph appears. Figure 2.4 illustrates a paragraph with less leading and a paragraph with more leading. Notice the relationship between the lines of type. Can you see the differences in value? Which is easier to read? Placing lines of type flush (vertically lined up to one side) or justified (vertically lined up on both sides) is a way of giving unity to a block of text. Notice in Figure 2.5 how flush and justified arrangements of type give the paragraph unity. Figure 2.5 also shows an example of the same information arranged randomly, which makes the paragraph less readable and more chaotic.  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 31 FIGURE 2.4 A paragraph with more leading (left) and a paragraph with less leading (right). FIGURE 2.5 Type arrangement that is flush to the left, type arrangement that is justified, and a type arrangement that is random. Unity and Placement Using Shape Notice the relationship between the shapes in the Figure 2.6. All of the shapes in the left design are placed far apart and all are too close to the picture frame (out- side boundaries of a design). When shapes are placed closer to the picture frame 32 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach and further away from each other, they will form a strong relationship to the pic- ture frame and a weak relationship to each other. When this happens, the edges of the composition will receive the attention, and the middle feels open and empty. FIGURE 2.6 Unity and placement. Figure 2.7 shows an example of a title set closer together (tight) and an ex- ample of the same title set farther apart (loose). Notice how the example of type set close together creates a fast-paced feeling. Tightly set type is used for ads and billboards that promote products for people “on the go” or that need to be read very quickly. The bottom line of type is an example of the same type set loosely, creating a title that must be read at a slower pace. Elegance and spaciousness are the feelings this type may give to a product name or title. FIGURE 2.7 Type set close together and the same type set loose. This idea may be useful when designing type for titles or headlines. A fast- paced feeling can be achieved by setting type closer together. In contrast, a slower, calmer feeling is created when type is set farther apart. In visual design, distance is equal to time. This means that the larger the distance between elements of a design, the more time it will take for the viewer to recognize the relationship. This creates a feeling that more time is passing by. Titles with type spaced far apart can still feel unified by using letters from the same font and placing the letters on the same line, commonly called a baseline.  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 33 Designs that use shapes placed randomly can seem active and fun. If the visual message is short and simple, these designs can be effective; however, most designs demand a more complex and detailed visual message that needs to be communi- cated very quickly. Creating easy-to-recognize relationships between visuals becomes absolutely necessary. Similar line directions, related shapes, and lining up edges of shapes and lines of type can help in unifying a design. Figures 2.8 and 2.9 illustrate how the same shapes may be organized to created chaos or stability. Looking at Figure 2.8, the shapes in the left design are placed at random and seem chaotic. In the right design, the same shapes are placed together to take ad- vantage of similar line direction and related aspects of the shapes themselves. Notice how the triangle feels less tense when placed with the heavier, more stable side facedown. This occurs because of our relationship to gravity. In Figure 2.9, the left design illustrates how neglecting to establish unity be- tween type and lines of type can make reading a message difficult. The design on the right uses the same type but delivers the visual message quickly and more effectively. FIGURE 2.8 Shapes placed at random (left) and shapes placed with similar line direction and related aspects of the shapes themselves. FIGURE 2.9 Unity between type and lines of type. 34 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Repetition Using Line Repetition is also a characteristic of unity that can be applied to any element of design. The idea is that a part of a design repeats somewhere else in a composi- tion to create unity. Figure 2.10 is an example of how repetition of a line can unify a composition. The simple design on the left is made up of three shapes and one contour line describing the outside of a circle. The shapes seem to feel unified, but the circle seems out of place. The design on the right illustrates how repeating a line similar to the circle can make the entire composition more harmonious. The newly added line is larger to give the design variety and interest that will be discussed later in this chapter. FIGURE 2.10 Example of how repetition of a line can unify a composition. Other examples of repetition and line creating unity are shown in Figure 2.11. These illustrations use a consistent repeated line width in conjunction with shape to create unity. As stated earlier in Chapter 1, direction is a characteristic of lines. Repetition of a common line direction can help relate all parts of a design. Figure 2.12 is an example of how repeating the vertical line directions of primary shapes unifies a design. The design on the left contains shapes that seem unrelated. Through the use of a vertical line direction, the shapes in the right design appear to be more unified. Figure 2.13 is an example of a diagonal line direction unifying all the elements into a harmonic dynamic design. This illustration for an electronics catalog cover shows a diagonal line direction creating unity between all of the circuit board shapes and the racing automobile.  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 35 FIGURE 2.11 Repeated line width creating unity. (Upper left: Safe © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Jordan Leary. Lower left: Medseries4 Coach Logo © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com. Right: Franklin Covey Lifestyles Illustration © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) FIGURE 2.12 Repeated line direction and unity. 36 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 2.13 Diagonal line direction creating unity. (Electronic Race © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) Repetition Using Shape As discussed earlier, there are two different types of shapes: rectilinear and curvi- linear. Designs that consist of the same or similar types of shapes are usually har- monious. Figure 2.14 shows a design with similar rectilinear shapes and a design with similar curvilinear shapes. Both feel very unified. A third design makes use of both shapes in one composition, illustrating the idea that both types of shapes can be present in a unified design. The idea that these shapes are different from each other but can exist in the same design is a good example of balancing unity with variety. FIGURE 2.14 Left: Similar rectilinear shapes. Middle: Curvilinear shapes. Right: Both types of shapes are combined and unified.  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 37 Many designs that emphasize unity usually use either curvilinear or rectilin- ear shapes. The two designs in Figure 2.15 use both types of shapes but allow one or the other to dominate. The focus on the design on the left is mainly on recti- linear shapes. The design on the right uses primarily curvilinear shapes. FIGURE 2.15 Two designs that are curvilinear and rectilinear. (Left: Programming for the Future © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto. Right: Tulipomania: Sorbet Vanitas © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen.) RHYTHM Another design principle closely related to repetition is rhythm. Rhythm creates unity by repeating exact or slightly different elements in a predictable manner. It differs from repetition in the degree of duplication of elements and a feeling of pacing. Rhythm depends on a more exact duplication of elements, as seen in Figure 2.16. In Figure 2.16, the design on the left is an example of a design that uses repetition of shapes, not rhythm. The design on the right is an example of rhythm. Rhythm uses repetition to produce feelings of predictability and pacing. The viewer can anticipate that the following shape in this design will dip lower to duplicate the position of the fourth shape and be equal distance from the fifth shape. There are two other types of rhythm: alternating rhythm and progressive rhythm. In alternating rhythm, two contrasting elements are created. These two elements are repeated over and over, one right after the other. Progressive rhythm relies on a progressive change in a series of elements that are repeated. These elements change from one element to the next in increasing or diminishing size or weight. Figure 2.17 will help define these types of rhythm and illustrate a few concepts associated with them. The first design on the left is an example of alter- nating rhythm. The second design from the left is an example of progressive rhythm. Notice how your eye follows the design downward until it almost leaves 38 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach the picture frame. This is not what a designer wants if the point is to keep the viewer’s interest. The third design from the left solves this problem by creating a shape at the bottom that stops the progressive rhythm. This bottom shape feels unified because it is aligned with another shape located near the top. Notice how your eye is stopped from going out of the picture frame and back up to the top. The design farthest to the right is an example of progressive rhythm that pro- gresses in two different directions. It is also an example of alternating rhythm be- cause of the alternating thick and thin shapes. FIGURE 2.16 Repetition and rhythm. FIGURE 2.17 Rhythm examples. In Figure 2.18, examples of progressive rhythm are exemplified in the snowflake design on the upper left and teepees in the painting on the upper right. Alternating rhythm is used in the design on the lower left and the photo- graph on the lower right. An alternating pattern of pine leaves rotates in a circu- lar pattern around the bright star. In the photograph on the lower right, an alternating pattern of a hay field creates an interesting visual effect.  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 39 FIGURE 2.18 Progressive rhythm and alternating rhythm examples. (Upper left: Holiday Greeting Card Illustration © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com. Upper right: Welcome Visitors © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Glen Edwards. Lower left: Holiday Greeting Card Illustration © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com. Lower right: Hayrolls, Aerial, Minnesota © Reprinted with permission from Patrick Cone Photography.) Unity Using Value Unity can be achieved through the use of repeated values in a design. Through the use of value, unrelated shapes may be designed into a unified composition. Figure 2.19 illustrates an example of how this can be done. The example on the left shows several unrelated shapes. Similar values create unity between these shapes in the middle design. If placement and line direction were also considered, these shapes would have an even greater sense of harmony, as exemplified in the design on the right. Figure 2.20 shows examples of how similar values can be used to create unity. The print on the left uses lighter values that help create the feeling of har- mony between the various elements in the center and dark values around the edge to create interest through contrast. The print on the right uses similar dark values to create unity. The darker values make the design seem heavier. 40 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 2.19 Unrelated shapes, shapes with similar values, and shapes with harmony through placement. FIGURE 2.20 Similar values creating unity. (Left: Sunflower © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen. Right: Bear River Crayfish © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen.)  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 41 Unity and Continuity Another less obvious way to create unity is continuity. Continuity uses the idea that something is carried over or connected to another element. A grid or guides to organize information and images in magazines, books, and Web sites is a com- mon example of how continuity is achieved. Grids are used to make reading and viewing large amounts of material easier by creating a rhythm and consistent structure so the eye and mind do not have to work to adjust to unexpected changes and unorganized information. Figure 2.21 uses vertical and horizontal guides to indicate where visuals and text can be placed. Notice how the repetitious grid is broken by a few images to give the layout interest through variety. If the placement of images is carefully thought out, the continuity of the grid can be broken, but the basic rhythm will still exist. Compare this to a simple piece of music. You can hear a consistent rhythm even though the melody might not always follow every beat. Some notes will be held for more than one count yet the rhythm is not affected. Figure 2.22 is another example of how the rhythmic underlying structure of a layout organizes information and how this information can have variety through the size and placement of written and visual information. FIGURE 2.21 A basic grid structure used for a simple double-page spread layout. 42 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 2.22 Four simple double-page layouts that use a grid structure for unity and varying sizes of images and type for variety. (See Everything: Portraits of a City Reflecting Upon Itself, a photographic essay © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) Continuity can apply to any series of art or design projects. The element or elements that are being carried over can be related to line, line direction, shapes, values, colors, forms, or texture. Figure 2.23 is an example of how the principle of continuity can be observed in the relationship between illustrated images. Continuity is created in similar fashions by the theme, style, color, values, and basic composition. Continuity is also used in establishing corporate identities. Trademarks, product labels, equipment, packaging, business literature, and other promotional and associated material must be consistent to ensure that the identity of a com- pany is reinforced and remembered. Figure 2.24 is an example of how continuity can be used to create a consistent identity for a group of promotional materials. FIGURE 2.23 Continuity using four related storybook illustrations. (What’s Wrong Chuck? © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Scott Wakefield.)  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 43 FIGURE 2.24 These promotional materials support a product’s identity by using the principle of continuity. (Left: Common Knowledge Stationery, Visio Communications Self-promotional Mailer © 2008. Right: Visio Communications © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) Variety When everything is overly structured and unified, the result can be so predictable and repetitive that it becomes boring. Variety introduces interest through contrast. Contrast refers to the differences between elements. Unity attempts to accomplish the opposite by establishing similarity between elements. Although they are very different from each other, unity and variety have two things in common: 1) they can both be applied to any or all elements of design, and 2) most successful designs are composed of a balance between these two principles. Too much variety causes chaos. Too much unity is boring. Find the perfect balance. and you may have created a masterpiece (see Figure 2.25). FIGURE 2.25 Left: Too much variety. Right: Too much unity. 44 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Variety and Line To create variety, line can be used as a contrasting design element. Contrasting thick and thin lines, as well as different line directions, creates interest and adds more variety to overly unified designs. Figure 2.26 is an example of two designs using contrasting lines to create variety. FIGURE 2.26 Two compositions incorporating contrasting widths of lines to create interest. (Untitled © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Koichi Yamamoto.) Figure 2.27 is a composition using contrasting line directions to create variety. Notice how the main line direction is vertical, and the less important elliptical line direction is still very noticeable, but only after we get the overall feeling that this composition feels vertical. FIGURE 2.27 Left: A book cover that shows the hierarchy of contrasting line directions. Right: Inverted image illustrates this point. (Orbit © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.)  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 45 Variety and Visual Weight Shapes may contrast in a variety of ways to create interest. They can vary in size or visual weight. Visual weight is the feeling that a design element is heavy or light, depending on the attention that element is given. This term usually applies to the size of a shape. Large shapes seem heavier than small shapes. Visual weight is most commonly related to visual size, but it can also be ap- plied to the value of a shape. If the value of a shape has little contrast with the background, the visual weight will seem light; the same shape may seem heavier if the values are more contrasted. Figure 2.28 uses simple shapes to make this point obvious. The design on the left shows a large shape that is closer in value to the background, which gives the feeling of less visual weight. The same shape in the design on the right feels heavier because of the contrast in value. The three smaller shapes are used to emphasize and give reference to the large shape’s vi- sual weight in both designs. FIGURE 2.28 Simple designs illustrate how visual weight is influenced by value. Variety and Contrasting Types of Shapes Another way that shape can be used to create variety is to contrast different types of shapes, such as thick and thin shapes, tall and short shapes, rectilinear and curvilinear shapes. The two compositions in Figure 2.29 use a variety of different types of shapes to create interest through contrast. The design on the left of Figure 2.29 creates interest by contrasting the organic shapes of leaves with very simple geometric lines and shapes. In the design at the right, the round shape of the magnifying glass and eye is in distinct contrast to the other surrounding sharp shapes. 46 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 2.29 Variety and contrasting shapes. (Left: Mountain Ash Leaves © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Adrian Van Suchtelen. Right: Visio Communications Bid Pack Illustration © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) If all elements have variety and are different from one another, the result is chaos and disorder. Variety must be used with unity to create a successful design. There must be similarity, harmony, and variety to add interest. It is up to the de- signer to balance these two principles. A design can emphasize unity or variety, but both principles should be present. Figure 2.30 uses simple shapes to illustrate this concept. The design on the left emphasizes unity over variety. All of the shapes are very similar, but there is variation in the size of each shape. The design on the right emphasizes variety over unity. You can see a variety of shapes and sizes unified by placement and repetition of each shape placed throughout the entire design. FIGURE 2.30 A design that emphasizes unity over variety, and a design that emphasizes variety over unity.  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 47 FOCAL POINT AND VISUAL HIERARCHY A focal point is an element that is given emphasis so it will attract attention. It is a way to catch the viewer’s attention and make the viewer look deeper into a design. Contrast is one way to create a focal point by making an element different from its surroundings; however, unity must be part of a focal point to ensure it will still fit into the overall composition. Beginning with the simple design on the left in Figure 2.31 and continuing to the design on the right, a focal point is created using line direction, different types of shapes, contrasting values, and contrasting color. FIGURE 2.31 Focal point created using line direction, different types of shapes, contrasting values, and contrasting color. Another way of creating a focal point is by the positioning of an element. If a shape, value, or color is isolated and positioned away from the majority of the other elements, it will receive more attention and become a focal point. Figure 2.32 is an example of a Web site that creates a focal point using placement, as well as other elements, to create a focal point. The page on the left uses position- ing to separate unrelated information and group related information. Size and value are used to organize this information in terms of importance. The page on the right positions the “pop-up” window in the center and surrounds the light value with darker values, giving this page an obvious focal point. FIGURE 2.32 Two pages from a Web site that show obvious focal points using placement, value, and size variation. (Alison Ragguette © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Jiong Li.) 48 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Many designs have several focal points. These must be organized carefully. They cannot all command attention at the same time. When a design consists of many different areas of emphasis, the concept of hierarchy must be introduced. The idea of visual hierarchy is to organize each area of emphasis so that it does not conflict or take away attention from another area of emphasis. Focal points must be viewed one at a time in stages. One focal point will get the most attention. The viewer’s eye will then move to another subtler focal point and from there to an- other. The careful staging of focal points and areas of emphasis will lead the viewer from one part of a design to the next until the entire design has been viewed in detail. Areas of lesser emphasis are called accents. They keep the viewer’s attention in the subtlest areas of a design. Figure 2.33 illustrates two examples of visual hierarchy. The illustration on the left is composed of three main groups of shapes: 1) The Indian and horse, 2) cabinet and water pitcher, and 3) stand with wheel. The Indian and horse repre- sent the largest group of shapes, and the contrast in color from the background makes it the most obvious place to begin looking at the composition. The cabinet and pitcher would be observed next and then the smaller stand and wheel. Value also plays a part in guiding us from one area to the other. We see the white on the horse first. Then our eye is drawn to the white pitcher, basin, and towel. From there our attention goes to a tiny white shape on the handle that is con- nected to the wheel, which helps our eye continue to the lower left and then up to the whiteness in the sky and over again to the white color of the horse. The illustration on the right is made up of farm animal shapes in a variety of sizes. Starting with the smallest animation in the upper-left corner, our eye travels to the right, and we end up in the right side of the composition with the largest animal. Because of the contrast in value, our eye goes left to the pig. The cool green and blue colors contrasted by the warm browns and oranges help lead our eye back to the smallest animal in the upper-left corner. We can continue to look at the entire illustration again. FIGURE 2.33 Two illustrations that emphasize visual hierarchy. (Left: Left Behind © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Glen Edwards. Right: I Could Chuck You Duck! © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Scott Wakefield.)  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 49 Not all designs have focal points. Generally speaking, the absence of a focal point usually results in the entire composition being seen as a pattern. A pattern is a repetition of a similar or exact element of design. Patterns do not communi- cate individual elements as quickly as a design using visual hierarchy because there are no beginnings or ending points of interest. Figure 2.34 shows four ex- amples of designs that have no focal point. The design on the left is a painting that uses a variety of shapes and lines, but no focal point is evident. The design in the upper right is a repetitive pattern that uses similar shapes. The middle-right and lower-right designs are self-generating designs created through programming software. They are also patterns with no specific focal point. FIGURE 2.34 Compositions with no specific focal point. (Left: Ox Killer Hollow © 2008. Reprinted with permission Woody Shephard. Upper right: Knotwork © 2008, Middle right: Turner Layout © 2008, Lower right: Phoenix Layout © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Jordan Leary.) BALANCE The visual principle that a design is weighted equally is called balance. Visual bal- ance gives a natural feeling that is achieved by distributing weight equally on both sides of a composition. Things that are tipped, leaning, or heavy to one side or the other make us feel uneasy and exemplify imbalance. Figure 2.35 is a diagram of a balanced design and a diagram of an imbalanced design. 50 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 2.35 These two diagrams illustrate balance in the left design and imbalance on the right. When one side of a design is exactly the same as the other side, it is called symmetrical balance. It is also referred to as classical balance because of the historical significance of symmetry in Greek and Roman architecture. Formal is another term given to symmetrical balance. It is based on the fact that symmetrical designs give the feeling of stability and permanence. Figure 2.36 is an example of sym- metrical balance. FIGURE 2.36 A design that is symmetrically balanced. (Illuminated Manuscripts: Cover © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.)  Chapter 2 Principles of Design 51 Balanced designs, which use elements that are very different from each other, are referred to as asymmetrically balanced. The weight of the design is dis- tributed unevenly, but balance is still maintained. Figure 2.37 is an example of asymmetrical balance. These individual double-page spreads are all asymmetri- cally balanced. Continuity and harmony are maintained through the use of a similar grid structure, colors, and theme. FIGURE 2.37 A design that is asymmetrically balanced. (Illuminated Manuscripts: Four double-page spreads © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Patrick Wilkey, www.visiocommunications.com.) Both symmetrical and asymmetrical designs use a fulcrum, or center balancing point, to achieve balance. The fulcrum for symmetry is in the center of a compo- sition. In asymmetry, the fulcrum is shifted to one side or the other to maintain the balance between dissimilar elements. Figure 2.38 shows the location of the fulcrum for a symmetrical design on the left and the location of the fulcrum of an asymmetrical design on the right. FIGURE 2.38 The location of the fulcrum for a symmetrical design (left) and asymmetrical design (right). 52 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Radial balance is another kind of balance. It can be described as balance that radiates out from a central focal point. It can be either symmetrical or asymmet- rical depending on the location of its focal point. This type of balance is com- monly used when a dynamic focal point is required. All of the attention from anywhere in the design will lead back to a single source, as seen in Figure 2.39. Advertising and packaging use radial balance to attract and hold a viewer’s atten- tion in a single spot so that a visual message has time to be delivered. The next time you go grocery shopping, notice how many packages use radial balance to grab and hold your attention. FIGURE 2.39 Left: Asymmetrical radial balance. Right: Symmetrical balance. (Left: Asimov Book Cover © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto. Upper right: Aries © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto. Lower right: Time Package © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) SUMMARY The concepts and ideas associated with Gestalt theories and the principles of de- sign can apply to many different forms of design other than two-dimensional. Take a closer look at a piece of furniture or an example of industrial design, and see if you can identify the harmony and variety in its design. Do any of these ex- amples make use of continuity, repetition, rhythm, or contrast? Are they asym- metrically balanced or symmetrically balanced? The design principles can be found in the organization and design of almost anything. Have you ever organized a party? You assumed that for a successful social function everyone should have something in common. You also knew that if every- one had the same experiences, interests, and hobbies it would get boring. This is an example of balancing harmony with variety. Can you think of any experiences that are good examples of continuity, repetition, rhythm, contrast, and balance? The elements and principles of design are the foundation for every project in this book. These concepts are universal, but the specifics of how they will be used are dependent on the design problem to be solved. The next step and chapter deal with the procedures associated with defining design problems and creating visual solutions using the elements and principles of design. CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO CONTENT AND FORM: PROBLEM SOLVING AND THE DIGITAL PROCESS INTRODUCTION Now that the elements and principles of design have been defined, the next step is to make this information relevant to each individ- ual by solving specific design problems and creating original designs digitally. This chapter will introduce you to the steps involved in conceptualization and give basic information concerning digital tools and their use. To begin, there are two primary concepts dealing with visual design: content and form. Content is the subject matter, concept, or so- lution to a design problem. Form is the actual physical visual created as a final finished object or image. Another concept that is related to both content and form is process. Process is the procedure and steps necessary for the creation of a visual. It can be divided into two very different ideas: conceptual and production. Conceptual process is the “thinking” part of design content. It involves the organization of a series of steps that will lead to the idea and solution to a visual problem. After the conceptual process is completed, the process of production may begin. The production process deals with “doing.” It is the organization and implementation of the steps involved with the physical creation of the visual form. 53 54 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach All the following chapters have been designed to take advantage of these universal and classic design concepts. Each chapter deals with specific design elements and principles. A design project will be presented for you to solve, followed by a tutorial that will help you complete this project digitally. The following section explains the general ideas and procedures associated with each of these concepts as they relate to the seven projects in this book. Each project will be discussed in more detail in the following chapters. INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN PROJECTS The previous two chapters were concerned with the general content that makes up most visual designs. With the exception of color, which will be detailed later in Chapter 11, “Design Project 5: Color and Color Theory,” these chapters covered the basic elements and principles of design that should be evident when design- ing any visual. Each of the following chapters introduces an element or principle that requires you to create an original design following basic rules. Beginning with a simple designed shape using elementary digital techniques and tools, each project builds from the preceding chapter, adding a new design element, principle, digital technique, or tool. The final project uses all the elements and principles to create a very involved design using most of the tools and techniques introduced in each tutorial. The following is a brief description of the seven projects included in this book. You should get a basic idea of how these projects build onto one another to create increasingly more difficult and sophisticated designs. The final form of each of these designs will be a tabloid-size digital print. Design Project 1: The first project is divided into four related but different designs. Each design examines four basic methods of abstraction using a combination of design principles and elements. Each method will have its own chapter and design project (see Chapters 4-8). After the introduction to content and process in these chapters, you will be introduced to some of the basic tools and techniques Adobe Illustrator uses to create simple designs. Design Project 2: Chapter 8 "Using Methods of Abstraction to Create a Logo" reinforces what has been taught in the first project through the process of designing and creating a logo. Exploration of picture frames and the selection of type help in solving this design problem. Design Project 3: Chapter 9 “Figure Abstraction and Nonobjective Shape” is also about shape as a design element subject to the principles of harmony and variety. Stylized figures are abstracted and distorted to demonstrate the principles of continuity, symmetrical balance, and open form versus closed form. More involved digital tools and techniques are also introduced.  Chapter 3 Introduction to Content and Form: Problem Solving and the Digital Process 55 Design Project 4: Value as a design element is the focus of the project in Chapter 10 “Value.” A basic value study of photographic composition is the basis for this project. Examining the basic design of photographs and understanding how to create value digitally are the main topics. Design Project 5: Chapter 11 “Color and Color Theory” combines all the design principles associated with shape and value, but it is expanded to in- clude the element of color. Color theory and color schemes are used to create designs from multiple sources. Digital color and how to mix and apply color are covered in this project. Design Project 6: Chapter 12 “Typeface Design” deals with the relationship among value, shape, letterforms, and type used as text. Text type, as a design element, and its association with pattern and implied texture are empha- sized. More information concerning digital type and how to create and manipulate type are discussed in the tutorials. Design Project 7: In Chapter 13 “Digital Montage/Collage” a collage using photography and illustrated images encompasses the elements that make up this next project. Color, value, shape, and line are used to create a composition that will demonstrate all the principles associated with design. Digital paint programs, tools, and techniques make up most of the tutorials. Another part of this project focuses on implied textures and patterns. Experimentation with the various filters incorporated with paint programs are explored. More involved tools and techniques related to raster imag- ing are the topic of tutorials. CONCEPTUAL PROCESS As mentioned earlier, the conceptual process is the “thinking” part of designing. The following procedures should aid you in this first part of the design process. Step 1: Research and Define the Problem The first step in the conceptual process is to ask questions and gather as much in- formation and research as possible about the design project. After examining all this material, parameters and guidelines are created to make the design problem easier to define. After the problem to be solved is clear, the process of focusing on a solution can begin. 56 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Step 2: Preliminary Solutions, Organized List of Options, and Thumbnail Sketches A single problem may have an infinite number of solutions. These solutions may be narrowed through a process of objective reasoning, close observation, and ed- ucated guessing. You might want to organize options by writing them down in lists, which makes your ideas more concrete and easier to examine and compare. Think about the specific reasons why one design choice may be better than an- other. If there are no specific reasons for that choice, it might not be the best pick. The definition of design is planned organization. If a design is “planned,” then decisions concerning design choices should be clear. After exploring all your preliminary alternatives, give them a visual repre- sentation by creating small, quick sketches called thumbnails. Thumbnails should be concerned with only the most basic information. They should be small and not detailed to allow for the maximum number of ideas in the least amount of time. By quickly getting these visuals onto paper with a pencil or pen, thumbnails allow for more intuitive thinking and make it easier to quickly change direction to explore alternative views and approaches to visual problem solving. Figure 3.1 illustrates how the object of thumbnail sketches is to produce as many ideas as possible and not worry too much about details. FIGURE 3.1 Quickly drawn thumbnail sketches on the left are very crude, but convey the essence of a variety of ideas. The solution to this design project has been narrowed to the two designs on the upper right. Located on the lower right is the final finished solution for a corporate logo. (RELM © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Raymond Earl and Alan Hashimoto.) Chapter 3 Introduction to Content and Form: Problem Solving and the Digital Process 57 Well-executed thumbnails of people should convey simple characteristics and gestures that express the personality and nature of the subject. The sketches should not be too concerned about all the specifics that can be added later. Figure 3.2 shows examples of some selected thumbnail sketches used to visualize char- acters for an animation. These very simple preliminary drawings were created quickly, but they communicate clearly the basic characteristics of each figure or model. Notice the emotional quality of line and how drawing style can vary and reflect the personality of each character even at this preliminary stage. FIGURE 3.2 A variety of quickly-drawn thumbnail character sketches. (Top two rows of thumbnail sketches © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Nathan Tufts. Bottom row of thumbnail sketches © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Jon Pitcher.) You do not need drawing experience to create thumbnails. Simple lines and shapes can represent objects and object placement. Details can be added later using other tools or software. Figure 3.3 is a good example of how simple lines drawn abstractly represent placement of subject matter in an illustration. 58 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 3.3 A thumbnail sketch and the finished illustration it inspired. (Barrel Pond Romance © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) Step 3: Roughs—Refined Preliminary Visual Design Solutions and Alternatives After a decision concerning several design solutions has been reached, these solu- tions should be expanded and refined as roughs. Roughs are preliminary options of a design that communicate in more detail than thumbnails. Roughs are placed side by side so they can be compared, contrasted, and analyzed so that decisions concerning specific design options can be made. In Figure 3.4, the two designs located on the top row and the bottom-left design are examples of three rough alternatives for an advertising campaign dealing with education and the future. The lower-right design is the final design that was selected. Roughs help the designer focus on alternatives without having to commit to a final decisive solution. Roughs should clearly communicate problem-solving concepts, position and proportions of shapes and objects, value and color, and general composition. Experimentation with new methods for creating the final project can be tested and developed at this stage if necessary. Step 4: Composites or Comps Comps are the final preliminary step before the finished design is created. A final concept or concepts should be chosen, and all the elements involved should be put into position. Tools and techniques should have been thoroughly tested and chosen by this point. The comp should be as similar to the final solution as time and resources permit. Chapter 3 Introduction to Content and Form: Problem Solving and the Digital Process 59 FIGURE 3.4 Three rough alternatives and the final design. (The Future of Education © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) Many times, the comp follows the exact techniques of the final design and may even appear to have all the details and refinements of a finished design. The main purpose of a comp is for presentation and discussion of last-minute changes before expensive and time-consuming production begins. Figure 3.5 is an exam- ple of a pencil comp. If a final solution uses a dark background, using light-colored pencils on black board seems to duplicate the effects of the finish more accurately and effi- ciently without spending too much time. The time saved on the production aspect of a comp can be applied to the conceptual phase so more original and alternative ideas can be explored. The color comp at the top of Figure 3.6 was created in two hours. The comp in the lower-left side of Figure 3.6 was drawn in less than an hour. 60 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach FIGURE 3.5 A comp and the finished art created from this comp. (Life Keeper © 2006. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) FIGURE 3.6 Top is a comp and the finished art made from this comp. Bottom left is a comp and the finished art created from this comp. (Marc Aramian, Soundscape © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto. Hierarchy Search © 2003. Reprinted with permission from Alan Hashimoto.) Chapter 3 Introduction to Content and Form: Problem Solving and the Digital Process 61 Step 5: The Final Design or Finish After completing the preliminary steps, final decisions are made. The final or finish is the result, which is the last step in the conceptual process. The production process can now take place. Mass production processes such as printing will use the finish as a guide to compare the actual product or print with the finished design. In animation, textures, models, environments, and sound can now be edited together into the final video or film. The final phase of the conceptual process as it relates to the projects in this book will lead to a 2D design created digitally as a print. The “Production Process” section in this chapter examines the basic concepts of digital hardware and soft- ware necessary for the production part of the process. The various steps involved in the conceptual process may seem time consum- ing, but they are very necessary to ensure that the design problem is thoroughly understood and researched beforehand, and the best solution is selected. In most cases, these steps will save time by avoiding misunderstandings, mistakes, and changes to finished designs. Figure 3.7 illustrates the various steps involved in the conceptual process. The content or visual problem being solved deals with a design for a skateboard. The upper-left design is the rough sketch chosen for the final design. The center-top and lower-left designs are preliminary roughs where line and value solutions are worked out. The lower-center design is the final line and value study. Color decisions and other design elements are combined to cre- ate the final art on the far right. FIGURE 3.7 Rough sketches, line and value studies, and final design. (Grassroots Skateboards © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Dave Smellie.) 62 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach The conceptual process is used for all types of design. Figures 3.8 and 3.9 are two examples of digital dimensional animated designs that use rough sketches, comps, or composite preliminary art, mockettes or clay sculptures, and basic un- textured digital models to analyze the final form and eventually create the finished design. FIGURE 3.8 The sketch on the left shows the back of the figure. The sketch in the middle is the front. The clay mockette is used to study the entire figure in three dimensions. Below is a sequence of frames showing the digital figure engaged in an animated walk cycle. (Tin Man © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Scott Moore.) FIGURE 3.9 The rough sketches on top show various views of the figure. The two rendered models in the center illustrate the figure in a crouched and upright position to test the structure, movement, and how it will be lit. Below is a frame from the animation showing the setting, texture, and lighting. (Razor Back © 2008. Reprinted with permission from Jess Ung and Beau Hacking.)  Chapter 3 Introduction to Content and Form: Problem Solving and the Digital Process 63 PRODUCTION PROCESS The projects in this book are to be created using a computer and related software. The following is an introduction to the most basic digital concepts dealing with the production process. Each chapter will introduce new and increasingly ad- vanced digital production concepts, tools, and techniques. Computer Applications Used in Design Looking back through the history of graphic design, each era had its own unique set of tools. Some had letterpresses, some had drafting tools, and some were designed by collage. Over the past 30 years, computers have become a key component in the world of art and design. For the past few decades, designers have used computers to create digital im- agery. Setting type became easier, color-correcting photographs became simpler, and the user was given a 3D space in which to work. As you know, the operating system of a computer is the environment that manages all the programs or applications and file systems. Two major operating systems are the Microsoft Windows OS (PC) and the Apple Macintosh OS (Mac). Along with the OS, software applications can be installed that allow you to do a variety of tasks. You can use software to surf the Internet, check your email, write papers, listen to music, make a movie, do your taxes, or play video games. Other applications can help you work toward a career as a digital artist and designer. The OSs are coded differently, which allows some operations to be more efficient than others. Different OSs often require a specific version of software. For instance, an application specifically written for Windows cannot be installed on a Macintosh and vice versa. Most major software developers create applications that are available for the PC and the Mac. Software Applications for Graphics Software applications used to create images can be divided into two main categories: paint programs (bitmap) and object-oriented (vector) programs. Each type of software is unique and has its own distinct purpose in creating and modifying visuals. Paint programs, such as Adobe Photoshop, create a variety of bitmap (pixel-based) images, whereas object-oriented programs, such as Adobe Illustrator, create vector (mathematically based) images. For the purposes of this book, the industry standard in software is represented. For bitmap images, the industry standard is Adobe Photoshop, and for vector graphics, the industry standard is Adobe Illustrator. 64 Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach Paint Programs: Bitmap Graphics If you look closely at a painting, you will see that every bit of the canvas is cov- ered with bright hues and tempered shadows. Imagine that canvas in your head and divide the picture into little squares of single colors. Those little squares make up the image. Each of those little squares of color is called a pixel (short for picture element). A bitmap is an image made up of dozens of millions of those little pixels. For example, the ever-lovable “smiley” in Figure 3.10 is made up of 256 pixels (16 rows of 16 pixels) that are easy to see. In Figure 3.11, the pixels are harder to see be- cause there are so many. The more pixels an image contains, the higher the image quality. This is called resolution, or a ratio of pixels per inch. FIGURE 3.10 This smiley is made up of 256 pieces of information or bits. FIGU