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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? Rasheeda’s question Rasheeda sat reading the newspaper. Suddenly, her eyes fell on a small headline: “One Hundred Years Ag...

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? Rasheeda’s question Rasheeda sat reading the newspaper. Suddenly, her eyes fell on a small headline: “One Hundred Years Ago.” How, she wondered, could anyone know what had happened so many years ago? Finding out what happened Yesterday: you could listen to the radio, watch television, read a newspaper. Last year: ask somebody who remembers. But what about long, long ago? Let us see how it can be done. What can we know about the past? There are several things we can find out — what people ate, the kinds of clothes they wore, the houses in which they lived. We can find out about the lives of hunters, herders, farmers, rulers, merchants, priests, craftspersons, artists, musicians, and scientists. We can also find out about the games children played, the stories they heard, the plays they saw, the songs they sang. Where did people live? Find the river Narmada on Map 1 (page 2). People have lived along the banks of this river for several hundred thousand years. Some of the earliest people who lived here were skilled gatherers, — that is, people who gathered their food. They knew about the vast wealth of plants in the surrounding forests, and collected roots, fruits and other forest 1 produce for their food. They also hunted animals. introduction: what, where, how and when? Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 1-2.indd 1 26 May 2022 09:55:55  Now find the Sulaiman and Kirthar hills to the northwest. Some of the areas where women and men first began to grow crops such as wheat and barley about 8000 years ago are located here. People also began rearing animals like sheep, goat, and cattle, and lived in villages. Locate the Garo hills to the north-east and the Vindhyas in central India. These were some of the other areas where Map : 1 Physical Map of the Subcontinent 2 our pasts–i Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 1-2.indd 2 22 April 2022 12:12:41  agriculture developed. The places where rice was Facing Page: This is a map of South Asia (including first grown are to the north of the Vindhyas. the present countries Trace the river Indus and its tributaries of India, Pakistan, (tributaries are smaller rivers that flow into a larger Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan river). About 4700 years ago, some of the earliest and Sri Lanka) and the cities flourished on the banks of these rivers. Later, neighbouring countries of Afghanistan, Iran, about 2500 years ago, cities developed on the China and Myanmar. banks of the Ganga and its tributaries, and along South Asia is often called the sea coasts. a subcontinent because Locate the Ganga and its tributary called the although it is smaller than a continent, it is very large, Son. In ancient times, the area along these rivers and is separated from the to the south of the Ganga was known as Magadha rest of Asia by seas, hills now lying in the state of Bihar. Its rulers were very and mountains. powerful, and set up a large kingdom. Kingdoms were set up in other parts of the country as well. Throughout, people travelled from one part of the subcontinent to another. The hills and high mountains including the Himalayas, deserts, rivers and seas made journeys dangerous at times, but never impossible. So, men and women moved in search of livelihood, as also to escape from natural disasters like floods or droughts. Sometimes men marched in armies, conquering others’ lands. Besides, merchants travelled with caravans or ships, carrying valuable goods from place to place. And religious teachers walked from village to village, town to town, stopping to offer instruction and advice on the way. Finally, some people perhaps travelled driven by a spirit of adventure, wanting to discover new and exciting places. All these led to the sharing of ideas between people. Why do people travel nowadays? Look at Map 1 once more. Hills, mountains and seas form the natural frontiers of the subcontinent. While it was difficult to cross these frontiers, those who wanted could and did scale the mountains 3 introduction: what, where, how and when? Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 1-2.indd 3 22 April 2022 12:12:41  and cross the seas. People from across the frontiers also came into the subcontinent and settled here. These movements of people enriched our cultural traditions. People have shared new ways of carving stone, composing music, and even cooking food over several hundreds of years. Names of the land Two of the words we often use for our country are India and Bharat. The word India comes from the Indus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit. Find Iran and Greece in your atlas. The Iranians and the Greeks who came through the northwest about 2500 years ago and were familiar with the Indus, called it the Hindos or the Indos, and the land to the east of the river was called India. The name Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the north- west, and who are mentioned in the Rigveda, the earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500 years ago). Later it was used for the country. Finding out about the past A page from a palm leaf manuscript. There are several ways of finding out about the This manuscript was past. One is to search for and read books that were written about a thousand written long ago. These are called manuscripts, years ago. The palm because they were written by hand (this comes from leaves were cut into the Latin word ‘manu’, meaning hand). These were pages and tied together to make books. To see a usually written on palm leaf, or on the specially birch bark manuscript, prepared bark of a tree known as the birch, which turn to page 35. grows in the Himalayas. 4 our pasts–i Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 1-2.indd 4 22 April 2022 12:12:42  Over the years, many manuscripts were eaten away by insects, some were destroyed, but many have survived, often preserved in temples and monasteries. These books dealt with all kinds of subjects: religious beliefs and practices, the lives of kings, medicine and science. Besides, there were epics, poems, plays. Many of these were written in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit (languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil. We can also study inscriptions. These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal. Sometimes, kings got their orders inscribed so that people could see, read and obey them. There are other kinds of inscriptions as well, where men An old inscription. and women (including kings and queens) recorded This inscription dates what they did. For to about 2250 years ago, and was found in example, kings Kandahar, present-day often kept records Afghanistan. It was of victories in battle. inscribed on the orders Can you think of of a ruler named Ashoka. the advantages of You will read about him in Chapter 7. When we writing on a hard write anything, we use a surface? And what script. Scripts consist of could have been letters or signs. When the difficulties? we read what is written, There were many or speak, we use a language. This inscription other things that was inscribed in two were made and different scripts and used in the past. languages, Greek (top) Those who study and Aramaic (below), these objects are called archaeologists. They study which were used in this area. the remains of buildings made of stone and brick, paintings and sculpture. They also explore and excavate (dig under the surface of the earth) to find tools, weapons, pots, pans, ornaments and coins. Some of these objects may be made of stone, others of bone, baked clay or metal. Objects that are made of hard, imperishable substances usually 5 survive for a long time. introduction: what, where, how and when? Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 1-2.indd 5 26 May 2022 10:44:17  Left : A pot from an old city. Pots like these were used about 4700 years ago. Right : An old silver coin. Coins such as this one were in use from about 2500 years ago. In what ways is the coin different from the ones we use today? Archaeologists also look for bones — of animals, birds, and fish — to find out what people ate in the past. Plant remains survive far more rarely — if seeds of grain or pieces of wood have been burnt, they survive in a charred form. Do you think cloth is found frequently by archaeologists? Historians, that is, scholars who study the past, often use the word source to refer to the information found from manuscripts, inscriptions and archaeology. Once sources are found, learning about the past becomes an adventure, as we reconstruct it bit by bit. So historians and archaeologists are like detectives, who use all these sources like clues to find out about our pasts. One past or many? Did you notice the title of this book, Our Pasts? We have used the word ‘pasts’ in plural to draw attention to the fact that the past was different for different groups of people. For example, the lives of herders or farmers were different from those of kings and queens, the lives of merchants were different from those of craftspersons, and so on. 6 our pasts–i Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 1-2.indd 6 22 April 2022 12:12:45  Also, as is true even today, people followed different practices and customs in different parts of the country. For example, today most people living in the Andaman Islands get their own food by fishing, hunting, and collecting forest produce. By contrast, most people living in cities depend on others for supplies of food. Differences such as these existed in the past as well. Besides, there is another kind of difference. We know a great deal about kings and the battles they fought because they kept records of their victories. Generally, ordinary people such as hunters, fishing folk, gatherers, farmers or herders did not keep records of what they did. While archaeology helps us to find out about their lives, there is much that remains unknown. What do dates mean? If somebody asks you the date, you will probably mention the day, month and year, 2000 and something. These years are counted from the date generally assigned to the birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity. So, 2000 means 2000 years after the birth of Christ. All dates before the birth of Christ are counted backwards and usually have the letters BC (Before Christ) added on. In this book, we will refer to dates going back from the present, using 2000 as our starting point. 7 introduction: what, where, how and when? Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 1-2.indd 7 22 April 2022 12:12:45  Letters with dates BC stands for ‘Before Christ.’ You will sometimes find AD before dates. This stands for two Latin words, ‘Anno Domini’, meaning ‘in the year of the Lord’ (i.e. Christ). So 2012 can also be written as AD 2012. Sometimes CE is used instead of AD and BCE instead of BC. The letters CE stand for ‘Common Era’ and BCE for ‘Before Common Era’. We use these terms because the Christian Era is now used in most countries of the world. In India we began using this form of dating from about two hundred years ago. And sometimes, the letters BP meaning ‘Before Present’ are used. Find two dates mentioned on page 3. Which set of letters would you use for them? Imagine You have to interview an archaeologist. Prepare a list of five questions that you would like to ask her/him. KEYWORDS travelling Let’s recall manuscript 1. Match the following: inscription archaeology Narmada Valley The first big kingdom historian Magadha Hunting and gathering source Garo hills Cities about 2500 decipherment years ago Indus and its tributaries Early agriculture Ganga Valley The first cities 2. List one major difference between manuscripts and inscriptions. 8 our pasts–i Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 1-2.indd 8 22 April 2022 12:12:45  SOME IMPORTANT Let’s discuss DATES 3. Return to Rasheeda’s question. Can you think of some  the beginning of answers to it? agriculture (8000 years ago) 4. Make a list of all the objects that archaeologists may  the first cities on the find. Which of these could be made of stone? Indus (4700 years ago) 5. Why do you think ordinary men and women did not generally keep records of what they did?  cities in the Ganga valley, a big kingdom 6. Describe at least two ways in which you think the in Magadha (2500 lives of kings would have been different from those years ago) of farmers.  the present (about 2000 AD/CE) Let’s do 7. Find the word craftspersons on page 1. List at least five different crafts that you know about today. Are the craftspersons — (a) men (b) women (c) both men and women? 8. What were the subjects on which books were written in the past? Which of these would you like to read? 9 introduction: what, where, how and when? Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 1-2.indd 9 22 April 2022 12:12:45  CHAPTER 3 IN THE EARLIEST CITIES Saving an old building Jaspal and Harpreet were playing cricket in the lane outside their home when they noticed the people who were admiring the dilapidated old building that the children called the haunted house. “Look at the architecture!” said one of the men. “Have you seen the fine wood carving?” asked one of the women. “We must write to the Minister so that she makes arrangements to repair and preserve this beautiful house.” Why, they wondered, would anybody be interested in the old, run down house? The story of Harappa Very often, old buildings have a story to tell. Nearly a hundred and fifty years ago, when railway lines were being laid down for the first time in Punjab, engineers stumbled upon the site of Harappa in present-day Pakistan. To them, it seemed like a mound that was a rich source of ready made, high quality bricks. So they carried off thousands of bricks from the walls of the old buildings of the city to build railway lines. Many buildings were completely destroyed. Then, about eighty years ago, archaeologists found the site, and realised that this was one of the oldest cities in the subcontinent. As this was the first city to be discovered, all other sites from where similar buildings (and other things) were found were described as Harappan. These cities developed about 4700 years ago. Very often, old buildings are pulled down to 22 make way for new construction. Do you think it is our pasts–i important to preserve old buildings? Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 22 22 April 2022 03:21:57  What was special about these cities? These cities were found in Punjab and Sind in Many of these cities were divided into two or more Pakistan, and in Gujarat, parts. Usually, the part to the west was smaller Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab in India. but higher. Archaeologists describe this as the Archaeologists have found citadel. Generally, the part to the east was larger a set of unique objects but lower. This is called the lower town. Very in almost all these cities: red pottery painted with often walls of baked brick were built around each designs in black, stone part. The bricks were so well baked that they have weights, seals, special lasted for thousands of years. The bricks were beads, copper tools, and laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the paralleled sided long stone blades. walls strong. In some cities, special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in Mohenjodaro, a very special MAP : 3 tank, which archaeologists The Earliest Cities call the Great Bath, was built in the Subcontinent in this area. This was lined with bricks, coated with plaster, and made water- tight with a layer of natural tar. There were steps leading down to it from two sides, while there were rooms on all sides. Water was probably brought in from a well, and drained out after use. Perhaps important people took a dip in this tank on special occasions. Other cities, such as Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed. And some cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate storehouses. Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 23 22 April 2022 03:21:58  The Great Bath Houses, drains and streets Generally, houses were either one or two storeys high, with rooms built around a courtyard. Most How bricks were arranged to build walls houses had a separate bathing area, and some had in Harappan cities wells to supply water. Many of these cities had covered drains. Notice how carefully these were laid out, in straight lines. Although you cannot see it, each drain had a gentle slope so that water could flow through it. Very often, drains in houses were connected to those on the streets and smaller drains led into bigger ones. As the drains were covered, inspection holes were provided at intervals to clean them. All three — houses, drains and streets — were probably planned and built at the same time. List at least two differences between the houses described here and those that you studied about in Chapter 2. Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 24 22 April 2022 03:22:00  Life in the city A Harappan city was a very busy place. There were people who planned the construction of special buildings in the city. These were probably the rulers. It is likely that the rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones, and other things that they wanted. They may have kept the most valuable objects, such as ornaments of gold and silver, or beautiful beads, for themselves. And there were scribes, people who knew how to write, who helped prepare the seals, and perhaps wrote on other materials that have not survived. Besides, there were men and women, craftspersons, making all kinds of things — either in their own homes, or in special workshops. People were travelling to distant lands or returning with raw materials and, perhaps, stories. Many terracotta toys have been found and children must have played with these. Top : A street in Make a list of the people who lived in the city. Mohenjodaro with a drain. Were any of these people listed as living in Above : A well. villages such as Mehrgarh? Far Left : A Harappan seal. The signs on the top of the seal are part of a script. This is the earliest form of writing known in the subcontinent. Scholars have tried to read these signs but we still do not know exactly what they mean. Left : Terracotta toys. 25 in the earliest cities Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 25 22 April 2022 03:22:03  New crafts in the city Let us look at some of the objects that were made and found in Harappan cities. Most of the things that have been found by archaeologists are made of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver. Copper and bronze were used to Top : Stone weights. Notice how carefully and make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels. precisely these weights are Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and shaped. These were made vessels. of chert, a kind of stone. Perhaps the most striking finds are those of These were probably used beads, weights, and blades. to weigh precious stones or metals. Right : Beads. Many of these were made out of carnelian, a beautiful red stone. The stone was cut, shaped, polished and finally a hole was bored through the centre so that a string could be passed through it. The Harappans also made seals out of stone. Far right : Stone blades. These are generally rectangular (See illustration Bottom Right : on page 25) and usually have an animal carved Embroidered cloth. on them. A stone statue of an The Harappans also made pots with beautiful important man found from Mohenjodaro shows him black designs, such as the one wearing an embroidered shown on page 6. garment. Was metal used in the villages you learnt about in Chapter 2? Was stone used to make weights? Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago. Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at 26 Mohenjodaro. Archaeologists our pasts–i have also found spindle whorls, Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 26 22 April 2022 03:22:05  Faience Unlike stone or shell, that are found naturally, faience is a material that is artificially produced. A gum was used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object. The objects were then glazed, resulting in a shiny, glassy surface. The colours of the glaze were usually blue or sea green. Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and tiny vessels. made of terracotta and faience. These were used to spin thread. Many of the things that were produced were probably the work of specialists. A specialist is a person who is trained to do only one kind of work, for example, cutting stone, or polishing beads, or carving seals. Look at the illustration (page 26) and see how well the face is carved and how carefully the beard is shown. This must have been the work of an expert craftsperson. Not everybody could have been a specialist. We do not know whether only men were specialists or only women were specialists. Perhaps some women and men may have been specialists. In search of raw materials Raw materials are substances that are either found naturally (such as wood, or ores of metals) or produced by farmers or herders. These are then processed to produce finished goods. For example, cotton, produced by farmers, is a raw material that may be processed to make cloth. While some of the raw materials that the Harappans used were available locally, many items such as copper, tin, gold, silver and precious stones had to be brought from distant places. The Harappans probably got copper from 27 present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman in in the earliest cities Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 27 22 April 2022 03:22:05  West Asia. Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran. Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan. How were goods carried from one place to another? Look at the illustrations. One shows a toy and the other is a seal. Can you suggest what the modes of transport used Food for people in the cities by the Harappans were? Did you come across While many people lived in the cities, others living illustrations of wheeled in the countryside grew crops and reared animals. vehicles in earlier lessons? These farmers and herders supplied food to craftspersons, scribes and rulers in the cities. We know from remains of plants that the Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard. A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. While real A toy plough. Today, in many farming ploughs, which were probably made of wood, have communities, only men not survived, toy models have been found. As this use the plough. We do region does not receive heavy rainfall, some form not know whether the of irrigation may have been used. This means that Harappans followed such customs or not. water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing. The Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. Water and pastures were available around settlements. However, in the dry summer months, large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of grass and 28 water. They also collected fruits like ber, caught our pasts–i fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope. Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 28 22 April 2022 03:22:07  A closer look — Harappan towns in Gujarat The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt (also spelled as Bet) in the Rann of Kutch, where there was fresh water and fertile soil. Unlike some of the other Harappan cities, which were divided into two parts, Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways. There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies could be held. Other finds include large letters of the Harappan script that were carved out of white stone and perhaps inlaid in wood. This is a unique find as generally Harappan writing has been found on small objects such as seals. The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat. It was situated near areas where raw A dockyard at Lothal. materials such as semi-precious stones were This huge tank may have easily available. This was an important centre for been a dockyard, where boats and ships came in making objects out of stone, shell and metal. There from the sea and through was also a storehouse in the city. Many seals and the river channel. Goods sealings (the impression of seals on clay) were were probably loaded and found in this storehouse. unloaded here. Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 29 22 April 2022 03:22:07  A building that was found here was probably a workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here. Seals and sealings Seals may have been used to stamp bags or packets containing goods that were sent from one place to another. After a bag was closed or tied, a layer of wet clay was applied on the knot, and the seal was pressed on it. The impression of the seal is known as a sealing. If the sealing was intact, one could be sure that the goods had arrived safely. Seals are used even today. Find out what they are used for. The mystery of the end Around 3900 years ago, we find the beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of the cities. Writing, seals and weights were no longer KEYWORDS used. Raw materials brought from long distances city became rare. In Mohenjodaro, we find that garbage citadel piled up on the streets, the drainage system broke scribe down, and new, less impressive houses were built, craftsperson even over the streets. metal Why did all this happen? We are not sure. seal Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Others suggest that there was deforestation. This specialist could have happened because fuel was required raw material for baking bricks, and for smelting copper ores. plough Besides, grazing by large herds of cattle, sheep and irrigation goat may have destroyed the green cover. In some areas there were floods. But none of these reasons can explain the end of all the cities. Flooding, or a river drying up would have had an effect in only some areas. 30 our pasts–i Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 30 22 April 2022 03:22:08  It appears as if the rulers lost control. In any case, the effects of the change are quite clear. Sites in Sind and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved into newer, smaller settlements to the east and the south. New cities emerged about 1400 years later. You will read about them in Chapters 5 and 8. Imagine You are travelling with your parents, about 4000 years ago, from Lothal to Mohenjodaro. Describe how you would travel, what your parents might carry with them, and what you would see in Mohenjodaro. SOME IMPORTANT Let’s recall DATES 1. How do archaeologists know that cloth was used in the  Cotton cultivation at Harappan civilisation? Mehrgarh (about 7000 years ago) 2. Match the columns  Beginning of cities (about 4700 years ago) Copper Gujarat  Beginning of the end Gold Afghanistan of these cities (about Tin Rajasthan 3900 years ago)  The emergence of Precious stones Karnataka other cities (about 3. Why were metals, writing, the wheel, and the plough 2500 years ago) important for the Harappans? Let’s discuss 4. Make a list of all the terracotta toys shown in the lesson. Which do you think children would have enjoyed playing with the most? 31 in the earliest cities Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 31 22 April 2022 03:22:08  5. Make a list of what the Harappans ate, and put a tick mark against the things you eat today. 6. Do you think that the life of farmers and herders who supplied food to the Harappan cities was different from that of the farmers and herders you read about in Chapter 2? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Describe three important buildings in your city or village. Are they located in a special part of the settlement (e.g. the centre)? What are the activities that take place in these buildings? 8. Are there any old buildings in your locality? Find out how old they are and who looks after them. 32 our pasts–i Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 3-4.indd 32 22 April 2022 03:22:08  CHAPTER 5 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC Election day Shankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready to go and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach the polling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, were they so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfather explained: “We can choose our own rulers today.” How some men became rulers Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing big sacrifices. The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives 43 and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. kingdoms, kings and an early republic Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 5-6.indd 43 22 April 2022 12:49:54  The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya, also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation? Varnas There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups. Painted Grey Ware. Janapadas Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made The rajas who performed these big sacrifices out of Painted Grey Ware. were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth rather than janas. The word janapada literally surface. Perhaps these were means the land where the jana set its foot, and used on special occasions, settled down. Some important janapadas are for important people, and to serve special food. shown on Map 4 (page 45). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas, such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 3? Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 5-6.indd 44 26 May 2022 10:45:40  They made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed Map : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities 45 kingdoms, kings and an early republic Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 5-6.indd 45 22 April 2022 12:49:58  protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this. The fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago. 46 our pasts–i Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 5-6.indd 46 22 April 2022 12:49:58  The new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 75). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda. Taxes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas, they started collecting regular taxes. Taxes on crops Taxes on craftspersons Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce. Taxes on goods through trade. Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers? Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting 47 kingdoms, kings and an early republic Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 5-6.indd 47 22 April 2022 12:49:58  paddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes? A closer look — (a) Magadha Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 45). Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas. Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the 48 Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, our pasts–i his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 5-6.indd 48 22 April 2022 12:49:58  heard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda? A closer look — (b) Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha. In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha KEYWORDS Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains raja some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were ashvamedha written down about 2300 years ago. varna Ajatasattu and the Vajjis janapada Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his mahajanapada minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his fortification advice on the matter. army The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met tax frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that transplantation they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as: gana or sangha They held full and frequent public assemblies. They met and acted together. They followed established rules. They respected, supported and listened to elders. 49 kingdoms, kings and an early republic Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 5-6.indd 49 22 April 2022 12:49:58  Vajji women were not held by force or captured. Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely. In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas. Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 9. Imagine You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the king. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified. 50 our pasts–i Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 5-6.indd 50 22 April 2022 12:49:59  2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter- SOME IMPORTANT gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, herders. DATES THOSE WHO PAID TAXES  New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago)  Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago) THE RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADA  Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago)  End of the ganas or 3. Who were the groups who could not participate in the sanghas (about 1500 assemblies of the ganas? years ago) Let’s discuss 4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? Let’s do 5. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. 6. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present. 51 kingdoms, kings and an early republic Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 5-6.indd 51 22 April 2022 12:49:59  CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. The lion capital The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka. Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26  There were several cities in the empire (marked The places where with black dots on the map). These included the inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was marked with red dots. a gateway to the northwest, including Central These were included Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to within the empire. south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons Name the countries where probably lived in these cities. Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian In other areas there were villages of farmers and states were outside the herders. In some areas such as central India, there empire? were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found 63 from a kingdom to an empire Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28  They probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. 64 It is possible that these resources were collected our pasts–i as tribute. Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28  Tribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote: “This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) 65 from a kingdom to an empire Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28  Ashoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why? Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). 66 our pasts–i Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28  What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). The Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished There were a number of problems that troubled stone sculpture. This was him. People in the empire followed different part of a Mauryan pillar religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. found in Rampurwa, Bihar, Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families an example of the skill of and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his the sculptors of the time. duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people a b o u t dhamma. B e s i d e s , Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71. He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. 67 from a kingdom to an empire Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29  Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful. If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants. Respecting one’s elders. Treating all creatures with compassion. Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.” “It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion. Below : The Brahmi script. If one praises one’s own religion while criticising Most modern Indian another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to scripts have developed one’s own religion. from the Brahmi script Therefore, one should try to understand the main over hundreds of years. ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Here you can see the Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you letter ‘a’ written in think are relevant today. different scripts. Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam Tamil Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma. Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: 68 (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under our pasts–i the direct control of the ruler. Rationalised 2023-24 Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29  (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. KEYWORDS (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ empire and ______________ which were important for capital transport. province (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan dhamma officials with ____________. messenger 3. State whether true or false: official (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi