Psychology: Basic Psychological Processes & Culture PDF

Lesson 1: Basic Psychological Processes and Culture Introduction Cultural Influence on Psychological Processes: ○ Disagreement exists regarding how much culture impacts basic psychological processes. ○ While basic traits are shared across humanity, cultural contexts shap...

Lesson 1: Basic Psychological Processes and Culture Introduction Cultural Influence on Psychological Processes: ○ Disagreement exists regarding how much culture impacts basic psychological processes. ○ While basic traits are shared across humanity, cultural contexts shape their expression. ○ Culture and environment play roles in shaping how biological and psychological traits are expressed (e.g., diet, parenting). Biological Bases of Psychology Biopsychosocial Model: 1. Recognizes the interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors, especially in disease and illness. 2. Cultural practices (e.g., parenting, early childhood diet) can influence biological composition and brain chemistry. Gene-Environment Interactions: 1. Passive Genotype-Environment Interaction: Parents provide both genes and the environment (e.g., musical ability from both inheritance and musical surroundings). 2. Evocative Genotype-Environment Interaction: Inherited traits evoke certain responses from the environment (e.g., children with musical ability are provided more musical opportunities). 3. Active Genotype-Environment Interaction: Individuals seek environments that support their inherited traits (e.g., a musically talented child joins a choir). Cognition Cultural Views on Intelligence: ○ Western Intelligence: Emphasizes verbal and analytical tasks. ○ Non-Western Intelligence: Intelligence may not be recognized as a single construct; cultural variability exists in how intelligence is viewed. Theories of Intelligence:  ○ Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: Suggests intelligence spans beyond traditional concepts, including areas like musical and spatial intelligence. ○ Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Contextual Intelligence: Ability to solve problems in one’s environment. Experiential Intelligence: Developing new ideas and merging unrelated facts. Componential Intelligence: Abstract thinking and processing. Cognitive Testing and Culture: ○ Standardized intelligence tests often don’t account for cultural differences, leading to bias against non-Western groups. ○ Cognitive ability is culturally patterned, influenced by ecological and social contexts. Cognitive Style (Witkin’s Theory): ○ Field-Independent People: Rely on internal cues; less socially oriented. ○ Field-Dependent People: Rely on external cues from their environment; more socially engaged. Emotion Theories of Emotion: ○ James-Lange Theory: Emotions result from bodily experiences. ○ Cannon-Bard Theory: Stimuli create both emotional and bodily responses simultaneously. Cultural Expression of Emotion: ○ Display Rules: Culturally learned guidelines for when, how, and to what degree emotions should be expressed (e.g., loud grief in some cultures vs. quiet restraint in others). ○ Universal Emotions: Researchers like Ekman found six universal facial expressions (happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, and disgust), later adding contempt. Emotions and Cultural Self-Concept: ○ Western Cultures: Emphasize individualism; emotions like pride and anger are encouraged. ○ Non-Western Cultures: Promote emotions fostering social cohesion, like respect and guilt. Perception Perception and Culture: ○ Perception refers to how sensory experiences are interpreted, and cultural context heavily influences this interpretation. Cultural Influence on Visual Perception: ○ Mueller-Lyer Illusion: Westerners perceive lines with arrowheads differently due to exposure to geometric shapes in daily life, while people from non-Western cultures don’t exhibit this bias. ○ Horizontal-Vertical Illusion and Ponzo Illusion: Cultural exposure to landscapes affects depth perception and spatial relationships. Perception of Beauty: ○ Perceptions of beauty vary greatly by culture, shaped by media, socialization, and cultural standards of attractiveness. Language Language and Culture: ○ Language structures how people view and understand the world (e.g., the use of formal vs. informal pronouns in Spanish reflects social hierarchy). Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity): ○ Suggests that speakers of different languages think differently because of linguistic structure. ○ Being multilingual can enhance cognitive flexibility and verbal/nonverbal intelligence, and even delay age-related cognitive decline. States of Consciousness Cultural Views on Consciousness: ○ Consciousness includes awareness of mental events and varies by culture (e.g., trances, meditation, hypnosis). Dreams Across Cultures: ○ Dreams often reflect cultural beliefs, with different meanings attributed to them (e.g., dreams as folk wisdom or spiritual journeys). Altered States of Consciousness (ASC): ○ Commonly include trances, possession, and meditation used for healing, relaxation, or spiritual purposes. The Science of Happiness Happiness and Culture: ○ Happiness is universally desired, though cultural notions of happiness vary (e.g., individual success vs. family/community well-being). Positive Psychology: ○ Focuses on understanding strengths and virtues that lead to happiness. ○ Six core virtues leading to happiness: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, transcendence. Happiness Determinants: ○ 50% of happiness is determined by genetics, 10% by circumstances, and 40% by intentional activities. Lesson 2: Intercultural Interactions, Acculturation, and Living in a Global World Pluralism, Globalization, and Migration: ○ Globalization, immigration, and emigration are increasing, making intercultural interactions essential. ○ Diverse immigrant populations in countries like Australia, Canada, the US, and the UK serve as examples of cultural exchange. ○ Cities like London and Amsterdam now have more than 150 nationalities, showcasing global migration patterns. ○ The growth of people living outside their birth country rose from 84 million in 1975 to 258 million in 2017, with Asia and Europe hosting the majority. Types of Migration and Acculturation Migration Types: ○ Short-term and long-term migration, forced migration, chain migration, and asylum seeking. ○ Migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers face identity issues and cultural challenges while adjusting to new environments. Acculturation: ○ Psychological acculturation involves the mental and emotional adjustments people make when interacting with new cultures. It’s especially common with immigrants. ○ Immigrants often face challenges like poverty, discrimination, language barriers, and separation from family, leading to stress and personal disorganization. Challenges for Immigrant Families Immigrant Children: ○ Children of immigrants may grow up in linguistically isolated households, becoming translators for their parents, which can strain familial roles. ○ These children often adjust to the new culture more easily than their parents, who may cling to traditions. This creates a cultural divide within families. ○ Emotional and psychological stress from parents can impact immigrant children, leading to anxiety and dislocation. Climate Refugees:  ○ Migration due to climate change is becoming common. Climate refugees face both economic and social challenges before and after displacement. Acculturative Stress and Strategies of Acculturation Acculturative Stress: ○ Stress from adapting to a new culture leads to higher rates of mental health issues, like depression and social dysfunction. ○ Cultural clashes may lead to conflicts within immigrant households, including strict disciplinary practices, which can escalate to abuse. Berry’s Acculturation Strategies: ○ Integration: Maintaining one’s original culture while regularly interacting with the dominant culture. ○ Assimilation: Fully adopting the dominant culture while letting go of one’s original identity. ○ Separation: Maintaining the original culture while avoiding interaction with the dominant culture. ○ Marginalization: Rejecting both the original and dominant cultures, resulting in minimal cultural ties. Research suggests integration is the most preferred strategy, associated with higher life satisfaction and mental health, while marginalization is the least favorable. Managing Acculturation and Psychological Factors Acculturation is a complex process influenced by various factors, such as the migrant’s motivation, political and social environments, and cultural distance between the home and host countries. The success of acculturation often depends on the multicultural policies of the host country. Societies that promote cultural pluralism offer better outcomes for immigrants by providing inclusive services like multicultural healthcare and education. Intercultural Interactions and Cultural Diffusion  Cultural diffusion is the spread and exchange of beliefs, practices, and ideas through migration, trade, and technology. ○ Viral media content shows how easily cultural elements can be shared across borders. Intercultural Challenges: ○ Miscommunication, prejudice, and stereotyping can arise during intercultural interactions due to different values, norms, and worldviews. ○ Immigrants often feel pressure to act as ambassadors for their cultures while experiencing identity conflicts and homesickness. Lesson 3: What it means to be Culturally Competent Demographics & Cultural Diversification in the U.S. Demographic Shifts: Since the 1980s, the U.S. has seen a significant rise in non-White populations, with Hispanic and Asian groups showing the most growth. For example, Hispanic school-age children increased from 16% (2000) to 24% (2013). Future Projections: By 2042, racial minorities will be the majority, and by 2050, non-Hispanic Whites will make up just 46% of the population (currently 66%). The fastest-growing groups are Hispanics (expected to grow to 30% of the population by 2050), Asians (9%), and African Americans (15%). Contributing Factors: Immigration and birthrates have significantly influenced these changes. Recent immigration has been predominantly non-European, particularly from Asia and Central/South America. Minority Youth and Workforce: By 2023, minority children under 18 will form the majority, and by 2039, the majority of working-age Americans will be people of color. Reactions to Demographic Changes Political Backlash: There has been a rise in anti-immigrant sentiment and efforts to repeal affirmative action, often driven by White Americans feeling threatened by increasing diversity. Polarization: Economic difficulties, especially among the White working and middle classes, have intensified racial tensions, with people of color seen as competitors for jobs. White supremacist groups have gained traction. Impact on Helping Professions: The changing demographic necessitates a reconceptualization of services. Bilingual and culturally sensitive professionals are increasingly in demand, as providers will encounter more diverse clients. The Need for Cultural Competence Ethical Imperative: Cultural competence was once seen as an ethical decision by a few but is now becoming a professional necessity across all sectors. Cross-Cultural Skills: As diversity increases, cross-cultural communication and understanding will become essential for maintaining good workplace relations and providing effective services. Professional Requirement: Like computer literacy, cultural competence may soon be a baseline requirement for all professionals. Defining Professional Standards of Cultural Competence The American Counseling Association (ACA) defines multicultural competencies that counselors must develop to serve diverse populations effectively. These competencies are divided into three main areas: 1. Counselor Awareness of Own Cultural Values and Biases Beliefs and Attitudes: Culturally competent counselors are self-aware of their own cultural background and how it shapes their worldview, attitudes, and biases. They recognize discomfort with cultural differences between themselves and clients. Knowledge: They understand their cultural heritage and how it affects their professional perspectives. Acknowledging personal biases, including those related to racism and discrimination, helps counselors improve their practice. They are knowledgeable about how their communication styles impact clients from different backgrounds. Skills: Counselors actively seek education and training to enhance their cultural competence. They recognize their limits, seeking consultation or referring clients to more qualified professionals when necessary. 2. Counselor Awareness of Client's Worldview Attitudes and Beliefs: Culturally competent counselors acknowledge both positive and negative emotional reactions to clients of different racial/ethnic groups and approach differences without judgment. They are aware of stereotypes or preconceived notions they might hold toward minority groups. Knowledge: Understanding a client’s cultural heritage, life experiences, and historical background is essential. Counselors are aware of how race, ethnicity, and cultural background affect personality, vocational choices, psychological disorders, and counseling approaches. Skills:  They continuously educate themselves on the mental health issues affecting different racial/ethnic groups and immerse themselves in diverse communities outside of the counseling environment. 3. Culturally Appropriate Intervention Strategies Attitudes and Beliefs: Culturally skilled counselors respect clients' spiritual and religious beliefs, as well as their help-seeking practices. Bilingualism is valued, and language should not be seen as an impediment to counseling. Knowledge: Counselors must understand how traditional counseling methods may clash with the values of various cultural groups. They need knowledge of family structures, hierarchies, and cultural values across different populations. They must be aware of institutional barriers and discriminatory practices that prevent minorities from using mental health services. Skills: Effective counselors adapt their verbal and non-verbal communication styles to fit the client's cultural context. They are flexible in their counseling methods, ready to modify approaches when they sense cultural misalignment. They can consult with traditional healers or religious leaders when needed, ensuring that language barriers are addressed through translators or referrals to bilingual counselors. They are trained in culturally sensitive assessment tools and actively work to eliminate biases in evaluation and intervention. Lesson 4: Working with Culturally Diverse Clients Cross-Cultural Helping: Overview More Demanding and Emotionally Intensive: Cross-cultural helping requires more emotional involvement from the provider compared to same-culture helping. It can lead to fatigue, as providers face a type of "culture shock" by working in unfamiliar cultural contexts. Malleable Process: The helping process must be continuously adapted to the client’s cultural needs, adjusting techniques, communication, and interventions to be culturally appropriate. Collaborative Effort: Cross-cultural helping depends heavily on client input to ensure culturally appropriate goals and methods. Providers need to understand what the client values and adapt accordingly. Conceptualizing Cross-Cultural Work Four systems shape cross-cultural dynamics between client and provider: 1. Difference: Understanding the psychological effects of cultural differences, including emotional responses like confusion, fear, or guilt. 2. Ethnicity: Ethnicity connects individuals to their historical roots and provides security, but societal attitudes toward different ethnic groups can shape whether this connection is seen as positive or negative. 3. Race: Socially constructed racial differences impact status and power through mechanisms like stereotyping. Institutional racism shapes life opportunities for both White people and people of color. 4. Power: The power dynamic in helping relationships often favors the practitioner, making it important to manage power in a way that doesn't alienate or disempower clients. The Therapist’s Cultural Self-Assessment Example Age and Generational Influences: Consider how age and the era someone grew up in affects their worldview. Ethnic and Racial Identity: Clients’ ethnic identity can influence their cultural perspectives and how they navigate their environment. Gender and National Origin: Gender and national origin shape experiences and expectations, such as societal roles and personal identity. Power Dynamics in Cross-Cultural Helping  Power and Powerlessness: In therapy, power often lies with the helper. Understanding how power impacts the therapeutic relationship is crucial. Practitioners must be aware of how their cultural understanding of power influences their actions. Responses to Powerlessness: Clients may respond to powerlessness through self-development or maladaptive behaviors like manipulating others. Helping clients regain a healthy sense of power is a critical therapeutic goal. Therapeutic Presence Therapeutic Presence: Being "therapeutically present" means fully engaging with clients, respecting their worth, and attuning empathetically to their experiences. This presence enhances the client's sense of safety and leads to better treatment outcomes. Polyvagal System: When clients feel their therapist is fully present, they activate their polyvagal system, which regulates feelings of safety in relationships. Hays’ ADDRESSING Framework Pamela Hays' framework provides essential dimensions to consider when working with culturally diverse clients: Age: Consider generational differences and how they impact perspectives. Developmental Disabilities: Acknowledge how disabilities shape experiences. Religion: Respect clients' spiritual orientations and how these influence worldview. Ethnic and Racial Identity: Understanding ethnic and racial backgrounds is key to cultural competence. Socioeconomic Status: Consider how social class impacts access to resources. Sexual Orientation: Be aware of sexual identity and its influence on the client’s experience. Indigenous Heritage: Recognize connections to indigenous cultures and histories. National Origin: Consider immigration status and the challenges related to acculturation. Gender: Gender identity shapes roles and expectations in different cultures. Assessing Culturally Diverse Clients When working with culturally diverse clients, understanding their background is crucial. Use these questions to start:  1. Place of Birth: Where was the client born? 2. Generations in the U.S.: How long has the client’s family been in the U.S.? 3. Family Structure: What roles do family members hold? 4. Language Fluency: How fluent is the client in English, and what languages do they speak at home? 5. Economic Status: What is the client’s financial situation? 6. Acculturation: How familiar and comfortable is the client with mainstream U.S. culture? 7. Traditions and Religious Beliefs: What cultural or religious traditions do they follow? Culturally Sensitive DSM-5 Diagnosis Cultural Influence on Mental Health: DSM-5 includes cultural considerations in diagnosis through the "Outline for Cultural Formulation." Outline for Cultural Formation: This includes five main areas: 1. Cultural Identity: Understanding the client’s cultural self-definition. 2. Cultural Conceptualization of Distress: How does the client’s culture define their symptoms? 3. Psychosocial Stressors: What cultural stressors and supports exist? 4. Clinician-Client Relationship: What cultural differences could affect the relationship? 5. Overall Assessment: How do cultural factors impact diagnosis and treatment planning? Establishing Rapport in Cross-Cultural Settings Building rapport is critical, especially in the first session: Be Warm and Respectful: Start with mutual introductions, and inquire about proper name pronunciation and preferred titles. Address Cultural Differences Openly: If unfamiliar with a client’s culture, express a genuine desire to learn and ask for clarification. Explain the Helping Process: Ensure clients understand the goals of the sessions, confidentiality, and expectations. Summarize and Clarify: Summarize the client’s concerns and ensure mutual understanding of the issues. Collaborative Goal Setting: Work together to establish culturally appropriate and achievable goals. End with Clear Plans: Finish the session with concrete plans for the next steps, whether it’s another appointment or additional information. Lesson 5: Racism, Prejudice, and White Privilege Defining Racism Racism: A form of prejudice based on preconceived beliefs about race, supported by individuals, institutions, and dominant cultural norms. It is universal, arising wherever ethnic diversity meets social power struggles. In the U.S., racism has systematically subordinated African Americans, Latinos/as, Native Americans, and other people of color. Key Points about Racism: 1. Prejudice vs. Racism: Prejudice refers to unfair, negative views of others, which everyone can hold. However, racism combines prejudice with power, allowing majority groups (White people) to impose systemic disadvantages on people of color. 2. Institutional Racism: Societal institutions give advantages to Whites while restricting access for people of color (e.g., education, employment). 3. Cultural Racism: The belief that one culture is superior to others, often seen in ethnocentrism. Cultural racism also manifests in societal norms, traditions, and practices that favor the dominant group. Why Racism Persists Comfort with Similarity: People feel most comfortable with those like themselves, and this natural tendency contributes to racism. Stereotyping & Generalization: Humans tend to think in simple, categorical ways, which leads to stereotyping. Scapegoating: Frustrations are often displaced onto vulnerable groups, reinforcing racial prejudices. Psychological Theories Behind Racism 1. Self-Regulation Prejudice: People with low prejudice may still have unconscious negative attitudes toward other races, causing an internal conflict between their values and behavior. 2. Frustration-Aggression-Displacement Hypothesis: When people experience frustration, they may displace their anger onto more accessible targets (e.g., minority groups). 3. Authoritarian Personality: A repressive, insecure personality type is more prone to prejudice. These individuals tend to view the world in black-and-white terms and feel threatened by differences.  4. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel): People enhance their self-image by categorizing others into in-groups (those similar to them) and out-groups (those different from them), fostering favoritism toward their own group. 5. Rankism (Fuller): A form of discrimination based on power differences. People in higher ranks assert their status over those in lower ranks, creating a sense of superiority. These theories suggest that individuals maintain racist beliefs because they meet important psychological needs (e.g., feeling superior, belonging to an in-group). Modern Prejudice Modern Racism: Unlike overt racism, modern racism is more subtle and manifests in indirect ways (e.g., avoidance, selective perception). Awareness of Bias: Reducing prejudice requires self-awareness and addressing unconscious biases. Understanding the psychological motivations behind racism is key to overcoming it. Cultural Racism Definition: Cultural racism asserts the superiority of one group’s cultural values over others. It permeates everyday life in societal norms, traditions, and institutions. Examples of Cultural Racism: Holiday Representation: American holidays like Thanksgiving and Christmas reflect European-American culture, with little attention given to non-European cultural celebrations. Personal Traits: Qualities such as independence or assertiveness may be valued differently in different cultures, but the dominant culture imposes its standards. Language: "Standard English" is often expected in U.S. institutions, while other languages are discouraged. Beauty Standards: Ideals for physical appearance (e.g., hair texture, eye color, body size) in the U.S. predominantly reflect White standards. Cultural Icons: Religious and cultural figures (e.g., Jesus, Santa Claus) are often portrayed as White, while negative figures are sometimes depicted as people of color. White Privilege  Definition: White privilege refers to the unearned advantages that White people receive in society due to their race. It manifests in everyday life through access to better resources, opportunities, and treatment compared to people of color. White privilege is often invisible to those who benefit from it but is deeply ingrained in societal structures. Recognizing and addressing White privilege is a crucial part of combating racism.