UCSP Pre-Final Handout (PDF)

5. Human Biocultural and Social Evolution Biological Evolution of Man The Meaning and Significance of Human Biological Evolution Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over some time. Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the env...

5. Human Biocultural and Social Evolution Biological Evolution of Man The Meaning and Significance of Human Biological Evolution Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over some time. Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the environment, while some faced extinction for being unable to do so. Perhaps the most well-known theory on human biological development is Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution which proposed that the current human race spurred from a line of primates that evolved through “survival of the fittest,” wherein primitive species competed among each other for survival. The transition from Early to Modern Humans The biological transition of humans from its earliest state to its current physical and biological makeup took millions of years to complete. These stages are described below: Homo habilis (2.5 – 1.4 million years ago) developed bipedalism or the ability to walk upright Brain size was estimated to be 35% larger than the Australopithecus africanus had smaller teeth compared to australopithecines diet included a variety of plants and meat nicknamed "handyman" Homo sapiens (400,000 years ago to present) average brain capacity of 82 cubic inches characterized by high forehead, small teeth and jaw, and defined chin constructed and used tools for survival developed a symbolic communication system The Significance of Artefactual Evidence in Understanding Evolution Artefactual evidence is the only source of knowledge in understanding the lifestyle and the developments that occurred in each transitional stage of human evolution. Early human species were discovered through fossils which are remains hardened in rock. It is important for modern humans to learn about their origins and developments. The great biological evolution that the human species has been through was complex and developmental. As human beings, we are called to understand and appreciate these advances. SUMMARY: Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period of time. Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the environment, while some faced extinction for being unable to do so. Man went through the following developmental stages: Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens. Cultural Evolution of Man The Meaning of Cultural Evolution Cultural evolution is learned behavior passed on from one generation to another. In understanding cultural evolution, studying early tools and their development could also make us understand human lifestyle in the early hominin periods. However, like any other form of evolution, the development of culture took a long time to progress. Before primitive humans could get their hands on metal tools and make one themselves, they first learned about less advanced forms of materials. The Meaning of Cultural Evolution Let us look at important periods of history that shaped culture: Lower Paleolithic - The earliest stone tools were developed, including Oldowan and Acheulian tools. Middle Paleolithic - More advanced stone tools, such as sharp-edged Mousterian tools, were developed. Upper Paleolithic - Tools were decorated with more intrinsic designs, including sticks, sharp blades, harpoons, and spearheads made with the ‘punch blade’ technique. Mesolithic - Smaller and finer tools were used; evidence of trading existed. Neolithic - The domestication of crops, stronger trading practices, and the development of new tools characterized this period. Cooperation in Cultural Evolution Hunting and gathering is a social process. This would mean that to successfully gather enough food and commodities for the group, the early humans would have to cooperate with each other in sourcing out their needs the best way possible. Division of labor became a prominent means of survival. Males and females both had roles to take. All the food that was hunted and collected were shared through the camp. The camp is a place where all members of the group gather and share their resources. SUMMARY: Cultural evolution is learned behavior passed on from one generation to another. The stages of early cultural evolution are: Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. Sociopolitical Evolution of Man Neolithic Revolution Early lifestyles have greatly been influenced by nature. As such, developments in human life also occurred with the influence of the natural environment. The Paleolithic period involved humans as hunter-gatherers in society. They are nomadic people who transfer from one area to another to hunt animals or gather plants for consumption and survival. This was the practice until around 12,000 B.C. when humans started to domesticate animals and crops. This era of a newfound lifestyle is called the Neolithic Revolution. One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present, the country of Iraq. Implications of the Neolithic Revolution to the Evolutionary Process Social Implications The Neolithic revolution paved the way for the creation of civilization through permanent settlements dictated by reliable food supply. The development of domestication techniques and practices allowed for a more complex society and the possibility of urbanization. A form of social stratification was developed. Economic Implications Because of the domestication of crops and animals, an abundant supply of food and resources was maintained. Introduction of a selective breeding process of crops and animals that would allow for the development of new species was developed. Human Implications There was an increase in human population and life span across civilizations. People learned to play different social roles apart from being farmers (e.g., craftsmen, priests, leaders). Early Civilizations and the Rise of States The Rise of Civilizations The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq. The latter was part of the Fertile Crescent, an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be the “cradle of civilization” and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its fertile land area. Implications of the Rise of Civilizations and States Below are some implications of the rise of civilizations and states: Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as tensions grew among them. Metalwork: During this time, people began to discover various raw materials, such as iron, copper, and bronze for making tools and weapons. Political system: Because of economic factors such as trading, the leadership among city- states began to be more organized and developed. Democratization In Greece, societal status and groups began to develop with the King bearing the highest position in all Greek city-states. Greek kings were thrown off by the noblemen, and city-states began to change the form of leadership into an oligarchy where rulers were made up of aristocracies. Because an oligarchic government also ruled in favor of the noblemen and aristocracies, ordinary people also used their collective power against an abusive government. In effect, city-states were now ruled by a tyrant. In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, a son of a tyrant made some wrong and abusive decisions that led to another revolution ousting the tyrant rule. This led them to create a more broad-based constitution, eventually developing some democratic city-states. SUMMARY: The Paleolithic period involved humans as hunter-gatherers in society. Humans started to domesticate animals and crops during the Neolithic Revolution. Democracy was established in ancient Greece. Importance of Artifacts in Interpreting Social, Cultural, Political, and Economic Processes The Significance of Artifacts Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They were recovered through archaeological endeavors or by chance. Artifacts have significant contributions to interpreting the social, cultural, political, and economic processes of past periods. Their existence proves and describes these aspects thoroughly. Examples of Artifacts and their Implications Economic Archaeologists determined that cuneiform writing was primarily developed for long-distance trade communications and accounting income and losses during transactions. Political The Code of Hammurabi, dating back to around 3000 BC, was discovered to contain 282 laws that were set for ancient people to follow. Cultural In the Philippines, the Manunggul jar was believed to be the vessel to transport the dead into the afterlife. Social In the Middle East, around 4000 years ago, nose piercing was considered a status symbol wherein the size of the ring depicted a family’s wealth. Importance of Artifact Preservation There are four main reasons why artifact preservation is important: Artifacts are irreplaceable. Artifacts, being made hundreds, even thousands of years ago, are very delicate objects that cannot be replaced by any available material at the present time. Artifacts are keys to understanding the past. Practices that occurred in the past would not have been known if not for the discovery of artifacts. Artifacts give people a sense of identity. They provide people with an opportunity to further understand their identities and heritage, as well as some collective qualities that their culture may have. The past has yet to be fully discovered. Despite the seemingly great successes archaeologists have made in recent years, there is still more to discover about history. SUMMARY: Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. Artifacts have significant contributions in interpreting the social, cultural, political, and economic processes of past periods. Sites of Biocultural and Social Evolution Africa According to archaeologists, fossils that were found to be originating from the prehistoric periods suggest that early humans lived in Africa but also reached parts of South and Southeast Asia. According to the “Out of Africa” theory, a single line of human species existed. From the Australopithecines down to the Homo sapiens, human evolution is a linear process. In particular, East Africa was the proposed site where the human race began. South Asia In recent years, artifacts dating back to the Lower Paleolithic Period were found in South India. Acheulean tools were uncovered in Kortallaiyar river basin in Attirampakkam, India. About 3,500 stone artifacts, consisting of cleavers, flakes, and hand axes were unearthed. This supports the “Out of Africa” theory. The discoveries suggest that due to hunting and gathering, primitive humans moved eastward. Southeast Asia Some paleoanthropologists also discredit claims that the early humans also went to Southeast Asia. With the help of further studies and archaeological milestones, however, paleoanthropologists were able to discover that primitive Southeast Asian human species had unique features apart from their East Asian counterparts. In addition to these conclusions, fossil findings in excavations in Indonesia revealed that the Java man could be likened to the Homo erectus species, further validating the claim that the early humans from Africa traveled eastward. SUMMARY: According to findings of archaeological research, the beginnings of human evolution originated from Africa. Other sites of early civilizations are South Asia and Southeast Asia. REMEMBER: Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period of time. Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the environment, while some faced extinction for being unable to do so. Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are recovered after a long time through archaeological endeavor or by chance. According to findings of archaeological research, the beginnings of human evolution originated from Africa. GLOSSARY: Artifacts – objects made or modified by humans in the past Camp – place where all members of the group gather and share their resources Cultural Evolution – learned behavior passed on from one generation to another Democracy – a political system where members of the society are free to participate in the decision-making practices of the state Domestication – process of increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate certain traits that will make them useful for other human needs  Evolution – the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period of time Fertile Crescent – an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be “cradle of civilization” and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its fertile land area Fossils – remains hardened in rock Neolithic Revolution – period when humans started to domesticate animals and crops Oligarchy – rulers were made up of aristocracies Paleolithic Period – involved humans as hunter-gatherers in society Theory of Evolution – purposed that the current human race spurred from a line of primates that evolved through “survival of the fittest” Tyrant – a positive term for a Greek leader that meant “boss” Homo erectus – believed to have lived in Africa and parts of Europe or Asia Homo habilis – one of the earliest species from the genus Homo Homo sapiens – species where all present human beings belong 6. Enculturation and Socialization Identity Formation Socialization and Enculturation Socialization is the lifelong social process by which people develop their individual potential and learn or adapt to culture. It starts when a baby is born and ends upon death. Enculturation, on the other hand, is the process by which an individual or a group learns culture through experience or observation. It is an important part of socialization because it enables culture to be shared among members of society. Nature versus Nurture For years, there has been ongoing discussion about human behavior and personality origins. Social scientists call this the “nature versus nurture” debate. According to supporters of the nature principle, human personality and identity is inborn and inherited. This would mean that who we are as our genetics primarily shapes individuals. Meanwhile, supporters of the nurture principle emphasize that our personalities are shaped from birth onwards by social forces that we interact with. Theories of Identity Formation 1. Sigmund Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory- According to Freud, human beings have a basic need to express their sexual tensions and aggression, and because these are typically not acceptable mechanisms in society, human beings suffer from anxiety that pave way for the development of neuroticism and other psychological fixations 2. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development- According to Jean Piaget, human identity development is influenced greatly by cognitive processes, that is, the mechanisms of the brain. Piaget hypothesized that humans develop their personalities during childhood, in four particular stages, namely: sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. 3. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development- Kohlberg postulated that human beings also develop moral identities as influenced by their environmental and interpersonal experiences. 4. Erik Erikson’s Post-Freudian Theory- Erik Erikson is a psychodynamic theorist who formulated his own theory, which may be considered as an extension of Freud’s. According to Erikson, human development does not end at childhood but at old age. In a person’s lifetime, there is a continuous process of identity development that is characterized by eight particular stages. 5. George Herbert Mead’s Theory of the Social Self- Mead greatly emphasized in his theory that personality and identity development is a product of social experience. According to him, people exchange ideas in a manner that is symbolic and meaningful. SUMMARY: Socialization is the lifelong social process where people develop their individual potentials and learn or adapt culture. Enculturation, on the other hand, is the process where an individual or a group learns culture through experience or observation. For years, there has been ongoing discussion about the origins of human behavior and personality. Social scientists call this the “nature versus nurture” debate. There are different theories that explain how individuals form their identities. Norms and Values Norms Norms are rules or expectations that guide the behaviors of members of the society. For every society, norms are important factors in keeping peace and order. They set the standards of what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior within the group. Two Types of Norms Mores - These are norms that are widely observed in society and pose heavy moral significance. Folkways - These are norms that are observed in casual or routine encounters and are considered less significant. Values Values are culturally-defined standards that people see as good, acceptable, and desirable that serve as broad guidelines of living. Values are developed through socialization. Through social interactions, individuals learn to embrace certain qualities and behaviors that they deem necessary to becoming acceptable social beings. SUMMARY: Norms are rules or expectations that guide the behaviors of members of the society. Values are culturally-defined standards that people see as good, acceptable, and desirable that serve as broad guidelines of living. Statuses and Roles Status A status is a social position that a person holds. Statuses are part of our social identity and help determine how we build relationships with each oth er. A status set is composed of various statuses that a person holds at once. Types of Status Ascribed status - It is a position that a person receives at birth or involuntarily later in life. Achieved status - It is a social position that is voluntarily acquired and reflects a person’s effort and ability. All people have ascribed and achieved status. Status could change over time Roles A role is a behavior expected from someone who holds a particular social status. A role set is defined as the roles attached to a single status. Both statuses and roles vary by culture, and because individuals could have different statuses at the same time, the same is also true for roles. Tensions Related to Roles Role conflict is a conflict among roles connected to two or more statuses. This occurs when our different statuses pressure us to respond to conflicting scenarios in order to fulfill various roles. Role strain occurs when there is tension involved within just one status. Another concept related to roles is Helen Rose Fuchs Ebaugh’s role exit, the process by which people disengage from certain roles. Based on her personal experiences, Ebaugh theorized that there are instances when a person chooses to ultimately leave a certain role and start to play out other roles and statuses SUMMARY: A status is a social position that a person holds. There are two different types of status: ascribed and achieved. A role is a behavior expected from someone who holds a particular social status. REMEMBER: All members of society interact with one another. As they do, they engage in multiple social processes that help mold their individual characteristics, preferences, and values. Individuals are encouraged to conform to social norms every single day. As such, different ways of social adaptation and behaviors have emerged. Socialization is the lifelong social process where people develop their individual potentials and learn or adapt culture. Individuals participate in various social activities that enable them to reach certain landmarks in terms of status and develop various social roles that they use in their day-to-day interactions. GLOSSARY: Enculturation – the process where an individual or a group learns culture through experience or observation Master status – a status that has importance in social identity that often shapes a person’s entire life Nature principle – the principle which states that human personality and identity is inborn and inherited Norms – rules or expectations that guide the behaviors of members of the society Nurture principle – the principle which emphasizes that our personalities are shaped from birth onwards Role – behavior expected of someone who holds a particular social status Role conflict – a conflict among roles connected to two or more statuses Role exit – the process by which people disengage from certain roles Role set – the roles attached to a single status Role strain – occurs when there is tension involved within just one status Socialization – the lifelong social process where people develop their individual potentials and learn or adapt culture  Social control – a way by which people’s behaviors and actions in society are regulated or controlled Status – a social position that a person holds