Asian History Unit 2 Reading Packet 2020 PDF

Asian History Unit 2: Belief Systems Reading Packet  Asian History 9 Unit 2 Key Terms Belief Systems Deity Disciple Faith Founder Orthodox (contrast with heterodox) Parable Piety Pilgrimage Prophet Religion Rit...

Asian History Unit 2: Belief Systems Reading Packet  Asian History 9 Unit 2 Key Terms Belief Systems Deity Disciple Faith Founder Orthodox (contrast with heterodox) Parable Piety Pilgrimage Prophet Religion Rite of Passage Ritual Sacred Secular Scripture Tenet Common Nouns for Religious Sites: Shrine, Synagogue, Mosque, Church, Temple Views on deities: Agnosticism, Animism, Atheism, Monotheism, Polytheism  Belief Systems Along the Silk Road: Confucianism Also known as Kongzi, Master Kong, K'ung-fu-tzu, or K'ung-tzu, "Confucius" (a westernized I version of the Chinese names), lived from 551 to 479 BCE in the province of Lu (modern-day Shandong Province). Though born to humble circumstances, his writings and teaching influenced many people. Confucian influence has continued for hundreds of years to this day. Chinese in the diaspora continue to transmit Confucian philosophy in many other countries of the world, shaping the lives of millions. Basic Tenets of Confucianism 1. Reviewing the past fm guidance: Confucius believed in reviewing the past to "know the new." In particular, Confucius believed in Ii, the ancient court rihmls and etiquette of the early Zhou Dynasty (1050-256 BCE). 2. The five basic Confucian virtues: Confucius believed that humans are intrinsically good and that the only worthwhile goal a human could have is to become as good a person as possible. The five basic Confucian virtues are: benevolence/humanity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness. 3. The importance of education: Confucius believed that the irmate goodness of human nature needs to be nurtured and cultivated, and the best way to do so is through education. 4. Confucian relationships: Confucianism requires not only self-cultivation, but the cultivation of what is around oneself, that is, relationships with other people, beginning with family. The five ! \ most important relationships irl Confucianism are: parent and child; ruler and ruled; husband and wife; elder sibling and young sibling; friend to friend. 5. Belief in hierarchy: Confucius believed m a set hierarchy. In Confucianism, every person has a place m society, and each place in society has a set of norms and behavior that one should follow. People are expected to be respectful of their elders and of people of superior rank or status. 6. Spirituality in Confucianism: Although he believed in spirits, Confucius did not concern himself with issues relating to what mayor may not happen after death. Confucian Texts Confucius taught from five ancient manuscripts, now known as The Five Classics: Book of Poetry, Book of History, Book of Rites, Book of Changes (Yijing, I Ching), and the Spring alld Autumll Amwls. The followers of Confucius continued to study his ideas through The FOllr Books, books that have been acknowledged as the classics of the Confucian tradition. They are: Analects (a compilation of Confucius' teachings), Mellcius, Great Learning, and Doctrille of the Mean. China during Confucius' Lifetime The political and social climate at the time of Confucius was conducive to the spread of his teachings and ideas. Confucius lived durmg a time of great social and political unrest. The Zhou Dynasty was in decline, and its rulers possessed no real power. As a result, Chirla was divided into many feudal states. Warfare among these states was frequent and deadly, causing great disorder and suffering. However, this competition among states also resulted in an environment that was more open to ability rather than background, making Confucius' idea of teaching all who wanted to learn regardless of rank more feasible. Many, including Confucius, were dissatisfied with the turbulent times in which they lived. They discussed the causes and sought solutions to society's problems. 146 ©SPICE  Belief Systems along the Silk Road: Hinduism I I, Hinduism is a religion or philosophy that originated in the Indian subcontinent and its sill'rounding areas from around 3000 to 1000 BeE. Hinduism consists of several schools of thought, and there are many diverse sects and philosophies. Many Hindus worship multiple deities while many others focus on a singular concept of Brahman (God). Basic Tenets of Hinduism 1. Basic beliefs: Dharma (individual ethics, duties, and obligations): According to Hinduism, all beings from plants to humans are subject to eternal Dharma, which is the natural law. Samsara (reincarnation): Hindus believe that there is an eternal cycle of birth, suffering, death, and rebirth. Karma: Hindus believe that actions lead to cause-and-effect relationships. I Moksha.(salvation): Hindus believe there is salvation for evelY soul through a variety of paths. 2. 3. Nature of God: The Vedas, Hindu sacred texts, depict Brahman as the "ultimate reality." Many deities: The Hindu religion also believes in many celestial entities, called Devas. The \ word Devas is sometimes translated as gods, deities, celestial spirits, or angels, none of which is a precise definition. 4. Practice: Hinduism includes a variety of practices, such as spiritual service in devotion, selfless service, knowledge, and meditation through various forms of yoga. 5. Foill' pursuits of life: Hindus believe there ale only four pursuits of life. All others ale extensions. These foill' pursuits of life, roughly translated into English, are pleasure, material wealth, righteousness, and salvation. 6. Four stages of life: Hindus believe that there are ideally four stages of life. These are meditation or study of the Brahman; marriage and raising children; gradual detachment from the material world, spending more time in contemplation of the divine; and finding the divine tlu"Ough detaclunent from worldly life and peacefully preparing for the next life. 7. Four classes of society: Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on profession. These are Brahmins, who are teachers and priests; warriors, kings, and administrators; farmers, merchants, herdsmen, and businesspeople; and servants and laborers. Hindu Sacred Texts The Vedas are among the most ancient, revered, and sacred of the world's scriptures. The four Vedas are regarded as divinely revealed, eternal wisdom. They are the Rig-Veda, Atharva-Veda, Sal1la-Veda, and Yajllr-Veda. The PlIl"al1aS are stories that contain many important Hindu myths about Hindu gods and goddesses ! and the lives of Hindu heroes. They also describe Hindu beliefs about how the world began. The Ramaymza and the Malzabharata are long epics. The Bhagavad Gila is a philosophical work that discusses the meaning and nature of existence. The Mmm Sl1lriti is a basic source of Hindu religious and social law. 140 ©SPICE  Belief Systems along the Silk Road: Buddhism According to Buddhist tradition, Shakyamuni is the founder of Buddhism. He is also sometimes referred to as "Siddhartha Gautama." Shakyamuni was born around 490 BCE to a royal family in the foothills of the Himalayas. At the age of 29, Shakyamuni left the palace on four separate occasions to explore. He became inspired to understand more about life, why human beings suffered, and how one could help relieve suffering in the world. Shakyamuni began his search for enlightenment. According to Buddhist belief, enlightenment is the experience of true reality, an "awakening" through which one could comprehend the true nature of things. He went to a village called Bodh Gaya and the moment of enlightenment took place while he was seated in meditation under a tree. Buddhists believe that in his enlightenment, Shakyamuni gained the power to see his former lives, the power to see death and rebirth of all types, and finally the realization that he had eliminated all his desires and ignorance. He had become a Buddha, a title meaning" awakened one." Basic Tenets of Buddhism 1. The Dharma and reincarnation: Buddhists believe that human beings have the potential to become free from suffering by practicing meditation and cultivating a lifestyle prescribed by the Buddha. His teachings are referred to as the Dharma. Buddhists believe that after human beings die, they are reborn or reincarnated into a new form. The endless cycle of rebirth, called reincarnation, reflects the impermanent nature of human existence. 2. The Four Noble Truths: As part of the Dharma, Buddha taught about the Four Noble Truths. These are: life is suffering; suffering is caused by craving; suffering can have an end; there is no path that leads to the end of suffering. 3. Nitvana: The goal of Buddhism is to become enlightened and reach nilvana. Nirvana is believed to be attainable only with the elimination of all greed, hatred, and ignorance within a person. Nirvana signifies the end of the cycle of death and rebirth. Some Buddhists think of nirvana as a type of heaven; other Buddhists view nirvana as a state of mind free from suffering. 4. How to achieve nitvana: Buddhists believe that the path toward nirvana, called the Middle Way or Eightfold Path, outlines how people should live in order to reach nirvana. The Eightfold Path consists of right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration, right thought, and right understanding. S. Bodhisattvas: Some schools of Buddhism believe that becoming a bodhisattva is a more important goal for individuals than achieving nirvana. A bodhisattva is a being who has attained enlightenment but vows not to enter into final nirvana (attained at the time of an enlightened being's death) until all living beings are released from suffering. Buddhist Texts Over the centuries, Buddhism has spread and changed. There are Buddhist works such as the Pali Canon and the "First Discourse" (Buddha's first speech after gaining enlightenment), as well as many Buddhist scriptures that have provided important continuity to the religion. Buddhism along the Silk Road Buddhism was one of the first belief systems to take advantage of the mobility provided by the Silk Road to extend its reach far beyond its native ground. From its origins in northeastern India, Buddhism spread into the lands that are now Pakistan and Afghanistan by the first century BCE. Buddhist merchants from those areas built temples along the Silk Road; monks spread the faith rapidly. Buddhism arrived in China in the middle of the first centulY CE, and it spread from China to Korea and Japan by the sixth cenhlry. ALONG THE SILK ROAD 143  Belief Systems along the Silk Road: Judaism Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people. It is one of the first recorded monotheistic faiths. A monotheistic religion recognizes a single supernatural being. According to h'aditional Jewish thought, the God who created the world established a covenant with the Jewish people, and revealed his laws and commandments to them in the form of the Torah. The practice of Judaism is devoted to the study and observance of these laws and commandments. Basic Tenets of Judaism Historically, Judaism has considered belief in divine revelation and acceptance of the Torah as its fundamental core belief. A number of statements of Jewish principles have appeared, and though they differ with respect to certain details, they demonsh'ate a common core ideology. One of the statements most widely considered as authoritative is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith. These are: 1. To know the existence of the Creator 2. The unity of God 3. The denial of physicality in cOlmection to God 4. God's antiquity 5. That God, blessed be He, is worthy that we serve Him-to glorify Him, to make known His greatness, and to do His commands 6. Prophecy 7. The prophetic capacity of Moses our Teacher, peace be upon him 8. That the Torah is from heaven 9. The completeness of the Torah 10. That God knows man's actions and does not remove His eye from them 11. That God gives reward to he who does the commandments of the Torah and punishes those that transgress its admonishments and warnings 12. The era of the Messiah 13. Resurrection of the dead Jewish Texts The Tanakh corresponds to the Jewish Scriptures. It is composed of three groups of books: the Torah, the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. The Talmud contains stories, laws, medical knowledge, and debates about moral choices. Judaism along the Silk Road From as far back as 3,000 years ago, it is possible that Jewish merchants and other settlers had spread beyond the borders of the ancient kingdom of Israel and had established their own places of worship in towns and cities along the Silk Road. A Jewish conummity existed in Kaifeng, Henan Province, China, from at least the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279 CE) 01' possibly from the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) until the late nineteenth century. I I ALONG THE SILK ROAD 147  Belief Systems along the Silk Road: Christianity Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus Ciu'ist of Nazareth (a town of northern Israel). A monotheistic religion recognizes a single supernatnral being. Clu'istianity began in the first centnry CE as a Jewish sect and shares many religious beliefs as well as the Hebrew Bible (which Christians call the Old Testament) with Judaism. There are thousands of denominations within Christianity, but these can generally be divided into three main branches: Roman Catholicism, Eastern Clu"istianity, and Protestantism. Basic Tenets of Christianity 1. Monotheism: Christians believe in the existence of a single God who created the universe and has divine power over it. 2. Messiah: Christians identify Jesus as the Messiah, the prophet anointed by God to save humankind. 3. Jesus as God and Man: Most Christians believe that Jesus is "true God and hue man." Jesus is believed to have two distinct natnres: divine and human. 4. Holy Trinity: Most Christians believe that God is one single eternal being who exists as three distinct persons: God the Fathe!; God the Son cresus), and God the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost). 5. Salvation: Most Christians believe that salvation from sin and death can be attained through belief in Jesus as saviO!: 6. Crucifixion and resurrection: Most Christians believe that Jesus died on the Cross, rose from the dead, and ascended to heaven. 7. The afterlife: Christian views of the afterlife generally involve heaven and hell. Christians believe that each person has only one life, and after death, each person will either go to heaven or hell, based on their faith in Jesus Christ and the manner in which they lived their lives. Christian Texts Most Christians regard the Bible, including the Old Testament and New Testament, as the authoritative revelation of God and regard the Gospels, which tell of the life and teachings of I Jesus, as central to their faith. Nestorian Christianity Nestorian Christianity predominated along the Silk Road. This doctrine maintained that Jesus existed as two persons, the man Jesus and the divine son of God, rather than as a unified person. This was at odds with the traditional Ciu'istian church's belief that Jesus existed as a single person. Nestorian Christianity emerged from the teachings of Nestorius in the fifth centnry and spread to Persia, Central Asia, Mongolia, and China. l \1 142 ©SPICE  Belief Systems along the Silk Road: Islam Islam was founded in Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia) in the seventh centUlY. At the time Islam was founded, the city of Mecca (considered the holiest Muslim city), had become one of the most prosperous commercial centers in Arabia. Due to trade and the expansion of the Islamic Empire from the seventh to the thirteenth centuries, the Islamic world spans a vast area: west to east from Morocco and patts of West Africa to Indonesia and north to south from Central Asia to East Africa. The greatest concenh'ation of Muslims live in South and Central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. A Muslim is a person who submits to Allah (the Arabic word for God; the same god whom Jews and Christians worship) and accepts the tenets of Islam. According to Islam, Muhammad is the man who received revelations from God, became God's messenger, and serves as the leader of the Muslim community. Muhammad preached the following principles: 1. God is good and omnipotent. 2. God will judge all men and women on the last day (judgment day) and assign them their place in either heaven 01' hell based on their actions. 3. Human beings should thank God for making the world and should lead a moral life. 4. Human beings should be generous with their wealth. S. Muhammad was a prophet sent by God to teach men and women and to warn them of the last judgment. Basic Tenets of Islam There are five obligations called the Five Pillars of Islam that Muslims must uphold. These are: 1. Slwlwda (the profession of faith): Muslims must testify that there is no god but God [Allah, the Arabic word for "God"], and that Muhammad is God's messenger. 2. Salal (five daily prayers): Muslims are required to pray five times each day-at dawn, noon, mid-aftemoon, sunset, and late evening-in any clean location. The exception is the noon prayer on Friday, the Muslim holy day, when all Muslims must participate in communal prayers in the mosque. Before prayers, Muslims purify themselves by cleaning their faces, hands, arms, and feet. During prayers, Muslims face the direction of Mecca, bow, kneel, recite parts of the Quran, and touch the ground with their foreheads as a gesture of submission to Allah. 3. Zakal (giving to charity): Muslims must give a percentage of their income to benefit the needy. 4. Saw111 (fasting during Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar): All Muslims, except children, the elderly, the sick, and pregnant women, are expected to fast during daylight hours for the entire month of Ramadan, which is followed by a three-day holiday and feast. Fasting is intended to purify the body and soul and strengthen the bonds among Muslims. S. Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca): For all Muslims who are physically and financially able, the pilgri- mage should be completed at least once in a lifetime. EvelY year, Muslims of all ages, genders, professions, races, nationalities, and ethnicities complete the pilgrimage. Islamic Texts Muhammad's followers and scholars compiled his revelations in 6S0 and 651, nearly 20 years after Muhammad's death. The book of Muhammad's revelations is called the Quran. Muslims believe the Quran contains the achlal words of God revealed to Muhammad in Arabic. The Quran is organized into 114 chapters called suras. Suras are chanted at the begimring of each day in Muslim countries all over the world. ALONG THE SILK ROAD 141  LEGACIES OF THE EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTY (CONFUCIANISM) The Eastern Zhou Dynasty is often nicknamed the Hundred Schools of Thought Period because so many new ideas were born during that era. Some of these new ideas became China's most important, influential, and enduring philosophies, ideas, and religions. The dynasty was falling apart; states were constantly at war with one another; rulers were increasingly corrupt-immoral and corrupt; and society was at times very chaotic. People began to question the dishonest purpose of life, debate the role of the government, and discuss ways to improve society. Rulers at that time were very open to new ideas because they were always seeking ways to gain advantage over their enemies. Confucius was a Chinese teacher and philosopher who lived from 551-479 BCE, during the Spring and Autumn Period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. He was born in the state of Lu, located in eastern China. Confucius had humble beginnings. His family ancestors were members of the nobility, but over the years, his family had become quite poor, and Confucius grew up in poverty. His father died when Confucius was only three years old; hence, Confucius was mised by his mother. Confucius was given a good education and proved to be a fast and eager learner. He held a few political offices during his lifetime and was successful in those positions, but he grew frustrated when he realized that his superiors were not interested in his ideas or policies. He left political office and traveled to other states, hoping to find a ruler who would listen to his advice. Instead, he found much that disappointed him. He encountered rulers who, in his view, were greedy, insincere, irresponsible, and selfish.17 He returned horne and committed himself to spreading his ideas through education. The Importance of Education Confucius believed that human nature was innately good, but tllat the good- ness needed to be nurtured through education. Before Confucius' time, only commoner-a member of the children of nobility were entitled to schooling; the children of commoners the general population had no right to education. 18 This changed toward the end of the Spring and exclusive-mtering to a Autumn Period, when Zhou kings had little power and the privileges asso- wealthy clientele ciated with nobility were no longer so exclusive. 19 Confucius was one of the jltllzi-a virtuous first teachers to start private education and to offer education to the poor.20 gentleman; the ultimate goal of Confucianism Important Confucian Ideas virtue-moral excellence and righteousness; Confucius believed that a person's ultimate purpose in life was to become a goodness izl1lzi. or a gentleman. A gentleman was a person who possessed the most valued virtues of Confucianism: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness. Confucius believed that if all people possessed these virtues, society would be harmonious; therefore, a great deal of his teaching focused on this type of moral self-improvement. CHINESE DYNASTIES PART ONE 69  Confucius believed in set hierarchies and a society in which each person has an assigned role with designated rules of behavior. In Confucian terms, these rules of behavior are referred to as rituals or propriety. There were ru1es of behavior for all aspects of life, from government visits to what type of clothing to wear. All of the ru1es were designed sh·ictly according to one's position and rank in society. Confucius celebrated ancient rituals and pro- priety because he believed they were what made previous dynasties great. According to the Confucian hierarchy there are five important relationships that define the types of interaction among people: parent and child; ruler and ruled; husband and wife; older sibling and younger sibling; and friend to friend. In all of these relationships, benevolence, propriety, duty, and responsibility are expected from the superior to the inferior. In return, respect and obedience are expected from the inferior. In a family, the parent is responsible for a child's education and moral upbringing while the child filial piety-the respect obeys and respects his parents according to rules of filial piety. Likewise, in children have for their parents; stems from the a government, rulers shou1d govern with virtue and subjects shou1d obey ancient practice of ancestor their ruler. worship subject--one who is under Confucian Texts the rule of another or Confucius revived and edited five classical texts that he used with his others, especially one who owes allegiance to a students as textbooks. The five texts are the Book of Poetry, Book ofHistDlY, govenunent or ruler Book of Rites, Book of Changes, and the Book ofMusic. In addition, he wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, which he also used with his students. These six texts were originally known as the Six Classics, but today are called the Five Classics, because the Book of Music was eventually lost during the Qin Dynasty, possibly during its massive anti-Confucian book burning campaign.21 Confucius' Legacy In his role as a government official, Confucius did not make a great impact. As a self-made political advisor, he also did not make a great impact because rulers during his lifetime did not accept or use his ideas. But as a teacher, Confucius made an extraordinary impact. His teachings shaped Chinese culture, politics, and ethics for thousands of years and continue to have a great impact not just in China but throughout Asia. 70 ©SPICE  2 Hinduism and Buddhism Develop MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL Almost one-fifth of the world’s reincarnation Siddhartha SYSTEMS The beliefs of the people today practice one of karma Gautama Vedic Age developed into these two religions. Jainism enlightenment Hinduism and Buddhism. nirvana SETTING THE STAGE At first, the Aryans and non-Aryans followed their own forms of religion. Then as the two groups intermingled, the gods and forms of their religions also tended to blend together. This blending resulted in the wor- ship of thousands of gods. Different ways of living and different beliefs made life more complex for both groups. This complexity led some people to question the world and their place in it. They even questioned the enormous wealth and power held by the Brahmin priests. Out of this turmoil, new religious ideas arose that have continued to influence millions of people today. TAKING NOTES Hinduism Evolves Over Centuries Comparing and Contrasting Use a Venn Hinduism is a collection of religious beliefs that developed slowly over a long diagram to compare the period of time. Some aspects of the religion can be traced back to ancient times. beliefs and practices of In a Hindu marriage today, for example, the bride and groom marry in the pres- Buddhism and Hinduism. ence of the sacred fire as they did centuries ago. The faithful recite daily verses from the Vedas. Buddhism only From time to time, scholars have tried to organize the many popular cults, gods, and traditions into one grand system of belief. However, Hinduism— both unlike religions such as Buddhism, Christianity, or Islam—cannot be traced back Hinduism only to one founder with a single set of ideas. Origins and Beliefs Hindus share a common worldview. They see religion as a way of liberating the soul from the illusions, disappointments, and mistakes of everyday existence. Sometime between 750 and 550 B.C., Hindu teachers tried to interpret and explain the hidden meaning of the Vedic hymns. The teachers’ com- ments were later written down and became known as the Upanishads (oo PAHN ih shahdz). The Upanishads are written as dialogues, or discussions, between a student and a teacher. In the course of the dialogues, the two explore how a person can achieve liberation from desires and suffering. This is described as moksha (MOHK shah), a state of perfect understanding of all things. The teacher distin- guishes between atman, the individual soul of a living being, and Brahman, the world soul that contains and unites all atmans. Here is how one teacher explains the unifying spirit of Brahman: 66 Chapter 3  PRIMARY SOURCE Thou art woman, Thou art man, Thou art the lad and the maiden too. Thou art the old man tottering on his staff: Once born thou comest to be, thy face turned every way! A dark-blue moth art Thou, green [parrot] with red eyes. Pregnant with lightning—seasons, seas: Thyself beginningless, all things dost Thou pervade. From Thee all worlds were born. Svetasvatara Upanishad. IV. 3–4 When a person understands the relationship between atman and Brahman, that person achieves perfect understanding (moksha) and a release from life in this world. This understanding does not usually come in one lifetime. By the process of reincarnation (rebirth), an individual soul or spirit is born again and again until moksha is achieved. A soul’s karma—good or bad deeds—follows from one rein- carnation to another. Karma influences specific life circumstances, such as the caste one is born into, one’s state of health, wealth or poverty, and so on. Hinduism Changes and Develops Hinduism has gone through many changes over the last 2,500 years. The world soul, Brahman, was sometimes seen as having the personalities of three gods: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the protector; and Shiva, the destroyer. Vishnu also took on many forms or personalities, for exam- ple, as Krishna, the divine cowherder, and as Rama, the perfect king. Over the cen- turies, Brahma gradually faded into the background, while the many forms of Devi, a great Mother Goddess, grew in importance. Hindus today are free to choose the deity they worship or to choose none at all. Making Most, however, follow a family tradition that may go back centuries. They are also Inferences free to choose among three different paths for achieving moksha. These are the How might the path of right thinking, the path of right action, or the path of religious devotion. lack of a single Hinduism and Society Hindu ideas about karma and reincarnation strengthened founder result in ▼ Vishnu grew to Hinduism changing the caste system. If a person was born as an upper-caste male—a Brahmin, warrior, become a major more over time or merchant—his good fortune was said to come from good karma earned in a for- Hindu god. He is than other mer life. However, a person who was born as a female, a laborer, or an untouchable seen here as the religions? might be getting the results of bad deeds in a former life. With some exceptions, whole Universe in only men of the top three varnas could hope to achieve moksha in their present life. all its variety. He is blue, the color The laws of karma worked with the same certainty as the world’s other natural laws. of infinity. Good karma brought good fortune and bad karma resulted in bad fortune. Together, the beliefs of Hinduism and its caste structure dominated every aspect of a person’s life. These beliefs determined what one could eat and the way in which one ate it, personal cleanliness, the people one could associate with, how one dressed, and so on. Today, even in the most ordi- nary activities of daily life, Hindus turn to their religion for guidance. New Religions Arise The same period of speculation reflected in the Upanishads also led to the rise of two other religions: Jainism (JY nihz uhm) and Buddhism. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, was born about 599 B.C. and died in 527 B.C. Mahavira believed that everything in the universe has a soul and so should not be People and Ideas on the Move 67  harmed. Jain monks carry the doctrine of nonviolence to its logical conclusion. They sweep ants off their path and wear gauze masks over their mouths to avoid breathing in an insect accidentally. In keeping with this nonviolence, followers of Jainism looked for occupations that would not harm any creature. So they have a Synthesizing tradition of working in trade and commerce. How far might Because of their business activities, Jains today make up one of the wealthiest the Jain respect for communities in India. Jains have traditionally preached tolerance of all religions. life extend? As a result, they have made few efforts to convert followers of other faiths. Because of this tolerance, Jains have not sent out missionaries. So, almost all of the nearly five million Jains in the world today live in India. The Buddha Seeks Enlightenment Buddhism developed out of the same period of religious questioning that shaped modern Hinduism and Jainism. The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama (sihd DAHR tuh GOW tuh muh), was born into a noble family that lived in Kapilavastu, in the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal. According to Buddhist leg- end, the baby exhibited the marks of a great man. A prophecy indicated that if the child stayed at home he was destined to become a world ruler. If the child left home, however, he would become a universal spiritual leader. To make sure the boy would be a great king and world ruler, his father isolated him in his palace. Separated from the world, Siddhartha married and had a son. Siddhartha’s Quest Siddhartha never ceased thinking about the world that lay outside, which he had never seen. When he was 29, he ventured outside the palace four times. First he saw an old man, next a sick man, then a corpse, and finally a wandering holy man who seemed at peace with himself. Siddhartha understood these events to mean that every living thing experiences old age, sick- ness, and death and that only a religious life offers a refuge from this inevitable suffering. Siddhartha decided Siddhartha Gautama to spend his life searching for religious truth and an end c. 563–483 B.C. to life’s suffering. So, soon after learning of his son’s According to Buddhist tradition, birth, he left the palace. Siddhartha Gautama’s mother had Siddhartha wandered through the forests of India for six dreamt of a beautiful elephant that years seeking enlightenment, or wisdom. He tried many was bright as silver. When asked to ways of reaching an enlightened state. He first debated with Vocabulary interpret the dream, Brahmin priests declared that the child to be born other religious seekers. Then he fasted, eating only six fasted: ate very would either be a great monarch or a grains of rice a day. Yet none of these methods brought him little. Buddha (an enlightened one). to the truth, and he continued to suffer. Finally, he sat in Tradition also relates that at meditation under a large fig tree. After 49 days of medita- Gautama’s birth, he exhibited the tion, he achieved an understanding of the cause of suffering signs of a child destined for greatness. There were 32 such signs, in this world. From then on, he was known as the Buddha, including golden-tinged skin, webbed meaning “the enlightened one.” fingers and toes, a knob on the top Origins and Beliefs The Buddha preached his first sermon of his skull, a long tongue, a tuft of to five companions who had accompanied him on his wan- hair between his eyebrows, and a derings. That first sermon became a landmark in the history thousand-spoked wheel on each foot. Some images of the Buddha of the world’s religions. In it, he laid out the four main ideas display these traits. that he had come to understand in his enlightenment. He called those ideas the Four Noble Truths: 68 Chapter 3  The Four Noble Truths First Noble Truth Life is filled with suffering and sorrow. Second Noble Truth The cause of all suffering is people’s selfish desire for the temporary pleasures of this world. Third Noble Truth The way to end all suffering is to end all desires. Fourth Noble Truth The way to overcome such desires and attain enlightenment is to follow the Eightfold Path, which is called the Middle Way between desires and self-denial. The Eightfold Path, a guide to behavior, was like a staircase. For the Buddha, those who were seeking enlightenment had to master one step at a time. Most often, this mastery would occur over many lifetimes. Here is how he described the Middle Way and its Eightfold Path: PRIMARY SOURCE What is the Middle Way?... It is the Noble Eightfold Path—Right Views, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. This is the Middle Way. BUDDHA, from Samyutta Nikaya By following the Eightfold Path, anyone could reach nirvana, the Buddha’s word for release from selfishness and pain. As in Hinduism, the Buddha accepted the idea of reincarnation. He also accepted a cyclical, or repetitive, view of history, where the world is created and destroyed over and over again. However, the Buddha rejected the many gods of Hinduism. Instead, he taught a way of enlightenment. Like many of his time, the Buddha reacted against the privileges of the Brahmin priests, and thus he rejected Comparing In what ways the caste system. The final goals of both religions—moksha for Hindus and nir- are Buddhism and vana for Buddhists—are similar. Both involve a perfect state of understanding and Hinduism similar? a break from the chain of reincarnations. ▼ Buddhist tradition says that just before he died, the Buddha lay on his right side between two trees. This reclining Buddha is made of bronze. 69 ▲ Buddhist monks view a temple at The Religious Community The five disciples who heard the Buddha’s first ser- Angkor Wat in mon were the first monks admitted to the sangha, or Buddhist religious order. At Cambodia. first, the sangha was a community of Buddhist monks and nuns. However, sangha eventually referred to the entire religious community. It included Buddhist laity (those who hadn’t devoted their entire life to religion). The religious community, together with the Buddha and the dharma (Buddhist doctrine or teachings), make up the “Three Jewels” of Buddhism. Buddhism and Society Because of his rejection of the caste system, many of the Buddha’s early followers included laborers and craftspeople. He also gained a large following in northeast India, where the Aryans had less influence. The Buddha reluctantly admitted women to religious orders. He feared, however, that women’s presence would distract men from their religious duties. Monks and nuns took vows (solemn promises) to live a life of poverty, to be nonviolent, and not to marry. They wandered throughout India spreading the Buddha’s teachings. Missionaries carried only a begging bowl to receive daily charity offerings from people. During the rainy season, they retreated to caves high up in the hillsides. Gradually, these seasonal retreats became permanent monaster- ies—some for men, others for women. One monastery, Nalanda, developed into a great university that also attracted non-Buddhists. The teachings of the Buddha were written down shortly after his death. Buddhist sacred literature also includes commentaries, rules about monastic life, manuals on how to meditate, and legends about the Buddha’s previous reincarnations (the Jatakas). This sacred literature was first written down in the first century B.C. Buddhism in India During the centuries following the Buddha’s death, mission- aries were able to spread his faith over large parts of Asia. Buddhist missionaries went to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia in the third century B.C. Buddhist ideas also traveled along Central Asian trade routes to China. However, Buddhism never gained a significant foothold in India, the country of its origin. Several theories exist about Buddhism’s gradual disappearance in India. One theory states that 70 Chapter 3  Hinduism simply absorbed Buddhism. The two religions constantly influenced each other. Over time, the Buddha came to be identified by Hindus as one of the ten incarna- Buddhism in the West tions (reappearances on earth) of the god Vishnu. Hindus, Throughout the 20th century, large therefore, felt no need to convert to Buddhism. numbers of Asians have immigrated to Vocabulary Nonetheless, despite the small number of Buddhists in the West, particularly to North pilgrimages: travels India, the region has always been an important place of pil- America. Many of them brought to holy places. grimages for Buddhists. Today, as they have for centuries, Buddhism with them. Today, Buddhist Buddhist pilgrims flock to visit spots associated with the temples are a common feature of Buddha’s life. These sites include his birthplace at many large cities in the West. Since the 1950s, many non-Asians Kapilavastu, the fig tree near Gaya, and the site of his first who were dissatisfied with the sermon near Varanasi. Buddhists also visit the stupas, or religions of the West have turned to sacred mounds, that are said to contain his relics. The pil- Buddhism for insight into life’s grims circle around the sacred object or sanctuary, moving in meaning. Today, Buddhism can claim a clockwise direction. They also lie face down on the ground about one million Asian and non- Asian believers in North America. as a sign of humility and leave flowers. These three actions are important rituals in Buddhist worship. Trade and the Spread of Buddhism As important as mis- INTERNET ACTIVITY Create a bar graph sionaries were to the spread of Buddhism, traders played an to show the number of Buddhists in even more crucial role in this process. Along with their prod- some American cities. Go to ucts, traders carried Buddhism beyond India to Sri Lanka. classzone.com for your research. Buddhist religion was also brought southeast along trade routes to Burma, Thailand, and the island of Sumatra. Likewise, Buddhism followed the Central Asian trade routes, called the Silk Roads, all the way to China. From China, Buddhism spread to Korea—and from Korea to Japan. The movement of trade thus succeeded in making Buddhism the most widespread religion of East Asia. Throughout human history, trade has been a pow- erful force for the spread of ideas. Just as trade spread Buddhism in East Asia, it helped spread cultural influences in another major region of the world: the Mediterranean basin, as you will learn in Section 3. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. reincarnation karma Jainism Siddhartha Gautama enlightenment nirvana USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. What are the terms for 3. What are the Four Noble Truths 6. MAKING INFERENCES How might the belief in reincar- enlightenment in each religion? of Buddhism? nation provide a form of social control? 4. How has Hinduism influenced 7. COMPARING How are the Vedas and the Upanishads social structure in India? similar? Buddhism only 5. How did Buddhism spread? 8. MAKING INFERENCES Look at the image of Vishnu on both page 67. Why might blue represent infinity? Hinduism only 9. WRITING ACTIVITY RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS How did the experiences of Siddhartha Gautama influence his religious and ethical beliefs? Write a brief biography of his life. Include family background, accomplishments, and a list of his beliefs. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A MAP Where in the world is Hinduism the main religion? What about Buddhism? Copy an outline map of the world. Then color in those regions of the world where Buddhism and Hinduism are the dominant religions. Use a different color for each religion. People and Ideas on the Move 71  3 The Rise of Christianity MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL Christianity has spread Jesus Constantine SYSTEMS Christianity arose in throughout the world and today apostle bishop Roman-occupied Judea and has more than a billion Paul Peter spread throughout the Roman followers. Diaspora pope Empire. SETTING THE STAGE While religion played an important role in Roman society, the worship of Roman gods was impersonal and often practiced with- out a great deal of emotion. As the empire grew, so, too, did a new religion called Christianity. Born as a movement within Judaism, it emphasized a more personal relationship between God and people—and attracted many Romans. TAKING NOTES Following Chronological The Life and Teachings of Jesus Order Use a sequence Roman power spread to Judea, the home of the Jews, around 63 B.C. At first the graphic to showw the Jewish kingdom remained independent, at least in name. Rome then took control events that led to the of the Jewish kingdom in A.D. 6 and made it a province of the empire. A number spread of Christianity. of Jews, however, believed that they would once again be free. According to bib- lical tradition, God had promised that a savior known as the Messiah would Rome takes arrive and restore the kingdom of the Jews. Roughly two decades after the over Jewish beginning of Roman rule, many believed that such a savior had arrived. kingdom. Jesus of Nazareth Although the exact date is uncertain, historians believe that sometime around 6 to 4 B.C., a Jew named Jesus was born in the town of Bethlehem in Judea. Jesus was raised in the village of Nazareth in northern Palestine. He was baptized by a prophet known as John the Baptist. As a young man, he took up the trade of carpentry. At the age of 30, Jesus began his public ministry. For the next three years, he preached, taught, did good works, and reportedly performed miracles. His teach- ings contained many ideas from Jewish tradition, such as monotheism, or belief in only one god, and the principles of the Ten Commandments. Jesus emphasized God’s personal relationship to each human being. He stressed the importance of people’s love for God, their neighbors, their enemies, and even themselves. He also taught that God would end wickedness in the world and would establish an eternal kingdom after death for people who sincerely repented their sins. (Refer to pages 286–287 for more about Christianity.) A Growing Movement Historical records of the time mention very little about Jesus. The main source of information about his teachings are the Gospels, the first four books of the New Testament of the Bible. Some of the Gospels are thought to have been written by one or more of Jesus’ disciples, or pupils. These 12 men later came to be called apostles. 168 Chapter 6  As Jesus preached from town to town, his fame grew. He attracted large crowds, and many people were touched by his message. Because Jesus ignored wealth and status, his message had special appeal to the poor. “Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth,” he said. His words, as related in the Gospels, were simple and direct: PRIMARY SOURCE Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, and pray for those who mistreat you. If anyone hits you on the cheek, let him hit the other one too; if someone takes your coat, let him have your shirt as well. Give to everyone who asks you for something, and when someone takes what is yours, do not ask for it back. Do for others just what you want them to do for you. Luke 6:27–31 Jesus’ Death Jesus’ growing popularity concerned both Roman and Jewish leaders. When Jesus visited Jerusalem about A.D. 29, enthusiastic crowds greeted him as the Messiah, or king—the one whom the Bible had said would come to rescue the Jews. The chief priests of the Jews, however, denied that Jesus was the Messiah. They said his teachings were blasphemy, or contempt for God. The Roman gover- nor Pontius Pilate accused Jesus of defying the authority of Rome. Pilate arrested Jesus and sentenced him to be crucified, or nailed to a large wooden cross to die. After Jesus’ death, his body was placed in a tomb. According to the Gospels, three days later his body was gone, and a living Jesus began appearing to his fol- Hypothesizing lowers. The Gospels go on to say that then he ascended into heaven. The apostles Why did the followers of Jesus were more convinced than ever that Jesus was the Messiah. It was from this belief think he was the that Jesus came to be referred to as Jesus Christ. Christos is a Greek word meaning Messiah? “messiah” or “savior.” The name Christianity was derived from “Christ.” ▼ Christ’s Charge Christianity Spreads Through the Empire to Saint Peter by Renaissance Strengthened by their conviction that he had triumphed over death, the followers of artist Raphael Jesus continued to spread his ideas. Jesus’ teachings did not contradict Jewish law, and depicts Jesus call- his first followers were Jews. Soon, however, these followers began to create a new ing the apostle Peter to duty as religion based on his messages. Despite political and religious opposition, the new the other apostles religion of Christianity spread slowly but steadily throughout the Roman Empire. look on. 169  Paul’s Mission One man, the apostle Paul, had enormous influence on Christianity’s development. Paul was a Jew who had never met Jesus and at first was an enemy of Christianity. While traveling to Damascus in Syria, he reportedly had a vision of Jesus. He spent the rest of his life spreading and interpreting Jesus’ teachings. The Pax Romana, which made travel and the exchange of ideas fairly safe, pro- vided the ideal conditions for Christianity to spread. Common languages—Latin and Greek—allowed the message to be easily understood. Paul wrote influential letters, called Epistles, to groups of believers. In his teaching, Paul stressed that Jesus was the son of God who died for people’s sins. He also declared that Christianity should welcome all converts, Jew or Gentile (non-Jew). It was this uni- versality that enabled Christianity to become more than just a local religion. Jewish Rebellion During the early years of Christianity, much Roman attention was focused on the land of Jesus’ birth and on the Jews. In A.D. 66, a band of Jews rebelled against Rome. In A.D. 70, the Romans stormed Mediterranean Jerusalem and destroyed the Temple complex. All that Sea GALILEE remained was a western portion of the wall, which today is the Jerusalem JUDEA holiest Jewish shrine. The Jewish fortress near Masada (see Dead Masada Sea map at right) held out until A.D. 73. About a half million Jews were killed in the course of this rebellion. The Jews made another attempt to break free of the Romans in A.D. 132. Another half-million Jews died in three years of fighting. Although the Jewish religion survived, the Jewish political state ceased to exist for more than 1,800 The Jewish Diaspora years. Most Jews were driven from their homeland into Centuries of Jewish exile followed exile. The dispersal of the Jews is called the Diaspora. the destruction of their temple and the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. This Persecution of the Christians Christians also posed a period is called the Diaspora, from problem for Roman rulers. The main reason was that they the Greek word for “dispersal.” Jews refused to worship Roman gods. This refusal was seen as fled to many parts of the world, opposition to Roman rule. Some Roman rulers also used Vocabulary including Europe. Christians as scapegoats for political and economic troubles. Scapegoats are In the 1100s, many European Jews By the second century, as the Pax Romana began to groups or individ- were expelled from their homes. uals that innocently Some moved to Turkey, Palestine, crumble, persecution of the Christians intensified. Romans bear the blame for and Syria. Others went to Poland exiled, imprisoned, or executed Christians for refusing to others. and neighboring areas. worship Roman deities. Thousands were crucified, burned, The statelessness of the Jews or killed by wild animals in the circus arenas. Other did not end until the creation of Christians and even some non-Christians regarded perse- Israel in 1948. cuted Christians as martyrs. Martyrs were people willing to sacrifice their lives for the sake of a belief or a cause. A World Religion Despite persecution of its followers, Christianity became a powerful force. By the late third century A.D., there were millions of Christians in the Roman Empire and beyond. The widespread appeal of Christianity was due to a variety of reasons. Christianity grew because it Making embraced all people—men and women, enslaved persons, the poor, and nobles; Inferences gave hope to the powerless; Why were the citizens of the appealed to those who were repelled by the extravagances of imperial Rome; Roman Empire so offered a personal relationship with a loving God; drawn to promised eternal life after death. Christianity? 170 Chapter 6  Spread of Christianity in the Roman World to A.D. 500 40°E 0° North Sea BRITAIN Rh Christian areas, 325 ine Additional Christian areas, 500 R. Boundary of Roman Empire, 395 D an ube R. ATLANTIC GAUL OCEAN Ca ITALY Black Sea s pi a Rome SPAIN Constantinople n Se Nicaea 40°N ARMENIA GREECE ANATOLIA Med a iter Corinth Hippo ran Antioch ea n SYRIA 0 500 Miles Sea JUDEA 0 1,000 Kilometers Jerusalem Alexandria EGYPT Nile R. Pe rsi n a Gu GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps Re lf d 1. Location Where was Christianity most widespread in A.D. 325? Se 2. Region What was the extent (north to south, east to west) of a Christianity’s spread by A.D. 500? Constantine Accepts Christianity A critical moment in Christianity occurred in A.D. 312, when the Roman emperor Constantine was fighting three rivals for lead- ership of Rome. He had marched to the Tiber River at Rome to battle his chief rival. On the day before the battle at Milvian Bridge, Constantine prayed for divine help. He reported that he then saw an image of a cross—a symbol of Christianity. He ordered artisans to put the Christian symbol on his soldiers’ shields. Constantine and his troops were victorious in battle. He credited his success to the help of the Christian God. In the next year, A.D. 313, Constantine announced an end to the persecution of Christians. In the Edict of Milan, he declared Christianity to be one of the religions approved by the emperor. Christianity continued to gain strength. In 380, the emperor Theodosius made it the empire’s official religion. Vocabulary Early Christian Church By this time, Christians had given their religion a struc- A hierarchy is a ture, much as the Roman Empire had a hierarchy. At the local level, a priest led group of persons each small group of Christians. A bishop, who was also a priest, supervised sev- organized in order eral local churches. The apostle Peter had traveled to Rome from Jerusalem and of ranks, with each level subject to the became the first bishop there. According to tradition, Jesus referred to Peter as the authority of the one “rock” on which the Christian Church would be built. As a result, all priests and above. bishops traced their authority to him. Eventually, every major city had its own bishop. However, later bishops of Rome claimed to be the heirs of Peter. These bishops said that Peter was the first pope, the father or head of the Christian Church. They said that whoever was bishop of Rome was also the leader of the whole Church. Also, as Rome was the capital of the empire, it seemed the logical choice to be the center of the Church. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 171  A Single Voice As Christianity grew, disagreements about beliefs developed among its followers. Church leaders called any belief that appeared to contradict the basic teachings a heresy. Dispute over beliefs became intense. In an attempt to end conflicts, Church leaders tried to set a single, official standard of belief. These beliefs were compiled in the New Testament, which contained the four Gospels, the Epistles of Paul, and other documents. The New Testament was added to the Hebrew Bible, which Christians called the Old Testament. In A.D. 325, Constantine moved to solidify further the teachings of Christianity. He called Church leaders to Nicaea in Anatolia. There they wrote the Nicene Creed, which defined the basic beliefs of the Church. The Fathers of the Church Also influential in defining Church teachings were several early writers and scholars who have been called the Fathers of the Church. One of the most important was Augustine, who became bishop of the city of Hippo in North Africa in 396. Augustine taught that humans needed the grace of God to be saved. He further taught that people could not receive God’s grace unless they belonged to the Church and received the sacraments. One of Augustine’s most famous books is The City of God. It was written after Rome was plundered in the fifth century. Augustine wrote that the fate of cities such as Rome was not important because the heavenly city, the city of God, could never be destroyed: PRIMARY SOURCE The one consists of those who live by human standards, the other of those who Analyzing Primary live according to God’s will.... By two cities I mean two societies of human Sources beings, one of which is predestined to reign with God for all eternity, the other is Why would St. doomed to undergo eternal punishment with the Devil. Augustine write his ST. AUGUSTINE, The City of God book after Rome had been attacked? While Christianity continued its slow but steady rise, the Roman Empire itself was gradually weakening. Under the weight of an increasing number of both foreign and domestic problems, the mighty Roman Empire eventually began to crumble. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Jesus apostle Paul Diaspora Constantine bishop Peter pope USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. What event do you think had 3. What did Jesus emphasize in 6. HYPOTHESIZING Do you think Christianity would have the biggest impact? Explain. his early teachings? developed in the same way if it had arisen in an area 4. Why did the early Christians outside the Roman Empire? Explain. Rome takes face persecution from the 7. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Who did more to over Jewish Romans? spread Christianity—Paul or Constantine? Why? kingdom. 5. What was the importance of 8. ANALYZING ISSUES Why do you think Roman leaders so the Nicene Creed? opposed the rise of a new religion among their subjects? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Imagine you are a resident of Judea during the time of Jesus. Write a letter to a friend in Rome describing Jesus and his teachings. CONNECT TO TODAY OUTLINING A SPEECH Locate a recent speech by the pope or the leader of another Christian church and outline its main ideas. Then read some of the speech to the class and discuss its main points. 172 Chapter 6  1 The Rise of Islam MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL As the world’s fastest-growing Allah mosque SYSTEMS Muhammad unified major religion, Islam has a Muhammad hajj the Arab people both politically strong impact on the lives of Islam Qur’an and through the religion of Islam. millions today. Muslim Sunna Hijrah shari’a SETTING THE STAGE The cultures of the Arabian Peninsula were in constant contact with one another for centuries. Southwest Asia (often referred to as the Middle East) was a bridge between Africa, Asia, and Europe, where goods were traded and new ideas were shared. One set of shared ideas would become a pow- erful force for change in the world—the religion of Islam. Deserts, Towns, and Trade Routes TAKING NOTES Synthesizing Use a The Arabian Peninsula is a crossroads of three continents—Africa, Europe, and diagram to list important Asia. At its longest and widest points, the peninsula is about 1,200 miles from aspects of Islam. north to south and 1,300 miles from east to west. Only a tiny strip of fertile land in south Arabia and Oman and a few oases can support agriculture. The remain- Islam der of the land is desert, which in the past was inhabited by nomadic Arab herders. Events in Beliefs of Desert and Town Life On this desert, the Arab nomads, called Bedouins the life of Islam Muhammad (BEHD oo ihnz), were organized into tribes and groups called clans. These clans provided security and support for a life made difficult by the extreme conditions Sources of authority of the desert. The Bedouin ideals of courage and loyalty to family, along with their warrior skills, would become part of the Islamic way of life. The areas with more fertile soil and the larger oases had enough water to sup- port farming communities. By the early 600s, many Arabs had chosen to settle in an oasis or in a market town. Larger towns near the western coast of Arabia became market towns for local, regional, and long-distance trade goods. Crossroads of Trade and Ideas By the early 600s, trade routes connected Arabia to the major ocean and land trade routes, as you can see on the map on the next page. Trade routes through Arabia ran from the extreme south of the penin- sula to the Byzantine and Sassanid (Persian) empires to the north. Merchants from these two empires moved along the caravan routes, trading for goods from the Silk Roads of the east. They transported spices and incense from Yemen and other products to the west. They also carried information and ideas from the world out- side Arabia. Mecca During certain holy months, caravans stopped in Mecca, a city in west- ern Arabia. They brought religious pilgrims who came to worship at an ancient shrine in the city called the Ka’aba (KAH buh). The Arabs associated this house The Muslim World 263  Trade Routes, A.D. 570 Aral 40°E 0 500 Miles Sea Black Sea Constantinople 0 1,000 Kilometers 40°N Bukhara Caspian Tig Sea ri Nishapur sR Aleppo To the. Palmyra Mosul Silk Roads To Spain Eu Damascus ph Mediterranean Sea ra tes Ctesiphon R. To India Jerusalem PE R S I A Alexandria Petra EGYPT Siraf Pe an rs Ni i le R Gu Medina lf Re. Trade Goods dS Tropic of Cancer To India Brought to Arabia Muscat spices ea Mecca ARABIA incense Land route perfumes Sea route precious metals Hijrah ivory Byzantine Empire YEMEN Arabian silk Sassanid Empire Aden Sea To East Africa GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Location Why is Arabia’s location a good one for trade? 2. Movement Why was the location of Mecca ideal for the spread of ideas? of worship with Abraham, a Hebrew prophet and a believer in one God. Over the years, they had introduced the worship of many gods and spirits to the place. The Ka’aba contained over 360 idols brought by many tribes. The concept of belief in one God, called Allah (AL uh) in Arabic, was known on the Arabian Peninsula. Many Christians and Jews lived there and practiced monotheism. Into this mixed religious environment of Mecca, around A.D. 570, Muhammad was born. The Prophet Muhammad Muhammad (mu HAM id) was born into the clan of a powerful Meccan family. Orphaned at the age of six, Muhammad was raised by his grandfather and uncle. He received little schooling and began working in the caravan trade as a very young man. At the age of 25, Muhammad became a trader and business manager for Khadijah (kah DEE juh), a wealthy businesswoman of about 40. Later, Muhammad and Khadijah married. Theirs was both a good marriage and a good business partnership. Revelations Muhammad took great interest in religion and often spent time alone in prayer and meditation. At about the age of 40, Muhammad’s life was changed overnight when a voice called to him while he meditated in a cave outside Mecca. According to Muslim belief, the voice was that of the angel Gabriel, who told 264 Chapter 10  Muhammad that he was a messenger of Allah. “What shall I proclaim?” asked Muhammad. The voice answered: PRIMARY SOURCE Analyzing Proclaim! In the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, who created man out of a (mere) clot Primary Sources of congealed blood. Proclaim! And thy Lord is most bountiful. He who taught (the use What kind of of) the pen taught man that which he knew not. teaching does the QUR’AN, sura 96:1–5 phrase “the use of the pen” refer to? After much soul-searching, Muhammad came to believe that the Lord who spoke to him through Gabriel was Allah. Muhammad became convinced that he was the last of the prophets. He began to teach that Allah was the one and only God and that all other gods must be abandoned. People who agreed to this basic principle of Islam were called Muslims. In Arabic, Islam (ihs LAHM) means “submission to the will of Allah.” Muslim (MUHZ lihm) means “one who has submitted.” Muhammad’s wife, Khadijah, and several close friends and relatives were his first followers. By 613, Muhammad had begun to preach publicly in Mecca, but he met with some hostility. Many Meccans believed his revolutionary ideas would lead to neglect of the traditional Arab gods. They feared that Mecca would lose its posi- tion as a pilgrimage center if people accepted Muhammad’s monotheistic beliefs. ▼ The Abyssinian army set out to The Hijrah After some of his followers had been attacked, Muhammad decided to destroy the leave Mecca in 622. Following a small band of supporters he sent ahead, Ka’aba. Their Muhammad moved to the town of Yathrib, over 200 miles to the north of Mecca. elephants, This migration became known as the Hijrah (HIHJ ruh). The Hijrah to Yathrib however, refused marked a turning point for Muhammad. He attracted many devoted followers. Later, to attack. Yathrib was renamed Medina. In Medina, Muhammad displayed impressive leadership skills. He fash- ioned an agreement that joined his own people with the Arabs and Jews of Medina as a single community. These groups accepted Muhammad as a politi- cal leader. As a religious leader, he drew many more converts who found his mes- sage appealing. Finally, Muhammad also became a military leader in the growing hostilities between Mecca and Medina. Returning to Mecca In 630, the Prophet and 10,000 of his followers marched to the outskirts of Mecca. Facing sure defeat, Mecca’s leaders surrendered. The Prophet entered the city in triumph. He destroyed the idols in the Ka’aba and had the call to prayer made from its roof. Most Meccans pledged their loyalty to Muhammad, and many converted to Islam. By doing so, they joined the umma, or Muslim religious community. Muhammad died two years later, at about the age of 62. However, he had taken great strides toward unifying the entire Arabian Peninsula under Islam. The