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MODULE - 1 Ancient India 1 Notes UNDERSTANDING INDIAN HISTORY History is the study of past events. It helps...

MODULE - 1 Ancient India 1 Notes UNDERSTANDING INDIAN HISTORY History is the study of past events. It helps us to understand those processes that enabled the early humans to successfully conquer their environment and develop the present day civilizations. It is not just a study of battles and kings as is normally understood by some. It is an analysis of society, economy and cultural trends over a long period as reflected in available sources. A historian tries to evaluate different situations over a long period and asks questions as to why certain events happened and what was their impact on society at large? Every new evidence or a fresh inter- pretation of existing evidence by different scholars helps in enriching our knowledge about the past. A historian differentiates between fact and fiction. However , myths which are based on oral tradition of a society may contain memories of past happen- ings. The historian’s job is to ascertain the fact through cross checking of different historical evidence. In this lesson you will learn how India’s ancient past was con- structed with the help of large varieties of historical evidence and their interpretation. OBJECTIVES After studying this lesson, you will be able to: understand historical construction of India’s ancient past; know about various types of source material used by ancient historians and identify changing traditions of history writing. 1.1 SOURCES FOR RECONSTRUCTING ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY A historian needs source material to reconstruct the past. But sources themselves do not reveal the past. They need interpretation and the historian makes them speak. In fact the historian is expected to track the source, read texts, follow clues, ask relevant questions, cross check evidence to offer meaningful explanation. For example in 1826 Charles Masson noticed the high walls and towers of an old settlement in Harappa Village of western Punjab ( now in Pakistan), and five decides later Sir Alexander Cunningham collected some seals from the site, but it took archaeologist John Marshall another fifty years to identify the oldest civilization in the Indus region. We shall offer another example regarding the historian’s task to cross check (corroborate) different types of evidence. Nowhere in the sources pertaining to king Harsha (seventh cen- tury AD) do we find a mention of his defeat at the hands of Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II. But the inscriptions of Pulakesin II claim a victory over Harsha. In this case it is HISTORY 1 MODULE - 1 Understanding Indian History Ancient India obvious that Harsha’s biographer Bana Bhatt who wrote Harshacharita deliberately did not mention the defeat of his patron. The literal meaning of the itihasa is ‘thus it was’ and it is translated as ‘history’. There was a time when only written records were acknowledged as authentic source of Notes history. Written material could be verified, cited and cross-checked. Oral evidence i.e myths and folk songs was never considered a valid source. Earlier historians used myth, fiction and oral traditions in a limited way on account of their lack of authentic- ity and verifiability. But today these unconventional sources are being used innovatively. Traditions and cultural traits should be studied in the light of other historical facts. For example the Mahabharata is a story of conflict between two sets of warring cousins. One in not sure whether there was a real war as narrated in the epic. Some historians believe that the war did happen while others wait for corroborative evi- dence for the event.The original story was probably composed by bards known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and recited poems in praise of victories and other achievements of their heroes. These composi- tions were circulated orally and preserved as part of human memory. LITERARY SOURCES 1.2 RELIGIOUS LITERATURE Most ancient Indian texts contain religious themes and these are known as Vedas. They are assigned to c. 1500–500 B.C. The Vedas are four in number. The Rig Veda mainly consists of prayers. The other three, Sama, Yajur and Atharva-contain prayers, rituals, magic and mythological stories. The Upanishads contain philosophical discus- sion on atma and pramatma. They are also referred to as Vedanta. The two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, seem to have been finally compiled by c.A.D. 400. Of the two, the Mahabharata is attributed to sage Vyasa. It originally consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jaya gita or a song dealing with victory. These later got expanded to 24,000 verses and came to be known as Bharata be- cause it contained the stories of the descendents of one of the earliest Vedic tribes called Bharata. A further expanded version of 1,00,000 verses was named Mahabharata. Similarly the Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses than 12,000 verses and was finally expanded to 24,000 verses. In the post-Vedic period ( i.e. after BC600) we have recorded a large number of ritual literature on moral values called Sutras. Grand public sacrifices to be performed by rulers are recorded in Shrautasutra while domestic rituals connected with birth, naming, sacred thread ceremony, marriage, funerals etc. are prescribed in Grihyasutras. This literature was compiled between c. 600–300 B.C. The religious books of the Jainas and Buddhists refer to historical persons and incidents connected with their respective religions. The earliest Buddhist texts were written in Pali. They are called Tripitakas (three baskets) viz. Suttapittaka, Vinayapitaka and Abhidhammapitaka. Of the most important non religious Buddhist literature are the Jatakas. They contain the stories of the previous birth of the Buddha. It was believed that before he was actually born as Gautama, the Buddha passed through over 550 births. Each birth story is called a Jataka. These stories throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions of the period between the fifth and second centuries BC The Jaina texts were written in Prakrit and were eventually compiled in sixth century AD at Vallabhi in Gujarat. They are called Angas and contain the philosophical concepts of the Jainas. 2 HISTORY  Understanding Indian History MODULE - 1 Ancient India 1.3 SECULAR LITERATURE This category of literature does not have religion as its theme. To this class belongs the Dharmashastras or the law-books which prescribe the duties for different social groups. They set out punishments for persons guilty of theft , murder, adultery, etc. Notes The earliest law books is Manu Smriti. It was the first book translated by the British and formed the basis of Hindu code of law. Arthasastra of Kautilya provides rich material for the study of Indian economy and polity of the Mauryan period. Works on grammar are also sometimes useful for historical reconstruction. The earliest and the most important work on grammar is the Ashtadhyayi written by Panini, which is dated by scholars to around 700 B.C. The works of Kalidasa who lived during the Gupta period comprise poems and dramas. The famous among them are Abhijananashakuntalam, Ritusamhara and Meghadutam. Besides being great creative compositions, they provide us with glimpses of the social and cultural life of the Guptas. For the history of Kashmir we have an important book called Rajataranagini written by Kalhana( 12th AD) Biographies or charitias are very important non-religious texts for writ- ing history. They were written by court poets in praise of their patron rulers. As there is a tendency among them to exaggerate the achievements of the patrons they have to be studied with caution. One such important text is Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta in praise of Harshavardhana. The earliest south Indian literature is called Sangam literature. It was written in Tamil and is secular in nature. It was produced by poets who joined together in assemblies (Sangam) patronized by chiefs and kings during the first four centuries of the Chris- tian era. The literature consists of short and long poems in praise of various heroes, written probably to be recited in the courts. It also constitutes the epics called Silpadikaram and Manimekali. The Sangam literature is our major source for the study of south Indian society, economy and polity during BC300–AD300. The de- scriptions given in the Sangam literatures are confirmed by archaeological finds and accounts of foreign travellers. INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1 1. Give the names of four Vedas? (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 2. Which is the earliest text on Sanskrit Grammar? 3. What are Jatakas? 4. What is the language of the south Indian literature called Sangam Literature? 5. What are the Upanishads? HISTORY 3 MODULE - 1 Understanding Indian History Ancient India 1.4 NON-LITERARY SOURCES INSCRIPTIONS Inscriptions are permanent writings engraved on hard surface such as stone, metal or Notes terracotta. Study of inscriptions is called epigraphy. The earliest inscriptions were written on stone. They usually record the achievements, activities and ideas of those who got them inscribed. So we get inscriptions which glorify the exploits of kings or mention donations made by men and women for religious purposes. Those inscriptions which are composed by poets in praise of kings and patrons are known as prashastis. Some inscriptions carry dates. Others are dated on the basis of palaeography or style of writing, with a fair amount of precision. The earliest inscriptions were in Prakrit, a name for a language used by ordinary people. In later times, Tamil and Sanskrit were also used to write inscriptions. The Mauryan king Ashoka was the first person to issue inscriptions. Most of his inscriptions are in Prakrit language written in the Brahmi script though, some in the northwest, were written in Kharosthi. The Aramaic and Greek scripts were used for inscriptions in Afghanistan so that the local people could understand their subject matter. The Brahmi script was first deciphered in 1837 by James Princep who was a civil servant during the British rule. Brahmi was written from left to right like Hindi while Kharosthi from right to left. Ashokan inscriptions help us greatly in understand- ing his religious and administrative policies. From the first century B.C. the kings started granting land to religious people. The Satavahans kings of the Deccan were the first ones to do so. These inscriptions record the concessions granted to the donee ( the receiver of grant ). Such inscriptions help us in finding out the religious and economic activities of the period. Some of these inscriptions are written on stone but most on copper plates. The copper plate charters were probably given as a record of the transaction to those who received the land and were granted concessions. However, there are some limitations of inscriptional evidence. For example some- times, letters are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain. Also, inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing. Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time. INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2 1. What is the study of inscriptions called? 2. What are parashatis? 3. Define palaeography? 4. In which script are most of the inscriptions of Ashoka written? 4 HISTORY  Understanding Indian History MODULE - 1 Ancient India 1.5 COINS The study of coins is known as numismatics. It not only includes visual elements such as script and images on the coins but also metallurgical analysis. Ancient coins were mostly minted in metals such as copper, silver, gold and lead. The earliest coins found in India Notes contained certain symbols and were called punch-marked coins. They were made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BC onwards). The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the northwestern part of the subcontinent (c. second century BC). The first gold coins were issued by the Kushanas in c. first century AD. Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. Their earliest issues are remarkable for their purity of gold content. Coins provide useful information regarding economic history as they were used as a medium of exchange. Some coins were issued by guilds or associations of the merchants and craftsmen with the permission of the rulers. This shows the influence of craft and commerce. Coins also portray kings and gods, and contain religious symbols, all to which throw light on the art and religion of the time. INTEXT QUESTON 1.3 1. What is the study of the coins known as? 2. Name the metals used to make punch-marked coins? 3. Which dynasty issued the first gold coins in India? 1.6 ARCHAEOLOGY The material remains of the past can be studied with the help of archaeology. Archaeol- ogy is a science that enables us to systematically dig the successive layers of old mounds and to form an idea of the material life of the people of the past on the basis of remains found there. Archaeology is very important to study prehistory i.e. the period before the invention of writing. History is basically based on written material. Although writing was known in India by 2500 BC in the Indus culture, its script has not so far been deciphered. Thus, though the Harappans knew how to write but the historians have not been able to read it. Their culture is placed in the period called proto-historic phase. The first script to be deciphered was Brahmi which was used in the Ashokan inscriptions and it belongs to the third century BC. Excavations have brought to light the tools of early humans in India going as back as seven lakh years. The excavated sites belonging to the Harappan period show the layout of the settlements and the form of the houses in which people lived, the type of pottery, tools and implements they used and the kind of cereals they consumed. In south India some people were buried along with their tools, weapons, pottery and other belongings under big and heavy stones. These graves are known as megaliths. By digging them we learn about the life of people who lived in the Deccan and south India before the third century BC. HISTORY 5 MODULE - 1 Understanding Indian History Ancient India The dates of remains found in excavations are fixed by various methods. The most important of them is the Radiocarbon or Carbon 14 (C14) dating method. Carbon 14 is a radioactive carbon present in all living objects. It decays, like all radioactive sub- stances, at a uniform rate when the object is dead. By measuring the loss of C14 Notes content in an ancient object (wood or bone) its age can be determined. The history of climate and vegetation is known through an examination of plant resi- dues, and especially through pollen analysis. On this basis it is suggested that agricul- ture was practised in Kashmir and Rajasthan around 7000–6000 BC. The nature and components of metal artefacts can also be analysed scientifically, and consequently the mines from which metals were obtained are located and stages in the develop- ment of metal technology identified. The geological studies provide an idea of the history of soil, rocks etc, where prehistoric man lived. Human history cannot be un- derstood without an idea of the continuing interaction between soils, plants and ani- mal, on one hand, and humans, on the other. Taken together with archaeological remains, geological and biological studies act as important sources for the recon- struction and development of human history. INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.4 1. Define Archaeology? 2. What is the use of C14 dating? 1.7 ACCOUNT OF FOREIGN TRAVELLERS Indigenous literature can be supplemented by foreign accounts. To India came Greek, Roman and Chinese visitors, either as ambassadors or travellers or to seek religious knowledge from time to time. They have left behind an account of the things they saw. To the court of Chandragupta Maurya came a Greek Ambassador called Megasthenes who wrote Indika. Its original text is lost but parts of it have been preserved in fragments quoted by subsequent Greek writers. When read together, these fragments, furnish valuable information not only about the administration but also social classes and economic activities of the Mauryan period. Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second centuries mention many Indian ports and commodities of trade between India and the Roman Empire. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography, both written in Greek, provide valuable data in this regard. Of the Chinese travelers, mention may be made of Fa-hsien and Hsuan Tsang. Both of them were Buddhist and came to this country mainly to visit the Buddhist shrines and to study Buddhism. Fa-hsien who came to India in the fifth country AD describes the conditions in India in the age of Guptas whereas Hsuan Tsang pre- sents a similar account of India in the seventh century during the time of king Harshavardhan. Hsuan Tsang also describes in detail the glory of Nalanda Univer- sity (Bihar) during his times. 6 HISTORY  Understanding Indian History MODULE - 1 Ancient India INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.5 1. Who wrote the Indika? Notes 2. Name the Chinese travelers who came to India? 3. Which Chinese traveller refers to the glory of Nalanda University? 1.8 CHANGING NOTIONS OF HISTORY It was suggested, particularly by western scholars that ancient Indians had no sense of writing history, But it is not true. Actually, Indian’s sense of writing history was different from that of the Westerners. The people from the West recorded events in chronological order while the ancient Indians wrote in a dif- ferent manner. It can be seen in the texts called the Puranas where four differ- ent ages called Krita, Treita, Dvapara and Kali are mentioned. And in each age we get detailed lists of the rulers and dynasties. Besides, a large number of inscriptions have been discovered. These give genealogies of kings of various dynasties and also refer to their achievements. It shows that Indians had the basic knowledge of time (period) and space where events were taking place. Modern research in ancient India history began in 1765 when East India Com- pany took control of Bengal and Bihar. In order to administer the Hindu law, Manu Smriti the ancient Indian text on law was translated into English in 1776. These initial efforts of the British to understand ancient laws and customs culmi- nated in the establishment of Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784. Under its aegis and that of several other such societies Hindu religious and classical texts were translated into English. The greatest impetus to Indological studies was given by Max Mueller, a German born scholar. Soon the British realized that they needed an intense knowledge of Indian scriptures and social systems to rule them better. Even the Christian missionaries felt the need to know more about Indian laws and customs in order to convert them and help the British strengthen their rule. While translating the texts, western scholars wrote about Indian unwillingness to change and they being accustomed to despotic rule. In 1904, Vincent A Smith wrote Early History of India. It was the first systematic history of ancient India. In this book his approach to history was pro British and he tried to justify the British rule in India. It served as good propaganda material for the perpetuation of despotic British rule. The Indian scholars, especially those who had received Western education, were upset about the way the British were presenting India history to their advantage. uided by the Nationalist ideas some of them took upon themselves the task of rewrit- ing history to show to the world the true glory of Indian culture. Two notable nation- alist historians were R.G. Bhandarker (1837–1925) and V.K. Rajwade (1869–1926) who reconstructed social and political history with the help of various sources. While doing so they also attacked some of the social evils like child marriage and caste HISTORY 7 MODULE - 1 Understanding Indian History Ancient India system and promoted widow remarriage. The contribution of P.V. Kane (1880–1972) is remarkable. He wrote a monumental work entitled History of Dharmasastra. It highlights the chief elements of ancient Indian society. These Indian scholars carefully studied ancient Indian texts on polity to demon- Notes strate that ancient Indians had a keen sense of administration. D.R Bhandarkar (1875–1950), an epigraphist, published books on ancient Indian political institu- tions. H.C. Raychaudhuri (1892–1957) reconstructed the history of ancient India and while doing so criticized V.A. Smith at many points. A stronger element appears in the writings of R.C. Majumdar (1888–1980) who edited a multi-vol- ume History and Culture of Indian People. Until 1960, Indian scholars inspired by the idea of nationalism glorified the histories of their respective regions and of India as such. The merit of exploding the myth of despotism goes to K.P. Jayaswal (1881–1937). He wrote about the existence of Indian republics and self-govern- ment in ancient India. After independence, a new trend in history writing took over. There was a shift to- wards the writing of non-political history with greater emphasis on society and economy. The Wonder that was India was one such pioneering work written by A.L. Basham (1914–1986). A further shift is evident in D.D. Kosambi’s (1907 – 1966) book An Introduction to the Study of Indian History. His treatment follows a socio- economic aspect of ancient Indian history. After him a large number of historians followed the trend and focused on social, economic and cultural history. Their main stress was on means of production and the social and economic relationship among different groups of people. INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.6 1. Describe the trend that developed in history writing after independence. 1.9 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY For an overall knowledge of the past, students are to be made aware of various aspects of society, called THEMES. These themes enable us to learn about de- velopments in different spheres – social, economic, religious, political and cul- tural. The developments in these spheres are so much interlinked that they often break the boundaries between them, for example when the pastoral society of the early Vedic Age got transformed into settled agricultural society in the later Vedic Age, the political system changed as a consequence. The king who was earlier known as Gopati (lord of cattle) in pastoral society became Bhupati (lord of land) with the development of agricultural economy. And with that the wars began to be fought for acquiring more land instead of cows. The kings gradually became powerful and kingship hereditary. So, we notice that changes in different spheres are related to each other an they often influence major developments. In this course material you will learn about the development in the fields of art, architecture, caste system, science and economy, technology and also about the rise and growth of various religious sects and rituals 8 HISTORY  Understanding Indian History MODULE - 1 Ancient India TERMINAL QUESTIONS 1. Write a short note on secular literature of Ancient India Notes 2. Write five sentences on coins as a source material for reconstructing history? 3. How does archaeology help us in understanding the past? ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1 1. Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva 2. Ashtadhyay 3. They contain stories of the previous lives of Gautama the Buddha 4. Tamil 5. Upanishads are the last part of the Vedas. They discuss the philosophy of atma and paramatma. 1.2 1. Epigraphy 2. Inscriptions composed by poets in praise of kings and other patrons 3. Style of writing 4. Brahmi 1.3 1. Numismatics 2. Silver and Copper 3. Kushanas 1.4 1. Science of digging to understand the past. 2. It helps in dating the bones or wood found in archaeological excavations 1.5 1. Megasthenes 2. Fa-hsien, Hsuan Tsang 3. Hsuan Tsang 1.6 1. Refer para 6 section 1.9 HINTS TO TERMINAL QUESTIONS 1. Refer 1.3 2. Refer 1.5 3. Refer 1.6 HISTORY 9 MODULE - 1 Ancient India Notes 2 THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND PRE-HISTORIC CULTURES OF INDIA The history of any country or region cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography. The history of the people is greatly conditioned by the geography and environment of the region in which they live. The physical geography and envi- ronmental conditions of a region include climate, soil types, water resources and other topographical features. These determine the settlement pattern, population spread, food products, human behaviour and dietary habits of a region. The Indian subcontinent is gifted with different regions with their distinct geographical features which have greatly affected the course of its history. Geographically speaking the Indian subcontinent in ancient times included the present day India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Pakistan. On the basis of geographical diversities the subcontinent can be broadly divided into the follow- ing main regions. These are: (i) The Himalayas (ii) The River Plains of North India (iii) The Peninsular India OBJECTIVES After studying this lesson, you will be able to: explain the physical divisions of Indian subcontinent; recognize the distinct features of each region; understand why some geographical areas are more important than the others; define the term environment; establish the relationship between geographical features and the historical devel- opments in different regions; define the terms prehistory, prehistoric cultures, and microliths; distinguish between the lower, middle and upper Palaeolithic age on the basis of the tools used; explain the Mesolithic age as a phase of transition on the basis of climate and the 10 HISTORY  The Geographical Setting and pre-historic MODULE - 1 Ancient India tools used; explain the Neolithic age and its chief characteristics; differentiate between Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods and learn about the Prehistoric Art. Notes 2.1 THE HIMALAYAS The Himalayas are the world’s largest and the highest mountain ranges. These are approximately 2,400 kilometers long. (Map 2.1). These ranges have not only checked invasions but have also protected us from the cold winds coming from north. They also stop the monsoon winds from the seas which results in rainfall in the northern plains. However, there are some mountain passes which, though difficult, have 64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° 100°E h ns u Ku 28° 28° ind N H THE PHYSICAL H FEATURES OF INDIA I b na M m he 24° elu R. C 24° Jh R. n ma R avi lai R. Su tluj una S a R. Jam s A har u Ind R. L Kirt R. 20° 20° N A O R Thar T Y A H Desert l E ba R utra m N hmap ha R. Bra i P all C L R. av A R. Gan Ar I N ges 16° S 16° s Vin dhya R. Narmada uras Satp R. Mahanadi pti R. Ta 12° 12° R. Go S dava ri T A W E D E C C A N H G PLATEAU S T ARABIAN R. Kris BAY E R 8° SEA hna OF 8° BENGAL N N R t E oas G H T al C S AN A AT and DA E Ma MA 4° rom 4° S lab NA LAK INDIA) Co ar C R. Kaveri ND NDIA SHA oas ( (I NIC ) t DWE OB AR P E 0° 0° ISL Sri AN Lanka DS 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 Km. Km. INDIAN OCEAN 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° 100° Map 2.1 The Great Northern Mountains HISTORY 11 MODULE - 1 The Geographical Setting and pre-historic Ancient India provided access to determined invaders, traders, missionaries. These have helped in developing cultural contacts with Central Asia, China and Tibet in ancient times. In the north-western direction the broken Himalayan ranges contain the major routes linking the Indian plains with Iran and Central Asia through Afghanistan. These pass Notes through the Gomal, Bolan and Khyber passes. The Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, Hunas and other foreign tribes reached India following these routes. Likewise, Buddhism and other Indian elements were carried out to Afghanistan and Central Asia through these mountain passes. 2.2 THE RIVER PLAINS OF NORTH INDIA The Himalayas also provide India with three river systems dominated by the Indus, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. These rivers made their respective regions fertile and attracted both settlers and invaders. The Indus plains include the regions of Punjab and Sind. Irrigated by the tributaries of the river Indus, they form a vast fertile plain which have made the region the ‘bread- basket’ of the subcontinent. It is called so because this region is very important for wheat cultivation. The strategic location and richness of the Punjab region has at- tracted foreign invaders since ancient past. The Sind region includes the lower Indus Valley and the delta. It is the Indus plains which witnessed the development of an urbanized culture called the Harappan culture for the first time in the subcontinent. (see lesson 3) The Gangetic basin receives more rainfall and is more humid than the Indus region. The Gangetic plains is divided into three sub-regions: Upper, Middle and Lower. The Upper plains of the river Ganges constitute the western and southern parts of Uttar Pradesh. This region has seen active cultural developments since the ancient period. This was inhabited by the Aryans in the Later Vedic period, during which they prac- tised agriculture. The Middle Gangetic plains, which is more fertile and has more rainfall, include eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. It is the region where mahajanpadas (territorial states) like Kosala, Kasi and Magadha were established in the 6th century BC. The two main religions of India, Jainism and Buddhism, also took their birth here. The lower Gangetic plains constitute the Bengal region. Its northern part is irrigated by the Brahmputra. The high rainfall in this region created dense forest and marshy land which made it difficult for the development of settlements in the beginning. But its coastal areas served as important channels of communication with other regions of the subcontinent and also with the South-east Asian countries. Tamralipti or Tamluk was an important seaport of this region which played a significant role in commercial activities. The Eastern India normally refers to the coastal plains formed by the river Mahanadi and other streams. The fertile coastal plains of this region helped in the development of agriculture, society and culture. This came into contact with the Gangetic culture from the time of the Nandas and the Mauryas (4th century BC). Around AD 1000 Orissa began to develop her distinct linguistic and cultural identity. The Western India refers to the regions of the modern states of Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is known for its black soil which is good for cotton cultivitation. The Thar desert of Rajasthan, surrounded by the semi-arid regions, was not as fertile as the Gangetic plains. As a result, this region was not much favourable for cultivation. However, later in the 8th century AD, with the growth of irrigation mechanism in the form of Persian 12 HISTORY  The Geographical Setting and pre-historic MODULE - 1 Ancient India wheel (rehat), many settlements emerged here. Rajasthan is also the home of the Rajput clans. In Gujarat the fertile plains of the rivers Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada and Tapti brought prosperity. A very long coastal line too helped Gujarat to develop con- tacts with other countries through its ports. The most important sea port of this region has been Brigukaccha or Bharuch (Broach). Notes 2.3 THE PENINSULAR INDIA Peninsular India includes the Deccan plateau and the coastal plains of South India (Map 2.2). The plateau is situated to the south of the Vindhya mountains. It is divided into three major regions which largely correspond to the modern states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The northern Deccan plateau comprises of a part of Maharashtra. A number of Chalcolithic sites inhabited by people using copper and stone tools have been found in this region. Karnataka includes the southwestern Map 2.2 Peninsular India HISTORY 13 MODULE - 1 The Geographical Setting and pre-historic Ancient India Deccan. This region with the availability of water and other resources had been more suitable for human settlements than the northern part. The Raichur doab for its rice cultivation has been known as the ‘rice-bowl’ of South India. It has been the bone of contention between different kingdoms. These regions were inhabited right from the Notes prehistoric times. The plateau region also has hilly terrains in the Western and Eastern Ghats. The Western Ghats rise sharply close to the western coast, tapering eastwards into the plateau. They are cut by a series of passes at Junnar, Kanheri and Karle. These served as trade routes connecting the ports along the west coast. At the southern end of the Western Ghats is the Palghat pass which linked the west coast to the Kaveri valley and played an important role in the Indo-Roman trade in ancient period. The Eastern Ghats merge more gradually into the plateau and the coastal plain. The coastal plains constitute the states of Tamil Nadu in east and Kerala on west. In Tamil Nadu the rivers are seasonal. As a result, the people of this region have de- pended more on the tank irrigation since the early times. However, Kaveri delta has been the major region of human attraction. It provided opportunity for the cultivation of rice and witnessed the flourishing of the Sangam culture in the early historical period. The ports such as Arikamedu and Kaveripattinam gave impetus to the Indo- Roman Trade in early centuries of Christian era. The Tamil region evolved a distinct linguistic and cultural identity of its own. INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.1 1. Name the important mountain passes in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent. 2. Who inhabited the upper plains of the river Ganges during the later Vedic period. 3. What were the two important religions which took birth in the middle Gangetic plains. 4. In which state has tank irrigation been popular since the ancient period. 5. The Kaveri delta is famous for which crop? 6. Name any two foreign tribes that reached India through north-western mountain passes in ancient times. 7. Which region is known as the ‘breadbasket’ of the subcontinent? 14 HISTORY  The Geographical Setting and pre-historic MODULE - 1 Ancient India 2.4 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT The settlement of people in any region is very much dependent on its environmental conditions. Environment is taken as the surroundings or conditions in which various species (men, animals and plants) exist and function. The environment mainly com- Notes prises of elements such as climate, landscape, rivers, species of plants and animals (flora and fauna), etc. Now, let us see how environment has influenced the life of people and their history since ancient past. A semi-arid region is advantageous to people for settlement purpose. For example, the Sind region having this type of climate in ancient period, resulted in the flourishing Harappan civilization. It also helped the growth of urban settlements. Similarly, the rise of Pataliputra and the importance of Magadha in Bihar can also be explained in relation to its physical features and environment. Pataliputra was surrounded by the rivers namely the Ganges, Son and Gandak which provided natural defence as well as internal communication. Moreover, the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains helped in the maintenance of a strong population base. The environmental conditions also determine the resource potential of a region. The forested region can be a rich source of timber, whereas the coastal regions yield the sea products. The hilly regions with rocks containing the mineral ores can lead to the development of metallurgy. The extraction of metals and their use for tools and other purposes may add to the standard of living. For example, Magadha was located in proximity to the iron ore mines and sources of stone and timber in the region of Chhotanagpur plateau. This strengthened the position of Magadha. The subsistence pattern is also influenced by the environmental conditions. The re- gions covered by the river plains have alluvial soil. The fertility of soil helps in surplus production. The type of soil also determines the crop pattern. For example, black soil is good for growing cotton. The surplus production results in exchange activities which develop into trade on a larger scale. An area gifted with navigable rivers has well developed trade and communication networks. Our ancient literature like the Jatakas and other texts, mention many riv- erine routes in ancient India. Similarly, the coastal routes promote the long distance trade with different countries. The mountain passes are also very important in this context. For example, the Palghat pass linked the east and west coasts and thus helped in the growth of Indo-Roman trade in ancient times. Thus, we find that the physical features and environment help us to unfold the histori- cal processes of a region. The diversity of Indian subcontinent presents an uneven pattern of historical developments. The areas which were rich became important while those with less resources lagged behind. It is important to observe that the settlement pattern and mode of life depend on the local resource utilization which in turn is dependent on the technological developments in that region. INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.2 1. Name the rivers which provided a natural defence to Pataliputra (modern Patna). 2. Which region supplied iron ore and timber to Magadha? HISTORY 15 MODULE - 1 The Geographical Setting and pre-historic Ancient India 3. Which type of soil is good for growing cotton? (Black / Red / Sandy). 4. Which famous mountain pass linked the east and west coasts of India? Notes 2.5 PREHISTORIC CULTURES Prehistoric period is that period of our ancient past for which we do not have written records. Therefore our knowledge of the cultures, which developed in this period, is based only on the materials found in the archaeological excavations. The earliest man living during this period made tools and implements of stone found in his surroundings. These tools helped him to hunt and gather food in order to satisfy his hunger. Since the earliest tools used by humans were made of stones, this phase of human development is known as the Stone Age. In this lesson we shall trace the evolution of prehistoric man from a hunter and food-gatherer to a food producer. This change did not take place all of a sudden and took several hundred thousand years. On the basis of the different type of tools and techniques the stages of human development in prehistoric period are described as the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age, the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age, and the Neolithic or New Stone Age. 2.6 THE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES The term Palaeolithic is derived from the Greek word ‘palaeo’, which means old and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Therefore, the term Palaeolithic age refers to the old stone age. The archae- ologists have dated this culture to the Pleistocene period about two million years ago. The Pleistocene period is the geological period of the age when the earth’s surface was covered with ice, and weather was so cold that human or plant life could not survive. But in the tropical region, where ice melted, the earliest species of men could exist. The people lived near the hillocks and used only stone tools for hunting and their protec- tion. However, the choice of raw material used for tool-making varied from region to region and depended upon its availability. The material used was quartzite available in hilly areas of different regions, basalt found in Maharashtra region and limestone in Karnataka region. On the basis of the nature of progress made in tool types and tech- niques the Palaeolithic cultures have been divided into three phases. These are – (i) Lower or Early Palaeolithic, (ii) Middle Palaeolithic, (iii) Upper or Late Palaeolithic. These phases covered a long period ranging broadly from 5,00,000 to 10,000 B.C. (a) Tools of the Palaeolithic Period The main tools of lower Palaeolithic phase were handaxes, cleavers and choppers. (Fig 2.1) These are called chopping tools. These were rough and heavy and were made by chipping the sides of the stones. Gradually, sharper and less heavy tools came to be made. The flake tools or chipped pieces were the chief tools during the middle Palaeolithic period. (Fig 2.2) The tools of the upper Palaeolithic period primarily consisted of burins and scrapers. (Fig 2.3) Let us now discuss in brief the chief features and uses of some of the tools mentioned above. In handaxes, the butt end is broader and the working edge is narrow. These 16 HISTORY  The Geographical Setting and pre-historic MODULE - 1 Ancient India Notes Fig 2.1 Chopping Tools & Hand Axes of Lower Paleolithic Age Fig 2.2 Chopping Tools & Hand Axes of Lower Paleolithic Age Fig 2.3 Chopping Tools & Hand Axes of Lower Paleolithic Age were used for cutting the trees or digging the roots. The cleavers had a bifaced edge. These were meant for splitting objects like the trunks of trees. The choppers were the massive core tools with a unifacial working edge, and were used for chopping pur- poses. The burins were like flakes or blades. These were used for engraving on soft stones, bones or rocks. The scrapers were also made of flakes. These tools served the purpose of obtaining barks of trees and skins of animals. HISTORY 17 MODULE - 1 The Geographical Setting and pre-historic Ancient India (b) Geographical Distribution of the Palaeolithic Sites The geographical distribution of the Palaeolithic sites suggests that this culture was spread throughout the length and breadth of the Indian subcontinent. (Map 2.3) In the north, Kashmir Valley and the Sohan Valley in Rawalpindi (now in Pakistan) have yielded Notes Palaeolithic tools. In Rajasthan, Palaeolithic tools were found at the sites along the river Luni. In Western India, the Palaeolithic tools were also discovered from the sites of the rivers Sabarmati, Mahi and their tributaries in Gujarat. In Maharashtra, the most im- portant sites are Nevasa on a tributary of Godavari and Patne in the Tapti river system. In Madhya Pradesh, the rock shelters at Bhimbetka (near Bhopal) and Adamgarh in the district Hoshangabad have yielded tools from the Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic period. In Uttar Pradesh, the Belan Valley (the region broadly from Allahabad to Varanasi) is the most prominent site. It shows human occupation of the area continuously from the Palaeolithic period. 64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° 100°E 28° 28° N PALAEOLITHIC SITES y alle 24° 24° nn V oohaa er SS Riv 20° R. 20° Ga ng ai Budha Pushkar 16° 16° R. Belan Bhimbetka u tea Pla ur Midnapore gp Na Singhbhum District R. Narmada Adamgarh ho ta Ch 12° 12° ARABIAN Nagar Junakenda BAY 8° 8° SEA OF Kurnool BENGAL River Tung abhdra Renigunta AN DA 4° MA 4° NA LAK INDIA) ND NDIA SHA ( (I NIC ) DWE OB AR EP 0° 0° ISL Sri AN Lanka DS 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 Km. Km. 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° 100° Map 2.3 Paleolithic Sites 18 HISTORY  The Geographical Setting and pre-historic MODULE - 1 Ancient India Towards the east, Assam and neighbouring areas including Meghalaya (Garo Hills) have yielded prehistoric artifacts. Palaeolithic tools have also been found at various sites in Bengal, Orissa and Bihar. In Peninsular India, Palaeolithic tools have been reported from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In Tamil Nadu, an important site is Attirampakkam in Chingleput region. The subsistence of the Palaeolithic cultures Notes was based mainly on hunting animals and gathering fruits and roots. In other words, the people were primarily hunters and gatherers with no settled habitation. On the basis of above discussion, we can conclude that the Palaeolithic cultures of the prehistoric period were wide spread throughout the Indian subcontinent. The study of the tools indicates a gradual progress in tool technology which must have led to better availability of resources. (b) Subsistence Pattern The Palaeolithic people practised hunting and food-gathering for their subsistence. They made simple stone tools for hunting, cutting, digging and other purposes. They led a nomadic life and migrated to places where plant and animal resources along with water were easily available. INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.3 1. Which were the two main occupations of man in Palaeolithic age? 2. What were the various purposes for which prehistoric man made tools? 3. Name the main tools of the Lower Palaeolithic age: (a) (b) (c) 2.7 THE MESOLITHIC CULTURES The term Mesolithic is the combination of two words, meso and lithic. In Greek ‘meso’ means the middle and ‘lithic’ means stone. Hence, the Mesolithic stage of prehistory is also known as the Middle Stone Age. It was the transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic Ages. On the basis of archaeological discoveries, the beginning of the Mesolithic Age in Indian subcontinent is dated to around 10,000 BC. This period witnessed the rise in temperature, as a result of which the climate became warm. These changes further resulted in melting of ice of the earlier period and brought about changes in flora and fauna. Though man was still in hunting-gathering stage, he now started fishing and some domestication of animals. The main tools they used are called the microliths or small stone tools. The Rock paintings found at Bhimbetka (near Bhopal) belonging to the period indicate the artistic taste of the people. (a) Tools of the Mesolithic Period The microliths used during the mesolithic period were very small in size varying in lengths from 1 to 8 centimeters and were largely made out of chipped or flaked pieces. (Fig 2.4) Some of these tools have geometric forms such as triangles, lunates and tra- pezes. There tools could be tied or fixed in other objects to form an arrow or a spear. HISTORY 19 MODULE - 1 The Geographical Setting and pre-historic Ancient India (b) Geographical Distribution of the Mesolithic Sites The distribution of Mesolithic sites indicates that the Mesolithic cultures covered al- most the entire India from north to south and east to west. Important sites of this culture are Langhnaj (District Mehsana) in Gujarat; Bhimbetka (near Bhopal) in Notes Madhya Pradesh; Chopani Mando (near Allahabad in Belan Valley) in Uttar Pradesh; Birbhanpur (District Burdwan) in West Bengal; Sanganakallu (District Bellary) in Karnataka; and Tuticorin in southern Tamil Nadu. Fig 2.4 Tools of the Mesolithic Age (c) Subsistence Pattern The Mesolithic people still subsisted on hunting and gathering, but now there was a shift in the pattern of hunting from the big animals in the Palaeolithic period to the smaller animals which could be attacked with the help of bows and arrows. In addi- tion to this, fishing and fowling also became important. The faunal remains of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, rat, bison, hippo, dog, fox, lizard, tortoise and fish etc. have been found from different Mesolithic sites. 20 HISTORY  The Geographical Setting and pre-historic MODULE - 1 Ancient India INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.4 1. What name has been given to the tools of the Mesolithic Age? Notes 2. Name a few tools made during the Mesolithic period? 3. Name any two sites of the Mesolithic period? 2.8 THE NEOLITHIC CULTURES AND THE ADVENT OF FOOD PRODUCTION The last phase of prehistory is termed as Neolithic. The term Neolithic is derived from Greek ‘neo’ which means new, and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Thus, the term ‘neolithic Age’ refers to the ‘New Stone Age’ of human culture. In Indian subconti- nent it is dated back to around 8000 BC. The term ‘Neolithic’ was coined by Jonn Lubbock. The chief characteristic of this age was the new type of ground and pol- ished stone tools. This period also marked the beginning of cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals. It led to the beginning of settled life and the growth of village settlements. The Neolithic culture had following characteristics: (i) Beginning of agricultural activities (ii) Domestication of animals (iii) Grinding and polishing of stone tools having sharper edges (iv) Use of pottery (a) Meaning of the ‘Neolithic Revolution’ Some times this period is termed as the ‘Neolithic Revolution’ on the basis of impor- tant changes in man’s socio-economic life. The use of the sharp and polished neolithic tools made it easier to cultivate the soil. It was accompanied by the practice of do- mestication of animals. These changes in turn resulted in the emergence of settled agricultural communities. The Neolithic people also produced pottery for the purpose of storing grains. As the redevelopment in the Neolithic phase greatly affected the human life, some scholars have used the term “the Neolithic Revolution” to signify those changes. But most of the scholars believe that these changes though significant, should be viewed in the context of earlier progress during Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages, and thus, should be considered as ‘evolution’ rather than ‘revolution’. (b) Tools of the Neolithic Period The Neolithic tools consist of the ground tools having smooth surfaces, and well- rounded and symmetrical shapes. The grinding made the tools sharper, polished and more effective than those in the earlier period. (Fig. 2.5) The ground stone tools of the Neolithic period included different types of axes called ‘celt’. Besides the stone tools, the sites of this period have also yielded various types of bone objects such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, pendants, bangles and earrings. (Fig 2.6) HISTORY 21 MODULE - 1 The Geographical Setting and pre-historic Ancient India (c) Geographical Distribution of the Neolithic Sites The Neolithic sites were spread over almost all the regions of Indian subcontinent. (Map 2.4) In the northwestern region Mehrgarh is a classic site in the Kachi plains of Notes Fig 2.5 Neolithic Age tools 22 HISTORY  The Geographical Setting and pre-historic MODULE - 1 Ancient India Baluchistan. The excavations at Mehrgarh have revealed the evidence of houses built by Neolithic people. These were built of sun-dried bricks. These houses were divided into small rooms. The evidence of cultivation of crops like wheat, barley and cotton were discovered from here. The important sites in Kashmir Valley include Notes Fig 2.6 Neolithic Bone tools from Burzahom HISTORY 23 MODULE - 1 The Geographical Setting and pre-historic Ancient India Burzahom and Gufkral. The dwelling pits, either circular or rectangular, at these sites form an important feature of Neolithic culture. The Belan Valley along the edge of Vindhyan plateau near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh also has many Neolithic sites such as Koldihwa and Mahagara. The Neolithic tools (both stone and bone), pottery, other Notes artefacts, floral and faunal remains have been found from these sites. In Bihar and mid-Gangetic Valley region Chirand is the most popular Neolithic site. Several Neolithic sites are present covering the hills of Assam, Meghalaya and Nagaland. The tools like Neolithic celts, small ground axes alongwith the remains of pottery have been found from this area. In South India the Neolithic settlements were discovered along the rivers Bhima, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri. Some important sites are Sanganakallu, Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, Hallur in Karnataka; Utnur, Nagarjunakonda, Budihal in Andhra Pradesh; and Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu. These sites have yielded dwelling pits alongwith the evidence of cultivation of cereals and domestication of 64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° 100°E 28° 28° N NEOLITHIC SITES CHALIGAI BURZAHOM EXCAVATED NEOLITHIC SITES SARAI KHOLA Srinagar MODERN TOWNS Islamabad Present External Boundary of India 24° 24° KILE GUL MOHAMMAD Quetta MEHRGARH 20° 20° Delhi CHIRAND SARUTARU Gaumati MAAKDOLA DACUALI- Patna 16° 16° HADING Calcutta BARUDIH KUCHA ata) (Kolk 12° 12° Nagpur (Mumbai) Bombay ARABIAN NAGARJUNAKONDA BAY 8° 8° SEA DTNUR OF TEKKAL KODEKAL BENGAL KODA MASKI TERDAL SANGANA KUPGAL KALLU HALLUR PALAVOY AN BRAHMAGIRI DA T. NARSHIPUR Madras (Chennai) 4° MA 4° HEMMGE PAIYAMPALLI NA LAK INDIA) ND NDIA SHA ( (I NIC ) DWE OB AR EP 0° 0° ISL Sri AN Lanka DS 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 Km. Km. 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° 100° Map 2.4 Neolithic Sites 24 HISTORY  The Geographical Setting and pre-historic MODULE - 1 Ancient India animals. Millet (Ragi) was one of the earliest crops cultivated by the villagers of South India. (d) Subsistence Pattern The advent of agriculture marked a significant change in Neolithic phase. The Notes people cultivated various kinds of crops such as wheat, barley, rice, millet, lentils, etc,. depending on the geographical conditions. Agriculture gave impetus to ani- mal domestication. Hunting still remained an important occupation. The people domesticated animals which included sheep, goat, cattle, etc. and also hunted wild animals such as boar, nilgai, gazells, etc. Different kinds of stone tools were made by Neolithic people, which has already been discussed. The Neolithic people also manufactured pottery, which was initially hand made and later turned on wheel and fired in large kilns. These were the major means of storage for grains. In nutshell, we can say that the Neolithic cultures were characterised by change from hunting and gathering to cultivation of plants and domestication of animals. The new polished tools made it easier for humans to cultivate, hunt and perform other activities in a better manner. It led to greater availability of food resources as well as to an increase in population, which in turn resulted in the increase in the number of village settlements. The Neolithic cultures created the conditions which helped in the growth of towns in the later period. INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.5 1. Who coined the term ‘Neolithic’? 2. Mention the chief characteristics of Neolithic cultures. (a) (b) (c) (d) 3. Name an important Neolithic site of northwestern region. 2.9 THE PREHISTORIC ART The rock paintings were an important and distinct feature of the Mesolithic people though their beginning may be traced to the upper Palaeolithic period. These paintings are made on the walls of rock shelters, maximum of which have been found at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. These throw light on the social and economic life on Mesolithic people. The main subjects of paintings are hunting, fishing and food gath- ering. Animals like boar, buffalo, monkey and nilgai are often depicted in these paint- ings. (Fig. 2.7) The social activities like the child birth, rearing of a child and burial ceremony are also shown in the rock paintings. The scenes of hunting in a group suggest that Mesolithic people lived in small groups. Thus, we can say that the HISTORY 25 MODULE - 1 The Geographical Setting and pre-historic Ancient India Notes Fig 2.7 Prehistoric Art Mesolithic society was more stable than the one in Palaeolithic age, though hunting- gathering still remained its main preoccupation. INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.6 1. Rock Painting or Rock Art was a distinct feature of which period? 2. Name the site in Madhya Pradesh which has the maximum number of rock paintings in India. 3. Point out the main subjects highlighted in prehistoric rock art. WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT The history of India has been greatly influenced by its geographical features and environmental conditions. Different regions are characterized by their distinct topo- graphical features which determine the historical changes in those regions. The Himalayas have protected us both from the invaders and harsh cold winds. The moun- tain passes have provided the ways for political, social, economic and cultural interac- tion. The fertile River Plains of North India have helped in rich agricultural production 26 HISTORY  The Geographical Setting and pre-historic MODULE - 1 Ancient India leading to the emergence of powerful states in the 6th century BC. The Plateau re- gion, the Coastal Plains and the hilly terrains of Peninsular India have encouraged the agricultural settlements and foreign contacts since ancient times. Different environ- mental conditions and varying availability of resources have resulted in distinct socio- economic and cultural formations in different regions. Notes Since his appearance in Prehistoric period, the humans have passed through many stages of cultural growth. Archaeological sources show his existence and subsistence pattern at various sites in different parts of the subcontinent. He was a hunter-gath- erer in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. By the Neolithic period he learnt culti- vation of crops and domestication of animals. He could also manufacture pottery by then. These developments led to the establishment of village settlements. The stone tools used in different periods also underwent change. The crude and blunt tools of the Palaeolithic period were developed into sharper and polished ones in the Neolithic period. The Mesolithic period was characterized by very small stone tools called the microliths. In other words, the hunter-gatherer of the Paleolithic period evolved into the food producer of the Neolithic period. TERMINAL QUESTIONS 1. On a map of India, mark out the following: (i) The Himalayan ranges (ii) The Eastern and the Western Ghats (iii) Rivers -the Ganges, the Narmada and the Kaveri (iv)Arikamedu (Pondicherry), Tamluk (Tamralipti) and Bharuch (Broach) (v) Pataliputra (Patna) and Palghat (vi)Adamgarh, Bhimbetka and Koldihwa 2. Ass