Introduction To Personality Theory PDF

3. Hypotheses INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY o educated guess or...

3. Hypotheses INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY o educated guess or prediction to be tested o relation: a good theory is capable of generating many hypotheses Sigmund Freud o comparison: hypotheses: more specific (parent)  Philosophical Speculations  w/ primitive scientific method theory: general (offspring)  evolved the first modern theory of personality 4. Taxonomy Basis: o classification of things according to their natural relationships 1. Philosophical Speculations o relation: taxonomies can evolve into theories 2. Empirical Evidence o comparison: classification does not constitute a theory taxonomies: 5 stable personalities A. PERSONALITY theory: Big 5 personality theory Personality Why there are different theories?  Persona  theatrical mask  public self a. Theorist make speculation from a particular point of view  a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency b. Theorist must be objective in gathering data but decision and interpretations are personal and individuality to a person’s behavior c. Reflected on personal backgrounds childhood experiences, philosophy of life, interpersonal o traits: contribute to individual differences, consistency and stability of behavior; may be relationships, and unique manner of looking at the world unique, common or shared but pattern is different for each individual (actions, attitudes, behaviors you possess) Theorists’ Personalities and their Theories of Personality o characteristics: unique qualities of an individual (temperament, physique, intelligence)  consistent behavior patterns and intrapersonal processes within the individual Psychology of Science  consistent patterns of Affect, Behavior and Cognition (ABC)  studies both science and the behavior of scientists  investigates the impact of an individual scientist’s psychological processes and personal B. THEORY characteristics on the development of his scientific theories or research  psychology of science  look at personal traits of scientists  personality differences Theory influencing one’s theoretical orientation  set of interrelated ideas, constructs and principles proposed to explain certain observations o Quantitative: behaviourists, social learning theorists, trait theorists about reality o Clinical and Qualitative: psychoanalysts, humanists, existentialitsts  set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate hypothesis C. USEFUL THEORY Theory and Its Relatives 1. Generates Research 1. Philosophy o ability to stimulate and guide further research o love of wisdom o 2 kinds of research: o pursue wisdom through thinking and reasoning  Descriptive Research: measurement, labeling, categorization o relation: theory is a tool used by scientist in their pursuit of knowledge  Hypothesis Testing: indirect verification of the usefulness of the theory o comparison: philosophy: ought to be; what should be 2. Is falsifiable theory: if-then statements o precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major 2. Speculation tenets o ideas or guesses about something that is not known o relation: theories rely on speculation 3. Organizes Data o comparison: speculation: not in advance of controlled observation o organize data that are not compatible with each other theory: 2 cornerstone are – speculation and empirical observation  4. Guides Action o person is innately good o ability to guide the practitioner over the rough course of day to day problems o aim to achieve fullest potentials 5. Is Internally Consistent 5. Behavioral Approach o need not to be consistent with other theories, but it must be consistent with itself o Learned o components are logically compatible o Acquired externally o clearly and operationally defined (defines unit in terms of observable events or 6. Cognitive Approach behaviors that can be measured)) o Schema 6. Is Parsimonious F. ISSUES IN PERSONALITY/DIMENSIONS FOR A CONCEPT OF HUMANITY o simple and straightforward 1. Genetic (Biological) vs Environmental (Social) Influences D. PERSONALITY THEORY 2. Conscious vs Unconscious 3. Free Will vs Determinism Personality Theory 4. Uniqueness vs Universality (Similarities)  set of interrelated ideas, constructs and principles proposed to explain consistent patterns 5. Physiological vs Purposive Motivation of affect, behavior and cognition 6. Cultural Determinism vs Cultural Transparency  components: 7. Pessimism vs Optimism 1. personality structure: building block of personality 8. Causality vs Teleology 2. motivation: why people behave the way they do 3. personality development: how personality develops G. THINGS TO KNOW ABOUT PERSONALITY THEORY RESEARCH 4. psychological health: describes healthy personality 5. psychopathology: describes unhealthy personality Reliability 6. personality change: offers an ex-planation on how unhealthy personality can be  Extent to which it yields consistent results changed into a healthy one  Research, Assumption and Issues: Validity 1. Case Studies and Clinical Research: Interviews, Case Histories  Degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure 2. Laboratory Studies and Experimental Research: Experiments, Observation  Construct Validity: extent to which an instrument measures some hypothetical construct 3. Personality Questionnaires, Assessment Tools and Correlation Research: Research, o Convergent CV: sores on that instrument correlate highly (converge) with scores on a Standard Tests, and Statistical Tools variety of valid measures of that same contract o Divergent CV: has low or insignificant correlations with other inventories that do not E. WHAT ARE THE APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY? measure the construct o Discriminant Validity: if it discriminates between two groups of people known to be 1. Psychoanalytic Approach (Freud, Adler, Jung, Klein, Horney, Fromm, Sullivan, Erikson) different o innate desires  Predictive Validity: a test predict some future behavior o unconscious 2. Trait Approach o personality lies in a continuum o different levels of feelings 3. Biological Approach o physiological aspect o genetic 4. Humanistic Approach (Maslow, Rogers) FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS  drives, urges, or instincts beyond our awareness but motivate our words, feelings and actions Twin cornerstones of psychoanalysis:  Contains fears, unacceptable sexual and immoral motives and urges, irrational 1. sex wishes and selfish needs, shameful experiences 2. aggression  where the id resides  eg.: dreams, slips of the tongue, repression Basis: personal experiences, dream analysis, vast readings  punishment and/or suppression  anxiety  repression  phylogenetic endowment: inherited unconscious images A. BIOGPRAGHY OF SIGMUND FREUD o Preconscious  not conscious but can become conscious either quite readily or with difficulty Full name: Sigismund (Sigmund) Freud  Contains the memories that are not part of current thoughts but can readily be Birthday: March 6 or May 6, 1856 available to mind if the need arises (equivalent to our memory) Birthplace: Freiberg, Moravia  Contains the superego Father: Jacob Freud  sources: conscious perception and unconscious Mother: Amalie Nathanson Freud 2. Conscious Siblings: Emmanuel and Philip (Father side only; older than him)  mental elements in awareness at any given point in time 7 others (both parents)  contains whatever we are thinking about or experiencing at a given moment (all our Death: September 23, 1939 senses detect) Deathplace: Vienna?  contains the ego  2 different directions: Significant part of his life: o perceptual conscious: what we perceive through our sense organs, if not too  existence of his brother Julius (hostility, unconscious wish for death, feelings of guilt) threatening, enters into consciousness  favouritism of his mother to him o within the mental structure: nonthreatening ideas from preconscious, well-  not close relationship to his siblings disguised images from the unconscious  Jean Martin Charcot: Hypnotic Technique (for hysteria) C. PROVINCES OF THE MIND/STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY  Josef Breuer: Catharsis  Free Association Technique  experiments with cocaine 1. Id (deas Es, It)  male hysteria (from charcot)  Pleasure principle  Studies on Hysteria (w/ breuer): psychical analysis  psychoanalysis  Biological instinctive drive  seduction theory (seduction by a parent)  not yet owned component of personality  association with:  no contact w/ reality o Alfred Adler, Wilhelm Stekel, Max Kahane, Rudolf Reitler  2 processes: (Wednesdayy Psychological Society) o primary process: seeks to satisfy o Carl Jung (International Psychoanalytic Association) o secondary process: bring it into contact w/ the external world  crown prince; the man of the future 2. Ego (das Ich, I) B. LEVEL OF MENTAL LIFE/THE MENTAL ICEBERG  Reality principle  Realistic and socially accepted 1. Unconscious Proper  Intervene between id impulses and superego inhibitions  sole source of communication with the external world o Unconscious  decision making/executive branch of personality 3. Superego (das Uber-Ich, over-I)  self-destruction: final aim  Morality principle/idealistic principle  explains the need for barriers that people have erected to check aggression  Ideals and morals  reaction formation  Represent conscience  forms: teasing, gossip, sarcasm, humiliation, humor and enjoyment of other  no contact w/ the outside world people’s suffering  unrealistic demands for perfection 2. Anxiety  2 subsystems:  Felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation that warns the o conscience: results from experiences with punishments for improper behavior and person against impending danger tells us what we should not do  Only the ego can produce or feel anxiety o ego-ideal: develops from experiences with rewards for proper behavior and tells  3 types of anxiety: us what we should do o Neurotic Anxiety: apprehension about an unknown danger  well-developed superego controls sexual and aggressive impulses through repression o Moral Anxiety: conflict between the ego and superego  guilt: when ego acts contradicting to the moral standard of superego o Realistic Anxiety: related to fear; unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a  feelings of inferiority: ego is unable to meet the standard of superego possible danger  pleasure seeking person E. DEFENSE MECHANISMS 1. Repression: push unpleasant thoughts to unconscious  guilt-ridden/inferior-feeling person 2. Reaction Formation: doing the opposite of what you really feels 3. Displacement: redirect emotion from a real person to a lower status person, object, or animal  psychologically healthy person 4. Fixation: inability to proceed to the next stage of development due to frustration 5. Regression: going back to the childhood behaviors when face with anxiety D. DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY 6. Projection: transferring unacceptable thoughts to others 7. Introjection: incorporating into oneself the standards and values of another person 1. Drives 8. Sublimation: redirecting unacceptable, instinctual drives into personally and socially  Trieb  drive or stimulus within the person acceptable channels  Term: Instinct < drives/impulses 9. Denial: refusing to accept reality  Characterization of drives: 10. Rationalization: justify a regretful behavior or event o Impetus: amount of force it exerts a. sour-graping: bitter o Source: region of the body in a state of excitation or tension b. sweet-lemoning: creating a bogus “brighter side” o Aim: seek pleasure by removing that excitation or reducing the tension 11. Compensation: overcompensate to hide insecurity o Object: person or thing that serves as means through which the aim is satisfied 12. Undoing: cancel out or make up for a bad act by doing good 13. Identification: if you can’t beat them, join them  2 types of drives: o Sex/Eros (Libido) too much use: leads to mental disorder  Erogenous Zone: genitals, mouth, anus too little use: problems in life  ultimate aim: reduce sexual tension  forms: narcissism (primary and secondary), love (eros-love), sadism, F. PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT masochism o Aggression (destructive drive)  ultimate aim: to return the organism to an inorganic state  Difference in personalities originate in childhood sexual experiences  death: ultimate inorganic condition  Childhood greatly influence personality in adulthood   If child goes through a stage properly, he will progress to next stage o early anal period  Failure to achieve this will lead to fixation  cause of personality disorders  receive satisfaction by destroying or losing objects Infantile Period  behave aggressively toward their parents for frustrating them with toilet  Age: birth – 5 years old training  the most crucial for personality formation o late anal period  infants possess a sexual life and go through a period of pregenital sexual development  take a friendly interest towards their feces, an interest that stem from the during the first 4 or 5 years after birth erotic pleasure of defecating  childhood sexuality differs from adult sexuality in that it’s not capable of reproduction and is  child will present the feces to their parents exclusively autoerotic satisfied through organs other than genitals if praised  generous and magnanimous adult if punished  withholding the feces until pressure becomes both painful and 1. Oral Stage erotically stimulating  Age: birth – 1.5 years old  Anal character: people who continue to receive erotic satisfaction by keeping and  Focus: mouth possessing objects and by arranging them in an excessive neat and orderly fashion  Object choice: nipple  anal eroticism (eg. penis envy)  anal triad (orderliness, stinginess, obstinacy); penis,  Sexual aim: incorporate/receive into one’s nipple baby and feces are same symbol in dreams  Phases:  orientation: o oral-receptive phase o active: masculine qualities of dominance and sadism  no ambivalence towards object, satisfaction is achieved with minimum o passive: feminine qualities of voyeurism and masochism frustration and anxiety  Anal-Expulsive Personality: excessive pressure = take pleasure in being able to withhold  but as they grow older, frustration and anxiety increases because of (obsessively clean and orderly) scheduled feedings, increased time lapses between feedings and eventual 3. Phallic Stage weaning  Age: 4-5 years old  feelings of ambivalence toward their love object (mother)  Focus: Genital  increased ability of their budding ego to defend (through teeth)  difference among the gender was established itself against the environment and against anxiety leading to:  dichotomy between male and female development is due to anatomical differences o oral-sadistic period between the sexes  infants respond through biting, cooing, closing their mouth, smiling and crying  masturbation was repressed (suppression of masturbation)  first autoerotic experience: thumbsucking (defense against anxiety that  Gratifying Activities: Play with genitals, Sexuality Identification satisfies their sexual but not nutritional needs) o Feeling of attraction toward the parent of the opposite sex  envy and fear of the  Gratifying activities: nursing  responsive nurturing is key / sucking same-sex parent  Oral-Dependent Personality: too much stimulation = child may become very  Oedipus Complex (castration anxiety) dependent, submissive o from Oedipus (King of Thebes)  Oral-Aggressive Personality: too little gratification= child will be very aggressive and will o identification with his father (he wants to be his father) get what he wants through force o develops sexual desire for his mother (wants to have his mother)  Symptoms of Oral Fixation: Smoking, Nail biting, Sarcasm and Verbal hostility o gives up identification with father and retains stronger desire for mother 2. Anal Stage o sees father as rival for mother love  Age: 1.5 – 3 years old o (Bisexual) feminine nature  masculine tendency  Focus: Anus o castration complex  castration anxiety (fear of losing penis)  Gratifying Activities: toilet training and urge control  Electra Complex (penis envy)  characterized by satisfaction through aggressive behavior and through excretory o girls assume that all other children have genitals similar to their own function o soon they discover that boys do not only possess different genital equipment but  Phases: apparently something extra  o girls then become envious, feel cheated, and desire to have penis  Psychologically mature people would come through the experiences of childhood and o penis envy: often expressed as a wish to be a boy or desire to have a penis  to adolescence tin control of their psychic energy and with their ego functioning in the center have a baby (find expression in the act of giving birth to a baby) of an ever-expanding world of consciousness o identification with mother (fantasized being seduced by her mother)  id impulses: expressed honestly and consciously with no traces of shame and guilt o hostility on mother for bringing her into the world without penis superego: would move beyond parental identification and control with no remnants of o libido for her father antagonism or incest o simple female oedipus complex (electra complex): desire for sexual intercourse  repression  sublimations with the father and accompanying feelings of hostility for the mother x neurotic symptoms x = not  Success: control envy and hostility  identify with same-sex parent  Failure: Mama’s boy; flirty girl with commitment issues G. APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Latency Period Early Therapeutic Technique  Age: 5 – puberty  Free Association  Time of learning, adjusting to the social environment, form beliefs and values  Dream Interpretation  ‘sublimation stage’  Hypnosis  Developing same-sex friendships  parents attempt to punish or discourage sexual activity in their young children Later Therapeutic Technique if successful  children will repress their sexual drive and direct their psychic energy toward  Free Association: patients are required to verbalize every thought that comes to their mind, school, friendships, hobbies and other nonsexual activities no matter how irrelevant or repugnant it may appear  reinforced through constant suppression by parents and teacher and by internal feelings of  Dream Analysis shame, guild and morality  Transference: refers to the strong sexual or aggressive feelings, positive or negative, that patients develop toward their analyst during the course of treatment Genital Period o Negative Transference: should be recognized to overcome resistance to treatment  Age: Puberty +  Resistance: variety of unconscious responses used by patients to block their own progress in  Focus: Genital therapy  Gratifying Activities: masturbation and heterosexual relationships  Renewed sexual interest desire Dream Analysis  Pursuit of relationships  used to transform the manifest content of dreams ti the more important latent content  No fixations  Manifest Content: surface meaning or the conscious description given by the dreamer  adolescent give up autoeroticism and direct their sexual energy toward another person  Latent Content: unconscious material instead of toward themselves  Condensation: manifest dream content is not as extensive as the latent level, indicating that  reproduction is now possible the unconscious material has been abbreviated or condensed before appearing on the  although penis envy may continue, vagina finally obtains the same status for them that the manifests level penis had for them during infancy; boys see female organ as sought-after object  Displacement: dream image is replaced by some other idea only remotely related to it  entire sexual drive takes on a more complete organization  2 method of interpreting dreams:  mouth, anus and other pleasure producing areas take an auxiliary position to the genitals, o Ask patients to relate their dream and all their associations to it no matter how which now attain supremacy as an erogenous zone unrelated or illogical these associations seemed  Eros: life instinct; Thanatos: death instinct o Dream Symbols – to discover the unconscious elements underlying the manifest content Maturity  3 Typical Anxiety Dreams:  Psychological Maturity: stage attained after a person has passed through the earlier o the embarrassment dream of nakedness: fulfils the wish to exhibit oneself developmental periods in an ideal manner  o dreams of the death of a beloved person: wish for the destruction of a younger o early experience and the predisposition to the mental illness brother or sister who was a hated rival during the infantile period o the preconscious, the unconscious, and the prefrontal cortex o failing an examination in school: anticipating a difficult task o sexual orientation o psychotherapy and structural changes in the brain o psychopharmacology as an adjunct to psychoanalysis Freudian Slips (parapraxes) Unconscious Mental Processing  slips of the tongue (or pen)  core consciousness: unaware (brain stem and ascending activities)  misreading  extended consciousness: aware (activity in the prefrontal cortex)  incorrect hearing  misplacing objects Pleasure and the Id: Inhibition and the Ego  temporarily forgetting names or intentions  pleasure seeking drives: brain system, limbic system and neurotransmitter dopamine  ego: the function was to inhibit drives H. RELATED RESEARCH Repression, Inhibition and Defense Mechanisms Karl Popper  Solms: repression of unpalatable information when damage occurs to the right hemisphere,  Freud’s theory was not falsifiable and therefore not science and if this is damaged regions becomes artificially stimulated, the repression goes away, that is, awareness returns Implicit Cognition  Hysterioud-Obssessioud Questionnaire: the more repressive style people have, the longer it  nonconscious processing of information and memory takes them to consciously perceive a stimulus John Bargh Research on Dreams  (automaticity of being) conclusion 0 95% of our behavior are unconsciously determined  phenomenon of REM Sleep discounted Freud’s theory of dreams  if these cortical structures were not involved in REM sleep and yet they were higher level Cognitive and Neuropsychologists thinking took place, then dreams are simply random mental activity and could not have any  Freud’s theory is one of the most compelling integrative theories (one that could explain inherent meaning many of these findings)  activation-synthesis theory: meaning is what the waking mind gives to these more or less  Psychoanalysis is still the most coherent and intellectually satisfying view of the mind random brain activities, but meaning is not coherent in dreams  Solms: dreaming and REM are not and the same because (1) no one-to-one correct The following concepts have support from modern science: respondence between REM and dreaming; and (2) lesions do not completely eliminate 1. unconscious motivation dreaming, whereas lesions have eliminated dreaming and yet preserved REM sleep 2. repression  results showed that students dreamed move about the supressed targets than 3. the pleasure principle nonsuppressed ones; they also dreamed more about the suppressed target than the 4. primitive drives suppressed nontargets 5. dreams  suppressed thoughts are likely to “rebound” and appear in dreams  dream censor: mechanisms that converts the latent content of dreams into the more Kandel palatable and less frightening the manifest content  psychoanalysis and neuroscience together could make useful contributions in these eight domains: I. CRITIQUE OF FREUD o the nature of unconscious mental processes o the nature of psychological causality Did Freud Understand Women? o psychological causality and psychopathology   frequent criticisms: he did not understand women and that his theory of personality was  But, he battled through his professional life to dispel the notion that he had ever been a strongly oriented toward men; he lacked a complete understanding of the female psyche follower of Freud  why?: he was a product of his times, and society was dominated by men during those times  He was accused by Freud as having paranoid delusions and of using terrorist tactics  tender sex: (what freud regarded women) suitable for caring for the household and  Individual Psychology: feeling of oneness with all humankind nurturing children but not equal to men in scientific and scholarly affairs  Individual psychology is more optimistic than Freud’s and different because:  dark continent for psychology: freud’s recognition that he did not understand women as wl o F: reduced all motivation to sex and aggression as he did men A: he saw people as being motivated mostly by social influences and by striving for  Freud: “if you want to know more about femininity, enquire from your own experiences of superiority or success life or turn to the poets o F: people have little or no choice in shaping their personality A: people are largely responsible for who they are Was Freud a scientist? o F: present behavior is caused by past experiences  he do not claim himself as a natural scientist but a human scientist A: present behavior is caused by people’s view of the future  his theories were not based on experimental investigation but rather on subjective o F: puts emphasis on unconscious components of behavior perceptions that freud made of himself and his clinical patterns A: psychologically healthy people are usually aware of what they are doing and why  how well does his theory meet the 6 criteria for useful theory? they are doing it o generate research: (average) researchers have conducted studies that relate either directly or indirectly to psychoanalytic theory A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ALFRED ADLER o falsifiable: (very low) much of the research evidence consistent with freud’s ideas can also be explained by other models Full name: Alfred Adler o organize knowledge: (moderate) so loose and flexible that seemingly inconsistent data Birthday: February 7, 1870 can coexist within its boundaries Birthlace: Rudolfsheim, Vienna? o guide for the solution of practical problems: (low) psychoanalysis no longer dominates Father: Leopold Adler (Jewish Grain Merchant) the field of psychotherapy, and most present-day therapists use other theoretical Mother: Pauline Adler (homemaker) orientations in their practice Siblings: 7 o internal consistency: the theory generally possessed internal consistency, although Wife: Raissa Epstain Adler (early feminist and more political) some specific terms were used with less that scientific rigor Children: Alexandra Adler, Kurt Adler (Psychiatrists) o parsimonious: not needlessly cumbersome Valentine (Vali) Adler (Political Prisoner) Cornelia (Nelly) Adler (Aspiring Actress) J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY Death: May 28, 1937 Deathplace: Aberdeen Scotland 1. determinism 2. pessimism Significant part of his life: 3. causality  being abandoned in iceskating and the death of his younger brother lead him into becoming 4. unconscious a physician 5. biological  competition with his brother – Sigmund Adler 6. uniqueness and similarities  his sibling and peers played a pivotal role in his childhood  more interested in social relationships  eye specialist  psychiatry and general medicine ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY  part of Wednesday Psychological Society  Vienna Psychoanalytic Society  Adler was one of the original members of Freud’s inner circle, but they never shared a warm  Adler was regarded as disciple of Freud relationship  form the Society for Free Psychoanalytic Study  Society for Individual Psychology   cornerstones of human motivation: o social interest The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority o compassion Striving for success or superiority (single drive motivation) B. INTRODUCTION TO ADLERIAN THEORY  physical deficiency  feelings of inferiority  motivate a person  strive for superiority/success Reasons why Adler isn’t as famous as other theorists:  Drives:  Adler did not establish a tightly run organization to perpetuate his theories o aggression: dynamic power behind all motivation  He was not a particularly gifted writer, and most of his books were compiled by a series of o masculine protest: implied will to power or a domination of others editors using Adler’s scattered lectures o striving for superiority: people who strive for personal superiority  Many of his views were incorporated into the works of such later theorists as Maslow, over others Rogers and Ellis and thus are no longer associated with Adler’s name o striving for success: describe actions of people who are motivated by highly developed social interest Individual Psychology  regardless of the motivation for striving, each individual is guided by a final goal  Emphasized that our unconscious does not determine personality  Theory is about the governing internal forces of personality The Final Goal (4 or 5 y/o)  Overcome inferiorities  People strive a final goal of either personal superiority or the goal of success for all  First to emphasized the role of family in the development of personality humankind  fictional and has no objective existence Inferiority Feelings  Unifies personality and renders all behavior compensable  Compensate for inferiorities  Product of creative power (people’s ability to freely shape their behavior and create their own personality) Source of Inferiorities  reduces the pain of inferiority feelings and points that person in the direction of either  Physical appearance superiority or success  Parenting  If neglected or pampered: goal remains unconscious  Socioeconomic status  If loved and secured: goal is largely conscious and clearly understood  Psychological mentality The Striving Force as Compensation Complexes  People strive for superiority or success as a means of compensation for feelings of inferiority  Negative coping to inferiorities or weakness  Inferiority Complex  people are continually pushed by the need to overcome inferiority feelings and pulled by the o Incompetent self desire for completion o Justify failure  Without the innate government toward perfection, child would never feel inferior; but  Superiority Complex without feelings of inferiority, they would never set a goal of superiority or success o Believes when he is greater than others  2 general avenues of striving: o Socially non-productive attempt to gain personal superiority o Social interest and is aimed at success or perfection for everyone Parenting  too protective: personal superiority Striving for Personal Superiority  uninvolved: inferiority/unwantedness  striving for superiority with little or no concern for others  Their goals are personal ones and their striving are motivated largely by exaggerated feelings C. STRIVING FOR SUCCESS OR SUPERIORITY of personal inferiority or the presence of an inferiority complex   for clever disguises: looks like motivated by social interest, but his actions are largely self- Personality is unified and self-consistent. serving and motivated by overcompensation for his exaggerated feelings of personal superiority Each person is unique and indivisible  Stages of developing superiority: o Be aggressive: actively seek opportunities to improve self Organ Dialect o Be powerful (positive): apply skills  whole person strives in a self-consistent fashion toward a single goal, and all separate o Be superior: mastery of skills actions and functions can be understood only as part of this goal  Directions:  Speaks a language which is usually more expressive and discloses the individual’s opinion o Negative: take advantage of others more clearly than words were able to do so o Positive: help others Conscious and Unconscious Striving for Success  there is unified personality when there is harmony between conscious and unconscious  Psychologically healthy people are those who are motivated by social interest and success of  Conscious: understood and regard by the individual as helpful in striving for success all human kind  Unconscious: part of the goal that is neither clearly formulated nor completely understood  Maintains a sense of self, but they see daily problems from the view of society’s by the individual; not helpful development rather than from a strictly personal vantage point  Social Progress is more important to them than personal credit F. SOCIAL INTEREST D. SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS The value of all human activity must be seen from the view point of social interest. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality. Gemeinchaftsgefuhl  social feeling or community feeling Strivings are shaped not by reality but by their subjective perception of reality – fictions (expectations  feeling of oneness with all humanity it implies membership in the social community of all of the future) people  strives not for personal superiority but for perfection for all people in an ideal community Fictionalism  subjective, fictional final goal that guides our style of life and gives unity to our personality Social Interest  people are motivated not by what is true, but by their subjective perceptions of what is true  an attitude of relatedness with humanity in general as well as an empathy for each member  Ideas that have no real existence, yet they influence people as if they really existed of the human community  Views of motivation  Natural condition of the human species and the adhesive that binds society together o Teleology: future needs o Causality: past experiences Origins of Social Interest  Originates from the mother-child relationship during the early months of infancy Physical Inferiorities  Mother’s job: develop a bond that encourages the child’s mature social interest and fosters  The whole human race is “blessed” with organ inferiorities a sense of cooperation  physical deficiencies alone do not cause a particular style of life; they simply provide present  Father’s job: demonstrate a caring attitude toward his wile as well as to other people motivation for reaching future goals  possible dual errors:  Some people compensate for these feelings of inferiority by moving toward psychological o emotional detachment: may influence the child to develop a warped sense of social health and a useful style of life interest, a feeling of neglect, and possibly a parasitic attachment to the mother o paternal authoritarian: may also lead to an unhealthy style of life, a child who sees the E. UNITY AND SELF-CONSISTENCY OF PERSONALITY father as a tyrant strive for power and personal superiority Importance of Social Interest  Sole criterion of human values Creative Self  Only gauge to be used in judging the worth of a person  freedom to create own style of life  Standard to be seen determining the usefulness of a life  individual is product of environment and heredity  Immature people: lack gemeinschaftgefuhl, are self-centered and strive for personal power  individual influences environment and superiority over others  we can control our environment  Healthy Individual: are genuinely concerned about people and have a goal of success that encompasses the well-being of all people I. ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT  Psychologically unhealthy individuals  exaggerated feeling of inferiority  neurotic style of life General Description  Healthy people  motivated ny normal feelings of incompleteness and high levels of social  Factors underlying all types of maladjustment interest  healthy style of life o Underdeveloped social interest for neurotics: G. STYLE OF LIFE o Set their goals too high o Live in their own private world The self-consistent personality structure develops in a person’s style of life. o Have a rigid dogmatic style of life  people became failures in life because they are overconcerned with themselves and care Style of Life little about others  Flavor of a person’s life  A person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude toward the world External Factors in Maladjustment  Psychologically unhealthy individual: lead inflexible lives  Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies: deficiencies accompanied by accentuated feelings of  Psychologically healthy individual: behave in diverse and flexible ways inferiority  3 major problems of life:  Pampered Style of Life: believe that they are entitled to be first in everything o Neighborly love  Neglected Style of Life: distrustful of other people and are unable to cooperate for the o Sexual love common welfare o Occupation  Ruling Type: dominating Safeguarding Techniques  Getting Type: parasitic  Protective devices enabling people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their  Avoiding Type: denial, avoidant current style of life  Socially Useful Type: appropriate actions to problems accept weaknesses, willing to change  Defense Mechanism: unconscious; Safeguarding Techniques: conscious  Excuses: “yes, but” or “if only” H. CREATIVE POWER  Aggression: protect their fragile self-esteem o Depreciation: tendency to undervalue other people’s achievement and to overvalue Style of life is molded by people’s creative power one’s own o Accusation: tendency to blame other’s failure and to seek revenge Creative Power o Self-Accusation: self-torture and guilt  Places people in control of their own lives, is responsible for their final goal, determines their  Withdrawal: tendency to run away from difficulties method of striving for that goal and contributes to the development of social interest o Moving backward: reverting to a more secure period of life  makes each person a free individual o Standing still: avoid all responsibilities by ensuring themselves against any threat of  each person uses heredity and environment as the bricks and mortar to build personality, failure but the architectural design reflects that person’s own style o Hesitating: “it’s too late now”  “the law of low doorway”  o Constructing obstacles: build an obstacle then knock it off to protect their self-esteem  Everything can be different: If one interpretation doesn’t feel right, try another and prestige  most dreams are self-deceptions and not easily understood by the dreamer Masculine Protest Psychotherapy  emphasize importance of being manly  purpose is to enhance courage, lessen feelings of inferiority and encourage social interest  origins of the masculine protest:  Adler innovated a unique method of therapy with problem children by treating them in front o both men and women place an inferior value on being a woman of an audience of parents, teachers, and health professionals. When children receive o the epitome of success for boys is to win, to be powerful, to be on top. In contrast, girls therapy in public , they more readily understand that their problems are community often learn to be passive and to accept an inferior position in society problems  Adler, Freud and the Masculine Protest  Adler was careful not to blame the parents for a child’s misbehaviour. Instead, he worked to o F: dark continent for psychology win the parents’ confidence and to persuade them to change their attitudes toward the child o A: women – because they have the same physiological and psychological needs as men – want more or less the same things that men want K. RELATED RESEARCH J. APPLICATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY Early Recollections and Career Choice  adler believed that career choices reflect a person’s personality Family Constellation  the kind of career one chooses as an adult is often reflected in one’s earliest recollections  Birth order, gender of siblings, age-spread between siblings  Jon Kasler and Ofra Nevo (2005) found that early recollection in childhood did match career  Firstborn/Eldest: intensified feelings of power and superiority, high anxiety, and type as an adult, atleast for the 3 career types that were well represented in their sample overprotective tendencies; excessive attention seekers, feels inferior after birth of 2nd child, greatest number of problems, third parent, achiever Early Childhood and Health-Related Issues  Secondborn/Middle: if older sibling shows hostility and vengeance, they will highly become  Adler’s theory of inferiority and superiority and social feeling can be applied to explain competitive or overly discouraged; matures toward moderate competitiveness, having a health-related behaviors such as eating disorders and binge drinking healthy desire to overtake the older rival; easiest, tries to dethrone the first born, high need  Susan Belangee (2006) mentioned that dieting, overeating and bulimia can be viewed as of superiority, competition, most insecure common ways of expressing inferiority feelings; eating disorder and its striving towards  Youngest: run in a high risk of being problem children; have strong feelings of inferiority and superiority are an unhealthy means of compensating for inferiority (mostly focused on to lack a sense of independence; highly motivated to exceed older siblings; least amount of striving for superiority and not success because of self-centeredness) power in family, most pampered and protected  Terasa Laird and Andrea Shelton (2006) found out that youngest children in a family were  Only Child: unique position of competing, not against brother and sisters but against father more likely to binge drink, whereas older children demonstrated more drinking restraint and mother; develop an exaggerated sense of superiority and an inflated self-concept; lack well-developed feelings of cooperation and social interest, possess a parasitic attitude; Early Recollections and Counseling Outcomes spoiled, pampered  If early recollections are fictional construction amenable to present shifts in a person’ style of life, then early recollections should change as style of life changes. Early Recollections  Gary Savill and Daniel Eckstein (1987) has a finding in their research that indicates that  recalled memories when counselling is successful, patients change their early recollections.  Always consistent with people’s present style of life and that their subjective account of  Jane Statton and Bobbie Wilborn (1991) has a research that suggests that earl recollections these experiences yields clues to understanding both their final goal and their present style may change as a result of psychotherapy or some other life-altering experience. of life L. CRITIQUE OF ADLER Dreams  although dreams cannot foretell the future, they can provide clues for solving future problems   verification or falsification: one of Adler’s most important concepts – the assumption that  religion and medicine is common to his family present style of life determines early memories rather than vice versa – is difficult to either  mystical beliefs of his family (may be a contribution to his collective unconscious) verify or falsify  his mother having two separate dispositions (may be a contribution to his compendium of  generate research: (above average) much of his theory has been investigated especially early opposites) recollection, social interest and style of life; (moderate) for scales  earliest dream stems  organize knowledge: (high) make sense out of what we know about human behavior  his 2 personalities: (1) extraverted and in tune to the objective world; (2) introverted and  guides action: (high) theory serves significant people with guidelines for the solution to directed inward toward his subjective world practical problems in a variety of settings  Jung and Freud strong mutual respect and affection for one another  internally consistent: (low) lack of precise operational definitions  belief of Freud in him as becoming his successor; a man of great intellect  parsimony: (average) awkward and unorganized writings  first president of International Psychoanalytic Association  Separation with Freud M. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY  Sexual Assualt by a fatherly friend  creative illness (period of loneliness and isolation) 1. free choice 2. optimism B. DYNAMICS/PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHE 3. teleology 4. conscious and unconscious 1. Opposites 5. social influences  the existence of opposites or polarities in physical energy in the universe 6. uniqueness  partly good, partly bad JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2. Equivalence  some condition is not lost but rather is shifted to another part of the personality Analytical Psychology  what on the other side is also on the other side; magnitude  assumption that mystical phenomena can and do influence the lives of everyone 3. Entropy  tendency toward a balance or equilibrium in the personality Jung’s theory is a compendium of opposites. People are both introverted and extraverted; rational and  tension, conscious – unconscious irrational; male and female; conscious and unconscious; and pushed by past events while being pulled 4. Synchronity by future expectations.  no coincidences 5. Individuation A. BIOGPRAGHY OF CARL JUNG  the goal of psyche is to have balance Full name: Carl Gustav Jung C. LEVELS OF THE PSYCHE Birthday: July 26. 1875 Birthplace: Kesswil, Switzerland 1. Conscious Father: Johann Paul Jung (minister)  Sensed by ego, whereas unconscious elements have no relationship with the ego Mother: Emilie Preiswerk Jung (daughter of theologian)  Ego: center of consciousness, but not the core of personality; not the whole personality Siblings: 3 but must be completed by the more comprehensive self Wife: Emma Rauschenbach  Self: center of personality that is largely unconscious Mistress: Sabina Spielrein, Antonia (Toni) Wolff  Individuation: integration of conscious with the unconscious; self-realization Death: June 6, 1961 2. Personal Unconscious Deathplace: Zurich  A reservoir of material that was once unconscious but has been forgotten or suppressed because it was trivial or disturbing Significant part in his life:   repressed, forgotten or subliminally perceived experiences of one particular individual  Progression: adaptation to the outside world involves the forward flow of psychic  Complexes energy o emotionally toned conglomeration of associated idea  Regression: adaptation to the inner world relies on a backward flow of psychic energy o a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized  progression inclines a person to react consistently to a given set of environmental around a common theme conditions, whereas regression is a necessary backward step in the successful o embedded themes that influence consciousness and behavior attainment of a goal o may stem from both the personal and collective unconscious 3. Collective Unconscious E. PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES/THE PSYCHE: CORE OF THE PERSONALITY  Roots in the ancestral part of the entire species  Not innate ideas but rather a human’s innate tendency to react (stimulated by 1. Attitudes biological inherited response tendency)  A predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction  Archetypes  Introversion: turning inward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the o Ancient or archaic images that derive from the collection unconscious subjective; tuned in their inner world with all the biases, fantasies, dreams, and o expressed through different modes: dreams, fantasies, delusions, hallucinations individualized perceptions o Instinct: unconscious physical impulse toward action and archetype psychic  Extraversion: turning outward of psychic energy so that a person is oriented toward the counterpart objective and away from the subjective; more influenced by their surrounding than by o different archetypes: their inner world  Persona: Side of personality that people show to the world; public face  Shadow: Archetype of darkness and repression 2. Functions  Anima: feminine tendency of a man; irrational mood and feelings  Sensing: receives physical stimuli and transmits them to perceptual consciousness; tells  Animus: masculine tendency of women; thinking and reasoning people that something exists; individuals perception of sensory impulses  Great Mother: positive and negative; fertility and nourishment, power and o Extraverted S: Perceive external stimuli objectively, in much same way that these destruction; rebirth: combination of fertility and power, reborn through self- stimuli exist in reality (housepainter) realization o Introverted S: influenced by their subjective sensations; guided by their  Wise Old Man: wisdom and meaning interpretation of sense stimuli rather than the stimuli exist in reality (portrait  Hero: powerful person artists)  Self: inherited tendency toward to move toward growth, perfection and  Thinking: logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas; enables them to completion; archetypes of all the archetypes; mandala: representation of recognize its meaning unity, balance and wholeness o Extraverted T: rely heavily on concrete thoughts (mathematicians, accountants) o Introverted T: more on the internal meaning they bring with them than by the D. DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY objective facts themselves (inventors, philosophers)  Feeling: process of evaluating an idea or event; tells them its value or worth 1. Causality and Teleology o Extraverted F: use objective data to make evaluation; guided by external values  motivation comes from both past experiences and future events and widely accepted standards of judgment (businesspeople, politicians)  human behavior is shaped by both causal and teleological forces and that causal o Introverted F: based their value judgments primarily on subjective perceptions explanations must be balanced with teleological ones rather than objective data (art critics)  Causality: past experiences  Intuition: involves perception beyond the working of consciousness; allows them to  Teleology: future event know about it without knowing how they know 2. Progression and Regression o Extraverted I: oriented towards the fact in the external world (inventors  to achieve self-realization, people must adapt not only to their outside environment but concentrating on unconscious solutions to objective problems) to their inner world as well o Introverted I: guided by unconscious perception of facts that are basically subjective and have little or no resemblance to external reality (mystics, prophets)  Self-Realization/Individuations F. DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY  Process of becoming an individual or whole person  integrating the opposite poles in a single homogeneous individual Jung emphasized the second half of life, the period after age 35 or 40, when a person has the  Realization of the self, minimized their persona, recognized their anima/animus, acquired opportunity to bring together the various aspects of personality and to attain self-realization. balance between introversion and extraversion, elevated all functions to a superior  achieved only by people who are able to assimilate their unconscious into their total 1. Childhood (early morning sun) personality  full of potential but still lacking in brilliance  Transcendence: conflict is resolved by bringing opposing forces into balance with each other  age of innocence with understanding  does not determine future personality  concerned with eating, emptying bowels, sleeping G. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION/ASSESSMENT  problem-free age  Anarchic Phase: chaotic and sporadic consciousness Word Association Test  Monarchic Phase: development of the ego; beginning of logical and verbal thinking;  Presented patients with stimulus words and each verbal response, time taken to make a third person response, rate of breathing and galvanic skin response are recorded  Dualistic Phase: ego as perceiver; objective and subjective ego; first person 2. Youth (morning sun)  climbing toward the zenith, but unaware of the impending decline  birth of psyche (ego) Dream Analysis  towards individuation  people used symbols to represent a variety of concepts – not merely sexual ones – to try to  extraversion period comprehend the innumerable things beyond the range of human understanding  consciousness of “I”  uncover elements from the personal and collective unconscious and to integrate them into  Puberty until middle life consciousness in order to facilitate the process of self-realization  Period of increased activity, maturing sexuality, growing consciousness, problem-free  big dreams: have special meaning for all people era is over  typical dreams: common to most people  Conservative Principle: desire to live in the past  earliest dreams remembered: can be traced back to about age 3 or 4 and contain 3. Middle Life (early afternoon sun) mythological and symbolic images and motifs that could not have reasonably been  brilliant like the late morning sun but obviously headed for the sunset experienced by the individual child  Age of 35 to 40  interact with people Active Imagination  ego forms definite form and content  Requires a person to being with any impression – a dream, an image, vision, or fantasy – and  start of introversion period to concentrate until the impression begins to move  may fight desperately to maintain their youthful appearance and lifestyle  purpose is to reveal archetypal images emerging from the unconscious  period of tremendous potential  its image are produced during a conscious state of mind, thus making them more clear and 4. Old Age (evening sun) reproducible  once bright consciousness now markedly dimmed Psychotherapy  Diminution of consciousness  First stage: confession of a pathogenic secret (cathartic method)  return to the unconscious  Second stage: interpretation, explanation, and elucidation  Fear of death  Third stage: education of patients  completion of the psyche  Fourth stage: transformation (into a healthy being)  Admitted the importance of transference particularly during the first three stages   Countertransference: a term used to describe a therapist’s feelings toward the patient  internal consistency: (low) Jung generally used the same terms consistently, but he often employed several terms to describe the same concept H. RELATED RESEARCH  parsimony: (low) Jung’s psychology is not simple but neither is human personality, it is more cumbersome than necessary The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator  measures Jung’s personality types J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY Personality Type and Investing Money 1. neither pessimistic nor optimistic  business researchers were interested in studying how personality affects the way people 2. neither deterministic nor purposive invest their money 3. party conscious and unconscious  Filbeck and colleagues (2005) wanted to better understand the level of risk individuals 4. both causal and teleological willing to tolerate when ti comes to investing money 5. biological  instrument: MBTI and questionnaire with several different hypothetical situations of either 6. similarities increasing or decreasing their wealth  result: those who are the thinking type have a high tolerance for risk, whereas those of the KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY feeling type have a relatively low tolerance for the same level of risk; extraversion- introversion dimension was not a good predictor of risk tolerance The woman who developed a theory that emphasized the nurturing and loving relationship between  conclusion: personality of investors is an important factor for financial advisors to consider parent and child, had neither a nurturant nor a loving relationship to her own daughter Melitta. when creating an investment portfolio that best eets the needs and personal values of the investor Melanie Klein’s bitter rival:  Edward Glover (analyst of Melitta)  Walter Schmideberg (analyst and husband of Melitta)  Anna Freud Personality Type and Interest In and Attrition From Engi