Science and Technology and Society PDF

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY AFRICAN CIVILIZATION Science comes from the Latin word scientia meaning Science and technology in the African region are diverse, "knowledge." Many define science as a systematized body as Africans excel in vari...

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY AFRICAN CIVILIZATION Science comes from the Latin word scientia meaning Science and technology in the African region are diverse, "knowledge." Many define science as a systematized body as Africans excel in various fields such as agriculture, of knowledge metallurgy, engineering, textile production, and medicine. EPISTEMPLOGY - The study of knowledge In the field of agriculture, various African plants including coffee, palm oil, sugarcane, cotton, African rice, and The earliest civilizations of the world were born along rivers sorghum were adopted for planting in different parts of the because people needed fresh water to survive. The rivers world. Aside from using plants as sources of food, Africans provided water to irrigate crops and regular river floods used them for medicinal purposes such as anesthetics made for fertile soil. (pain killers), analgesics, antidotes (for countering poisons), anthelmintics (dewormers), and antimicrobials. MESOPOTAMIA  The first recorded civilizations of the world existed in Advancements in metallurgy and tool making were made the region of Mesopotamia around 3300-750 BC. across the entirety of ancient Africa by local craftsmen for  Mesopotamia, from the Greeks, means "between two hunting and defense. These arrays of tools included bow rivers," which signifies its location within the Tigris and (vurha or uta), arrows (matlhari or miseve), knives Euphrates river system. (mukwanga or banga), and axes (xihloka or demo). Villagers also dug pits lined with poison-tipped stakes (goji or hunza), where animals as big as elephants were SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION captured.  Sumer, now modern-day Iraq, is the earliest known civilization in Mesopotamia. These scientific achievements emerged at least 40,000  The Sumerians called themselves "the black- headed years ago. Unfortunately, other African accomplishments people" They were known for building walled are lesser known compared to other great buildings and city-states and their many inventions are still widely monuments of Egypt. The history of science in Africa, used today. beyond ancient Egypt, is seldom recognized because of the  Sumerians are known for inventing the cuneiform It is West's indisposition to the African way of acquiring characterized by wedge-shaped scripts pressed into scientific knowledge. Apparently, Africans do not separate clay tablets. And Gylphs science from spirituality, religion, culture, and everyday life.  Sumerians inventions - Wheel, Sailboat, chariot, Not only do their scientists act also as religious leaders but Irrigation system, Bricks, and Lunar calendar. acquiring scientific knowledge for Africans did not rely solely on the rational/experimental method. Conversely, BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION Western science assumes that knowledge in science could only be acquired using the rational/laboratory experimental  The ancient city of Babylon served as the center of method and is based on intuition, observation, and trial Mesopotamian civilization for nearly two millennia. and error experimentation.  Babylon is known to be derived from bav-il or bav-ilin meaning "Gates of the Gods." Moreover, the scientific achievements of Africans were minimized by the lack of technological dominance. This  Hammurabi- 6th king of the amourite 1st dynasty of was compounded by racist attitudes of the 16th century. babylon who invented the Code law Africans, whom the Europeans of the 16th century  Marduk, Supreme God, God of thunderstorm enslaved, were not credited for their scientific ability.  Noah's three sons: Ham is the 2nd son, became the African scientists also failed to keep written records (in the father of Cush, who became the father of Nimrod who Western sense of writing) of their findings, and any form of became a great warrior and built a kingdom that documentation was ruined by the lack of proper storage included the city of Babylon. facilities  Tower of Babel, a structure that the Babylonians wanted to build "with its tops in the heavens" to make a name for themselves. ANCIENT EGYPT  References to Babylon in the biblical books of Isaiah,  One of Africa's most famous civilizations was the Jeremiah. Ezequiel, Daniel, and the Revelations ancient Egyptian civilization, which was born along the prompted the expedition of German archaeologist Nile River, which provided rich soil for agriculture. Robert Koldewey, who directed the excavation of  The Nile River flows from the heart of Africa to the Babylon in 1899. Mediterranean Sea.  Hanging Gardens of Babylon, It is believed that the  The land of Egypt was known as Kemet, meaning Gardens were King Nebuchadnezzar II's gift to his "Black Land," because of the rich dark soil along the homesick wife, Amytis. river. Rain seldom fell in Egypt but the flooding from  Archaeologists discovered the different ways that the the Nile helped in cultivating crops, such as wheat and Babylonians used mathematics in their daily lives in flax. cuneiform tablets, dating back from 1800 to 1600 BC.  One of the first scientific innovations of this civilization  Babylonian priests used astronomical calculations, was the construction of a canal for irrigation and other recorded Venus phases, and devised a lunar calendar, agricultural needs. sundials, and water clocks to determine time.  “Papyrus plant” “Modern shadoof”  The Egyptians also made use of and further developed  Papyrus, a material made from the pith of the papyrus the plow to make farming easier, for it helped in plant that is similar to paper, was used by the cultivating the soil for the planting of different crops. Egyptians as a writing surface. With the abundance of Along with this, they also developed the shadoof, an the plant across the Nile Delta, it was also used to irrigation tool composed of a pole and a bucket used make mats, baskets, rafts, ropes, and more. Ancient to lift water. Egyptians are also known for inventing Egypt was also responsible for cosmetic inventions breath mints from frankincense, myrrh, cinnamon including wigs and make-up as seen in their made into pellets, and discovering honey pictograms and hieroglyphics. “The Great Sphinx of Giza” “Statue of Imhotep”  The Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt (c. 2613-2181 BC)  Aside from these contributions, Ancient Egyptians also was rich in architectural feats. It was characterized by developed medicines to treat different kinds of such monuments as the pyramids and the Great illnesses. As a physician, Imhotep wrote texts Sphinx of Giza, a 20-meter high statue made of white describing more than 200 diseases and their limestone depicting a reclining sphinx with a lion's corresponding treatments. body and a human head INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION “The Pyramid of Giza”  The Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt (c. 2613-2181 BC)  The Indus Valley was an ancient civilization located in was rich in architectural feats. It was characterized by present-day Pakistan and Northwest India. It was a such monuments as the pyramids and the Great Bronze-Age civilization and the largest of the four Sphinx of Giza, a 20-meter high statue made of white urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia, limestone depicting a reclining sphinx with a lion's and China. It flourished in the basins of the Indus body and a human head River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River, one of the major  Djoser, pharaoh of the third dynasty of the old rivers in Asia that coursed through Northwest India Kingdom, built the first Step Pyramid in Saqqara and Eastern Pakistan. In the 1920s, archaeologists designed by Imhotep, his architect and physician. The unearthed the ruins of the Indus Valley civilization-the great pyramids of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure were 4,600-year-old city of Mohenjo-Daro. This huge also constructed during the reign of Djoser. discovery proved that Mesopotamia, Babylon, and Egypt were not the only ancient civilizations. “Step Pyramid” “Ruins of Mohenjo-Daro”  Unlike its contemporaries, the Indus Valley Civilization  Ancient China has a very long and rich history of did not have massive monuments, buried mummies in science and technology. It made important tombs, records of wars or battles in its territories, and advancements in science, technology, mathematics, emperors. In spite of this, the two cities excavated at and astronomy. Notably, China was the first to record the site of Mohenjo-Daro on the lower Indus and at astronomical phenomena such as the solar eclipse Harappa suggest that the civilization had a highly and one of the few to witness a guest star supernova developed urban life, which could be compared to at 1054 BC that created the Crab Nebula. those of Sumer and superior to Babylon and Ancient Egypt “Chinese Abacus”  The Indus Valley civilization introduced new  The Chinese also developed a techniques of metallurgy (bronze, tin, copper, and counting device called the lead) and handicraft (seal carving and carnelian abacus sometime between products). Their cities are well known for having 1000 BC and 500 BC. It was well-organized and baked brick houses and clusters of used not only for counting but large non-residential buildings, a complex drainage also for basic and complex system, and a sophisticated water storage system. mathematical operations. “Ruins of brick houses” “Acupuncture”  The Chinese are also responsible for introducing and developing medicinal treatments including acupuncture and herbal medicine. Acupuncture is the practice of relieving pain, healing illnesses, and improving the general  People who resided here also developed accurate well-being of a person by inserting weighing systems and measurements for trade and a several metal needles at precise writing system consisting of 250 to 500 characters. points into the skin and tissue.  The Indus Valley civilization is also known for its advanced agricultural practices. Its people grew crops “Ancient Chinese Paper” such as barley, mustard, peas, and even cotton. They  Under the Han Dynasty (206 also had domesticated animals that included dogs, BC-220 AD), many inventions cats, cattle, fowls, camels, and buffaloes. emerged. The invention of paper in 105 AD greatly affected the way “Depiction of Indus Valley agricultural practices” China recorded its history and produced literature. Together with the first movable printing press created in 960 AD, the production of printed works flourished around the world. “Porcelain Vase”  Another famous invention from China was porcelain. Porcelain is a type of ceramic clay pottery used to craft vases, plates, cups, and decorative furniture which were  Archaeologists and historians are still debating on the treasured by other nations at the possible reasons for the fall of this civilization. Some time of its invention. It has a hard point to the Aryan invasion, while some believe it was surface and is made from special an agricultural downfall due to the drying up of the clay that turns crystalline when river. heated.  Silk originated in China as early as ANCIENT CHINA the Chinese Neolithic period. It is produced by silkworms that feed  Ancient China is known to be one of the oldest and on mulberry leaves and create the longest lasting civilizations of the world. "China" is cocoon where they will later derived from the Sanskrit Cina from the name of the develop. It was during the Han Qin Dynasty, pronounced "Chin." The Greeks and the Dynasty that sericulture-the Romans called China Seres meaning "the land where cultivation and production of the silk comes from." silk-was refined and mastered. The high demand for silk eventually paved the way for its trade to other parts of the world and the creation of the Silk Road, a network of trade routes that connected different countries.   Gunpowder, initially used for fireworks,  Thales of Miletus, regarded as the was also one of the popular creations of first Western philosopher and Chinese Taoist alchemists who mixed mathematician, became popular for sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate in his precise prediction of the solar hopes of creating a potion for eclipse on May 28, 585 BC. Among immortality in 142 AD. It was later on his other contributions were the used in the Mongol Wars of the 10th calculation of the height of century and, ironically, the European pyramids, description of the domination of China in the 1800s. position of Ursa Minor, and the founding of the Milesian School.  Hippocrates, considered as the AEGEAN CIVILIZATION "Father of Western Medicine," made big leaps in the field of medicine by  Ancient Greece refers to a time between 800 BC and observing wounded soldiers, the 500 BC after the so-called Greek Dark Ages. Greece is veins and arteries of the body and a country in Southeastern Europe also known as by determining the correlation of Hellas or Ellada, which is "Greece" in Greek. It is made diet and lifestyle to diseases. The up of a mainland and groups of smaller islands. Hippocratic Oath formulated after his death is an oath of ethics taken.  Ancient Greece is characterized by the expansion of villages and the development of marketplaces and  The invention of the odometer is meeting places. The early inhabitants of Greece relied attributed to Archimedes of on trade. Commercial sea trading was the primary Syracuse during the First Punic War. source of income. Various commodities were traded The early odometer was used to such as fruits, vegetables, wines, and herbs. It is also measure the distance covered by a known for its achievements in politics, art, philosophy, vehicle. It has since then paved the and science. It vastly democratized education, thus way for the advancement of nurturing great philosophers and scientists. These transportation and construction of thinkers, along with countless discoveries of Ancient roads. Greece, provided unparalleled influence on Western Civilization. ANCIENT ROME  Ancient Rome was originally a small town near the Tiber when Augustus Caesar became its first Emperor. It eventually grew greater and stronger because of trade. Rome borrowed and enriched the culture of Greece and became a powerful empire, encompassing most of continental Europe, Britain, Western Asia, the Mediterranean, and Northern Africa.  The Romans took pride in their technological  Greek Philosophy is undeniably the most renowned advancements that were lost in the Middle Ages contribution of the Greeks to Western Civilization. though many of their innovations were adopted from Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates the earlier Greek period. Ancient Rome's legacy can questioned human existence and how the world came be traced to its civil and military engineering that led to be. These philosophers and many who came after to the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and them denied the explanation of religion, superstition, architectural feats such as arenas, monuments, and myths in decoding the human condition and the pantheons, and more. mechanisms of the world. Rational thought replaced the unscientific common notions society then clung to,  In Pergamum (present-day and their minds were opened to new possibilities. Turkey), the physician Galen  Advancements in mathematics and science soon was the first to describe and emerged in Ancient Greece. diagnose symptoms of different diseases and their corresponding treatments. His  Pythagoras, who was also a medical books were considered philosopher, was best known for the standard for many years. the Pythagorean Theorem, which was used to measure distance “ Claudius Galenus” and space. He also believed that "number" is the only objective concept in the understanding of reality.   Surgical instruments such as  The fall of the Roman Empire is still up for debate the rectal speculum, bone among many historians. Although they generally agree levers, and cupping vessels on the year of the fall-476 AD-they disagree on the were used by Roman causes. To some historians, the collapse was caused physicians in the diagnosis by the splitting of the empire in two-the eastern and and treatment of diseases. western halves. To others, an external and internal These were typically made of decay brought the fall of the empire. Population lead, steel, or bronze declined due to wars and diseases. Barbarian invasion, political and economic problems, and the "Ancient Roman surgical instruments" spread of Christianity are also believed to have contributed to the fall of the empire. However, only the western half fell, ending classical antiquity and  Much of Ancient Rome's marking the beginning of the new era in world history innovations may be attributed to called the "Dark Ages," otherwise known as the their use of concrete, known for its "Middle Ages." durability due to the volcanic ash present in the mixture. Roman concrete was versatile as manifested in its use in the construction of roads, buildings, and aqueducts-some parts of which were submerged in water- in Ancient Rome. “Road made of roman concrete”  Appius Claudius Caecus built the first Roman aqueduct called “Aqua Appia” in 312 BC. It transported water to Rome from different bodies of water, and was the precursor of Rome's developed sewage system, sanitation management, and public baths.  The Romans also constructed great architectural feats, two of which are the Colosseum-the largest amphitheater ever built-and the Pantheon-a former Roman temple. These two monuments are well-preserved today. “Colosseum” “Pantheon”  Ancient Rome was famous for its powerful military characterized by formidable leadership and advanced machinery. For long range artilleries, the Romans used the “ballista” to penetrate enemy frontiers. The Greek fire, adopted from the Greeks, was a combustible weapon capable of propelling bombs at the opponent. “ballista”