Sociological Theories Overview

Symbolic Interactionism

• Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that analyzes how individuals interpret and act upon social meanings.
• It emphasizes the importance of symbols and language in shaping social interaction.
• Key thinkers include George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer, and Erving Goffman.

Ethnomethodology

• This approach examines how people make sense of everyday life through methods used in social interaction.
• Focuses on the "taken-for-granted" assumptions and rules that guide behavior.
• Key thinkers include Harold Garfinkel and Emanuel Schegloff.

Structural Functionalism

• This theoretical framework views society as a system with interconnected parts that work together to maintain stability.
• Each social institution has a function contributing to the overall stability of society.
• Key thinkers include Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton.

Feminist Paradigms

• A set of perspectives that challenge traditional sociological approaches and focus on the experiences of women and gender inequality.
• Aims to understand societal power dynamics and the ways in which gender shapes people's lives.
• Diverse branches including liberal feminism, radical feminism, and socialist feminism.

Critical Race Theory

• Analyzes the role of race and racism in society and how systemic inequalities perpetuate racial disparities.
• Examines the intersection of race, class, gender, and other social categories in creating oppression.
• Key thinkers include Derrick Bell, Kimberlé Crenshaw, and Richard Delgado.

Rational Objectivity Reconsidered

• While seeking objective truth is a goal in social science, there are limitations in achieving complete objectivity due to researcher biases and social influences.
• Recognizing the subjective nature of research is crucial for understanding the potential limitations of findings.

Deduction and Induction Compared

• Deductive Reasoning: Starts from a general theory and tests it with specific observations.
• Inductive Reasoning: Begins with observations and uses them to develop a general theory.

The Traditional Model of Science

• A systematic approach to research that follows a structured process of observation, hypothesis formation, testing, and analysis.
• Aims to provide a logical and objective framework for understanding social phenomena.

Deductive Theory Construction

• Begins with a general theory and uses it to generate testable hypotheses.
• Focuses on testing the validity of existing theories through empirical data.

Inductive Theory Construction

• Starts with specific observations and uses them to develop a general theory.
• Emphasizes discovering patterns and generating new theories based on empirical evidence.

The Links Between Theory and Research

• Theory provides a framework for understanding and explaining social phenomena.
• Research provides empirical evidence that can support, modify, or refute theoretical ideas.

The Importance of Theory in the "Real World"

• Theories can be applied to understand real-world social problems and develop solutions.
• They can inform policy decisions and guide practical interventions.

Research Ethics and Theory

• Research ethics are essential for ensuring that research is conducted in a responsible and ethical manner.
• They safeguard the rights and well-being of research participants.

Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation

• Idiographic Explanation: Aims to provide a detailed and complete understanding of a particular case or event.
• Nomothetic Explanation: Seeks to discover general patterns and relationships that can be applied to a wide range of cases.

Inductive and Deductive Theory

• Inductive Theory: Develops from specific observations to generalize patterns.
• Deductive Theory: Begins with a general theory and tests it with specific observations.

Determinism versus Agency

• Determinism: The idea that our behavior is determined by external factors.
• Agency: The capacity of individuals to act independently and make choices.

Qualitative and Quantitative Data

• Qualitative Data: Involves collecting non-numerical data, like text, interviews, or observations, to explore themes and meanings.
• Quantitative Data: Involves collecting numerical data, like surveys or experiments, to measure and analyze relationships.

The Research Proposal

• Outlines a research study's purpose, methods, and potential findings before the study begins.
• Serves as a blueprint for conducting the research and helps ensure its rigor and feasibility.

Measurement

• The process of assigning numerical values to variables to quantify their levels.
• Essential for conducting quantitative research and analyzing data.

Concepts as Constructs

• Concepts are abstract ideas that represent aspects of reality.
• Constructs are complex concepts that are often difficult to define or measure directly.

Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

• Correlation: A statistical relationship between variables.
• Time Order: The cause must precede the effect.
• Non-spuriousness: The relationship between variables is not due to a third factor.

False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

• Probabilistic Causation: The relationship between variables is not deterministic, meaning it does not always occur.
• Correlation is not Causation: Simply because two things are correlated does not mean that one causes the other.

Necessary and Sufficient Causes

• A necessary cause is a condition that must be present for an effect to occur.
• A sufficient cause is a condition that guarantees the effect will occur.

How to Identify the Unit of Analysis

• The Unit of Analysis is the entity being studied (individuals, groups, organizations, etc.)
• Focuses on the level of analysis and ensures that the research question is appropriately framed.