Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level Sociology Coursebook PDF

We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). E...

We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). E PL M SA Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). Sociology E for Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level PL COURSEBOOK Jonathan Blundell & Katherine Roberts M SA Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). Contents Contents How to use this series vii How to use this book viii Introduction x E Unit 1 Research methods1 1.1 How do sociologists approach the study of society? 2 1.2 What types of data and evidence do sociologists use? 10 Unit 2 Identity: self and society43 PL 1.3 How do sociologists investigate society? 2.1 How do we learn our identity? 2.2 How does society control us? 2.3 What influences our social identity? 20 44 60 71 M Unit 3 Social stratification and inequality90 3.1 What is social stratification? 91 3.2 What attempts have been made to reduce social inequalities? 113 3.3 How has globalisation affected inequalities between societies? 123 SA Unit 4 Family136 4.1 What are the different types of families? 137 4.2 What is the role of the family for the individual and society? 148 4.3 How is family life changing? 158 Unit 5 Education175 5.1 What is education and schooling? 176 5.2 What are the roles and functions of education? 189 5.3 What factors help to explain differences in educational achievement and experience? 198 v Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Unit 6 Crime, deviance and social control218 6.1 What are crime, deviance and social control? 219 6.2 What are the patterns and explanations of crime and deviance? 234 6.3 How is crime dealt with in different societies? 255 Preparing for assessment 267 Glossary 274 E Acknowledgements 283 Index 284 PL M SA vi Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). How to use this series How to use this series This suite of resources supports learners and teachers following the Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level Sociology syllabuses (0495, 2251). The components in the series are designed to work together and help learners build sociological knowledge and develop research skills. With clear language and style, they are designed for international learners. E PL The Coursebook is designed for learners to use in class with guidance from the teacher. It offers complete coverage of the Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level Sociology syllabuses. Each chapter contains in-depth explanation of sociological concepts, definitions of key terms and a variety of activities and case studies to engage learners, help them make real-world connections and develop their sociological skills. M SA The Teacher’s Resource is the foundation of this series because it offers inspiring ideas about how to teach the course. It contains teaching ideas, suggestions for differentiation, formative assessment, language support, answers and extra materials including topic and language worksheets and editable PowerPoint™ slides for each chapter. vii Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK How to use this book LEARNING INTENTIONS TIP These set the scene for each unit, help with Throughout this book, you will study the ways navigation through the Coursebook and indicate E in which these different research approaches or the important concepts in each topic. perspectives have been applied to different topics in sociology (families, education, crime and so on). When writing about research methods, you can bring in relevant examples from any of the THINK LIKE A SOCIOLOGIST topic areas. PL This feature provides the opportunity for you to use the sociological skills and concepts you have learned about and how they can be applied to real-world scenarios. Sometimes the content in this feature may extend beyond the scope of the syllabus. KEY TERM STRETCH AND CHALLENGE These are short activities that challenge you to think hard about what you have learned and test the boundaries of your understanding. Sometimes the content in this feature may extend beyond the scope of the syllabus. M ACTIVITIES Key vocabulary is highlighted in the text when it is first introduced, and definitions are given There are three types of activities throughout in boxes near the vocabulary. You will also find this Coursebook: discussion activities, written definitions of these words in the Glossary at the activities and research activities. These will help back of this book. you to develop different learning styles and offer opportunities to produce your own work either SA individually, or in pairs or groups. KEY POINTS REFLECTION Throughout the unit you will see a short series of statements after topics which These activities ask you to reflect on your approach summarise the key points you have just to or performance in other activities and how you learnt about. might improve this in the future. CASE STUDY The case studies and the accompanying questions allow you to actively explore real global sociological issues. You are provided with opportunities to produce your own work either as an individual, in pairs or in groups. viii Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). How to use this book CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING MAKING CONNECTIONS Appearing throughout the units, these This feature encourages you to make links questions give you a chance to check how between different sociological topics and well you have understood the topic you have perspectives and help you to understand just covered. how they are connected. SUMMARY This feature contains a series of statements which summarise the key learning points you will have covered in the unit. E KEY SKILLS EXERCISES These are activities that help you to develop essential sociological skills such as knowledge, analysis and evaluation. SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST You should be able to: PL At the end of each unit, you will find a series of statements outlining the content that you should now understand. You might find it helpful to rate how confident you are for each of these statements when you are revising. You should revisit any topics that you rated ‘Needs more work’ or ‘Almost there’. Needs more work Almost there Ready to move on M PRACTICE QUESTIONS At the end of each unit, you will find a set of more challenging questions. To answer some of these, SA you may need to apply what you have learnt in previous units as well as the current unit you are studying. IMPROVE THIS ANSWER This is your opportunity to evaluate a sample answer written by the authors and then challenge yourself to write a better one based on the guidance given. ix Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Introduction Who is this book for? This book has been specifically written for the revised Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level Sociology syllabuses 0495/2251. Its global and international scope also makes it ideal for introducing sociology to young people studying similar courses. E The book is written in language carefully designed to be clear and accessible to 14- to 16-year-olds. Sociology involves the use of many specialist terms; such terms are explained where they first occur in the book and they are also defined in the Glossary. What makes this book different? PL The book shares with the syllabus the aim of making this exciting subject accessible to young people around the world. It brings together the knowledge gained from classic studies in the development of the subject and more recent research findings. It uses examples and case studies from around the world and reflects contemporary developments such as globalisation and the growth of new media. Learners are encouraged to reflect on their learning and to apply their sociological understanding to their own country and social situation. M Introducing Sociology Humans are social. We cooperate to create and maintain the societies in which we live. We all belong to different groups, some made up of people around us (such as our family or community) and others that link us to people we do not know (such as gender, ethnic group or nationality).To live in a society, we need to learn how to behave SA in ways that other people will accept. Sociologists study how people live together and how there can be disagreement and conflict. Sociology is a particular way of looking at what happens in society and the ways in which the people and institutions that make up societies work. Not all sociologists, however, look at the same aspects of society in the same way. In this book, you will learn about some of the different perspectives sociologists have, such as functionalism, Marxism and feminism. x Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). Introduction Sociology and the social sciences Sociology is one of the social sciences. Other social sciences include human geography, economics, political science, international relations and psychology. This group of subjects is different from the natural sciences – which include biology, chemistry and physics – as well as arts and humanities subjects such as history, literature and language. Social sciences are about people. All the social sciences overlap to some extent; for example, sociologists often draw on ideas from economics and political science. However, they each have a slightly different focus. The focus of sociology is how people live together in societies. E Sociology as a way of thinking Sociologists are always asking questions. As sociologists, we want to understand why published on a website: Who owns the website? PL people behave in the ways that they do. To find answers to sociological questions, we have to collect and analyse a range of evidence and examples. We also have to challenge existing ideas that might be wrong or misleading. Sociologists have to be critical thinkers. For example, a sociologist might ask the following questions about information Who wrote the content? What experience or qualifications do they have? Could they be biased? M What is the purpose of the website? Does it say where the information or ideas are from? Applying sociology to what is SA around you Many people who study sociology find that it becomes more than just another subject that they study. They say it begins to affect how they see things – they notice more and ask more questions. A lot of the time, people accept what is going on around them because it is what they have always known and are familiar with. For example: if in your society, older people (your grandparents’ generation) live with their children and grandchildren, you might find it strange that in other societies older people live in homes with other older people to whom they are not related. As you study sociology, you will come across people and societies whose ways of life, behaviour and values may seem strange to you, perhaps even confusing. As far as possible, try to understand and see life from their point of view. It is likely that your study of sociology will allow you to think more critically about your own society and your own life; this can be uncomfortable, but it is part of learning about the social world around us. xi Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK The origins of sociology Sociology as we know it today grew out of the changes caused by industrialisation in Europe in the 18th century. A Frenchman called Auguste Comte (1798–1857) is often identified as the first sociologist. However, people have always been interested in the things sociologists study and there are people who lived earlier who could also be described as sociologists. For example, Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who was born in what is now Tunisia, wrote about the way of life in different societies. At the time, the main distinction was between societies where people had settled in one place, and those whose way of life involved moving around (nomads). After Comte, sociology gradually became established as an academic discipline, E studied in universities in Europe and North America. The origins of sociology are important because they have shaped what the subject is like today. Sociology developed in societies where, at the time, women and minority ethnic groups were usually treated as inferior and had few opportunities to study. This is why the figures who have had the most notable influence on the study of sociology today – the so-called founding fathers: Marx, Durkheim and Weber – were all white men. However, other important PL thinkers (usually those unable to go to university) who contributed to sociological thought are gradually being given more attention. They include Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), a British woman who wrote about the position of women in society, and W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963), an African American who wrote about racism in the USA. Traditional and modern societies In the past, it was common for sociologists to assume that there were two basic M types of society. Societies that had existed for centuries, or longer, were thought of as ‘traditional societies’. In these societies, people lived in small communities, supporting themselves by hunting and farming. Over time, some of these societies began to change, evolving into so-called ‘modern industrial societies’. In these, many people lived in cities and worked in industries and people moved around much more. These changes were thought to affect many areas of social life; for example, people began living in nuclear families rather than extended families (see Unit 4) and adopted SA different values (for example, often becoming less religious). Some people assumed that eventually the whole world would be ‘modern’, leading to the disappearance of traditional societies. The differences between these two types of society seemed so clear that two different subjects developed. Sociologists focused on modern industrial societies, while anthropologists studied traditional societies. Both sociologists and anthropologists were mainly from Europe and North America. Some early anthropologists thought of the traditional societies they studied as ‘primitive’ and saw their beliefs as ‘superstitions’; they assumed that their own society was more advanced and superior. Other anthropologists, however, became deeply involved in the lives of the people they studied, seeing things from their point of view and finding much to admire. The anthropological method of living with the people under study, trying to see things through their eyes, developed into participant observation in sociology (see Unit 1). xii Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). Introduction Seeing things as either one thing or another (known as a dichotomy) is almost always misleading in sociology. Sociologists now recognise that social life is more complicated than ‘traditional vs modern’. There are many aspects of ‘modern’ societies that are traditional; for example, traditional festivals are celebrated and extended families are important. Equally, supposedly traditional societies – when examined more closely – often have features we associate with modern societies. Sociologists today try to avoid seeing things in a dichotomous or simplistic way. Societies are constantly changing in a variety of ways and for a variety of reasons, and the job of the sociologist is to observe and understand these changes, without making assumptions. The sociology of WEIRD people E It is, perhaps, natural for people to be most interested in their own experiences and in people like themselves. Sociology as a subject, studied first in universities and later in schools, evolved in Europe and North America. As a result, most sociological research has focused on these regions: sociologists of the past focused on understanding the Western Educated Industrialised Rich PL societies in which they lived and the issues facing those societies and their populations. This Western focus also applies to other subjects, such as psychology. The psychologist Joseph Henrich has argued that psychological research tends to focus on WEIRD people. The term does not contain any moral judgement; rather, it stands for: M Democratic. The same is true of sociological research: it tends to focus on particular people and societies that are different in some ways from most of the world’s population. (Henrich, J., 2021) Sociology goes global SA All of this means that many of the research findings and the theories in this book are about Henrich’s ‘weird’ people. This is inevitable, as most research has been conducted with ‘weird’ people and by ‘weird’ people. So far, little sociological research has been performed in societies that are not Western, educated, industrialised, rich or democratic. Now that most countries have universities, however, people are studying sociology all over the world – and they are turning their attention to their own societies. Sociology is becoming a truly global subject (the International Sociological Association, for example, brings together sociologists from around the world to share ideas and knowledge) and we have tried to include in this book ideas and examples from different parts of the globe. The fact that you are studying Cambridge IGCSE™ Sociology, wherever you are, is also a small step towards making sociology as global and inclusive as possible. xiii Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK How will you be assessed in Cambridge IGCSE™ Sociology? The information in this section is based on the Cambridge International syllabus. You should always refer to the appropriate syllabus document for the year of examination to confirm the details and for more information. The syllabus document is available on the Cambridge International website at www.cambridgeinternational.org. The Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level syllabuses are examined by two papers. On the first paper, three topics will be assessed: E Research methods; Identity: self and society; Social stratification and inequality These three topics are covered in the first three chapters of this book. Together, these topics will provide learners with the basic sociological skills and knowledge needed for studying other topic areas. The second paper contains three more topics: PL Family; Education; Crime, deviance and social control In the assessment, learners only need to answer questions on two of these three topics. These topics are covered in the second three chapters of this book. The final chapter focuses on the skills learners will need to prepare for assessment. In both papers, learners are assessed against three assessment objectives: 1 AO1 Knowledge and understanding Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of sociological concepts, theories, evidence, views and research methods. M 2 AO2 Interpretation and application a Apply relevant sociological concepts, theories, evidence, views and research methods to support points or develop arguments. b Explain how sociological concepts, theories, evidence, views and research methods apply to a particular issue or question. 3 AO3 Analysis and evaluation Analyse and evaluate sociological theories, evidence, views and research methods: SA a Explain the strengths and limitations of sociological theories, views and research methods. b Construct, develop and discuss sociological arguments. c Reach conclusions and make judgements based on a reasoned consideration of available evidence. Getting started You are almost ready! Hopefully, you now feel confident about starting to learn about sociology. Sociology is an exciting and relevant subject. During this course, and especially learning from this book, you will have many opportunities to ‘think like a sociologist’ and apply your learning to the world around you. Studying sociology will change the way you think about your life and understand your society. We hope you enjoy it! xiv Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). Introduction Command words Questions have content words and command words or phrases. Look at this example question: Explain three aspects of the feminist view of socialisation. In this example, ‘explain’ is the command word and ‘the feminist view of socialisation’ is the content phrase. Content words and phrases tell you what to write about, while command words tell you how to write about them. Command words are associated with the assessment objectives, so they help you to work out what skills you should demonstrate in your answer. E The assessment objectives may be associated with the following command words: AO1 Knowledge and understanding: define, give AO2 Interpretation of evidence: describe, outline AO3 Analysis and evaluation: evaluate, discuss PL Different questions have different numbers of marks for each AO. You do not need to worry about this: the questions will be worded to show the skills that are required. It is important, however, to do exactly what the question says. Usually, questions using an AO3 command word will also cover AO1. This is because you can only analyse and evaluate the sociological knowledge you present. It is particularly important to recognise when AO3 skills are required: for these questions, you must show that you can analyse and evaluate the information you present. The command words and definitions in the following table are taken from the Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level syllabuses 0495/2251 for first examination in 2025. Always refer to the appropriate syllabus document for the year of your examination M to confirm the details and for more information. The syllabuses documents are available on the Cambridge International website at www.cambridgeinternational.org. The guidance in this table has been written by the authors. Command Definition Guidance How to approach these questions word SA Assess Make an informed judgment Compare the advantages Make an overall judgement or and disadvantages of a decision; e.g. on whether strengths particular issue and come outweigh limitations. to a supported conclusion. Define Give precise meaning The terms to be defined Show clearly that you understand the are likely to be key terms term; you do not need to use the included in the Glossary. exact wording from the Coursebook. In your definition, do not repeat words that are part of the term you are asked to define. Describe State the points of a Expand on a topic or point. Describing involves giving the key topic/give characteristics points about something, to show and main features understanding of its overall nature. xv Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Command Definition Guidance How to approach these questions word Develop Take forward to a more Go a step further than Develop your answer to a ‘define’ advanced stage or build identifying or giving or ‘identify’ question. upon given information a point. Discuss Write about issue(s) or topic(s) Give a number of points Approach this in a critical way: you in depth in a structured way about an issue or topic. are not asked to evaluate but you can show, for example, how ideas are linked. Evaluate Judge or calculate the quality, Examine the issue or topic Include a balanced judgement or importance, amount, or value thoroughly and reach a conclusion at the end of your answer. E of something judgement based on this. Explain Set out purposes or reasons/ Give more detail than Give reasons and evidence to make the relationships for a ‘define’ or ‘identify’ develop your answer to a ‘define’ between things clear/say why question; for example, say or ‘identify’ question. and/or how and support with more or give an example. Give Identify Justify Outline relevant evidence recall/memory Name/select/recognise Support a case with evidence/argument PL Produce an answer from a given source or Set out the main points Identify a point; a word or phrase may be sufficient. Identify a point; a word or phrase may be sufficient. Come to a conclusion and support this with evidence. As with ‘discuss’, give a number of points about an Make sure the point you identify is clearly relevant to the question. Make sure the point you identify is clearly relevant to the question. Reach a conclusion and support this with developed evaluative comments. Develop each point by giving some additional information. M issue or topic. State Express in clear terms Identify a point as clearly Make sure that the point you identify as possible. is clearly relevant to the question. Suggest Apply knowledge and Put forward answers The nature of sociology means that understanding to situations that are plausible, with there are not always ‘correct’ answers. where there is a range of sufficient detail (if asked This word allows you to use your SA valid responses in order for) to explain why they sociological imagination to put forward to make proposals/put are appropriate. an explanation or interpretation. forward considerations Summarise Select and present the main Decide on the most There is no need to add detail or points, without detail important points to include examples: you are being asked for in your summary. a summary only. xvi Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). Unit 1 Research E methods PL M LEARNING INTENTIONS In this unit you will learn how to: SA Understand the differences between the positivist approach and the interpretivist approach to researching society Evaluate different research choices using ideas including validity, reliability, representativeness and generalisability Describe and evaluate the types of data and evidence that sociologists use, including primary and secondary data and qualitative and quantitative data Understand differences in the ways that primary and secondary data can be interpreted and analysed Describe and understand the different stages in research design Understand the sampling process, including different sampling techniques and their strengths and weaknesses Understand some of the main research methods for collecting primary data and their strengths and limitations Consider theoretical, practical and ethical issues affecting research. Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK A key part of the scientific method is reliability. Introduction This refers to the extent to which the research findings can be confirmed if the study is repeated (replicated). This unit looks at how sociologists approach the study Science experiments can be carried out again in exactly of society and the types of information and data they the same way and in the same conditions, because they use. Different sociologists use approaches that are based follow standardised procedures. If the experiment is on very different ideas about the relationship between reliable, the same results should be obtained each time. people and societies; as a result, the methods they use Positivists value reliability in their research and so they are also very different from each other. In this unit, use standardised methods which can be reproduced you will learn about the important features of different as accurately as possible, to allow the confirmation research methods. of results. E Scientists try to be objective. They try to be neutral, to avoid bias and to discover the truth, rather than being 1.1 How do sociologists guided by their values and by what they would like to be true. If a researcher can be objective, the results will approach the study of be unbiased, giving an accurate account of what really happened. Critics have pointed out that this is probably society? PL In all sciences, including social sciences, the methods used to carry out research are important. Sociologists use a range of different methods. They choose methods that are appropriate for what is being studied and for what they want to find out. If the methods are appropriate and implemented well, other researchers – and society in general – are more likely to accept that the research findings add to our knowledge. If the method is not chosen or carried out well, the research will be criticised impossible. For example, scientists’ research is influenced by their values from the very beginning, because they choose to research something they think is important. The positivist view is that sociologists should aim to be as objective as possible – even though scientists cannot be completely objective. KEY TERMS perspectives: ways of viewing society and social life M by other researchers and the findings may be rejected. positivism: an approach to sociology which takes a macro (large-scale) view of society and is based Positivism on studying society in a scientific manner, using quantitative methods There are two main approaches or perspectives in sociology: positivism and interpretivism. Positivist macro approaches: approaches that take a large- approaches focus on large-scale (macro) social structures SA scale view of whole societies and institutions, rather than on individuals. quantitative data/research: information and facts The positivist approach concentrates on producing that take a numerical form. Quantitative research quantitative data, usually in the form of statistics. generates this kind of data Positivism is based on the belief that, as far as possible, sociology should use the same research methods scientific method: the way in which scientists work, as the natural sciences such as physics, chemistry by observing, formulating and testing hypotheses, and biology. analysing the results and drawing conclusions This approach in sociology goes back to the 19th and reliability: when research can be repeated to early 20th centuries and sociologists such as Auguste produce similar responses Comte and Emile Durkheim, who saw the growing ability of the natural sciences to understand and predict objectivity: being open-minded and the workings of the natural world. They believed avoiding bias that there were laws of social behaviour that could be bias: when a researcher is not neutral in carrying discovered using similar methods, and so they advocated out their research the use of the scientific method in sociology. 2 Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). 1 Research methods Positivists favour experiments, using standard methods (based on ones used in the natural sciences) to produce quantitative data. However, it is often difficult to carry out experiments in sociology. As a result, positivists tend to use official statistics, social surveys and questionnaires instead, since they also produce quantitative data. When analysing quantitative data, positivists look for patterns and trends. Patterns are links between variables: for example, data might show that people from certain age groups are more likely to commit crime, or that women are more likely to do a certain job than men. Trends are E changes over time. Quantitative data in the form of statistics is often produced annually, or every few years, so positivists can look for trends in the data – such as whether the number of marriages in the population is increasing, or whether the number of crimes committed is going down. A well-known example of a positivist approach is the PL work of Emile Durkheim on suicide, published over 100 years ago. Durkheim argued that behaviour is governed by social facts – laws, values, customs and other social rules over which we have no control. He also discussed social forces: the pressures on us and our behaviour which come from our relationships with others and the expectations of society. We may think of suicide as an individual act, motivated by private troubles. However, Durkheim wanted to show that it is linked to social facts and social forces and, specifically, to the way Figure 1.1: Emile Durkheim. M societies are organised. when one variable has a direct effect on another, bringing Durkheim noticed that suicide rates (the proportion about a change. In the case of suicide, Durkheim found of a population who committed suicide each year) in a a correlation between the type of religion in a country country did not change much – there were no obvious and that country’s suicide rate. Where the religion trends. However, there were significant differences in brought people together with a strong sense of belonging suicide rates between countries, so there were patterns and community, the suicide rate was low. Where the within suicide statistics. Durkheim tried to show that religion played a lesser role and people behaved more as SA social forces affected individual actions (such as suicide) individuals, the suicide rate was higher. and led to the different suicide rates. An example of a social force is the connection between individuals and support networks, such as families and religious KEY TERMS organisations. In societies with strong connections – patterns: links between different variables, such as high rates of religious belief or strong family for example gender, ethnicity or age values – there were lower suicide rates. However, there were higher suicide rates in countries with weaker levels trends: changes over time in a particular direction of religious control. Thus, according to Durkheim (and other positivists), suicide rates show us something about social facts: laws, values, customs and other the nature of a society – not about individuals. social rules over which individuals have no control Durkheim used a scientific method. Like other positivists, correlation: when two variables change at the he took a large-scale view and looked for correlation and same time, suggesting they are connected causation between variables. Correlation is when two or causation: when a change in one variable has more variables change at the same time, which suggests a direct effect on another variable that the changes are related to each other. Causation is 3 Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Interpretivism For example, a positivist may be able to say how many people commit different types of crime, while an Interpretivists take a different view from positivists. interpretivist will want to find out why those people They argue that there are key differences between commit crimes. the subject matter of sociology and natural science. While interpretivists are not very concerned Humans are active, conscious beings who make choices about reliability – since they do not take a scientific about how to behave. Their behaviour cannot easily be approach – they do value validity in their research. predicted. This means that people’s behaviour cannot Validity refers to the extent to which the research be studied in the same way as scientists study things like findings accurately reflect reality and give a true picture. cells, chemicals and forces in the natural world. An interpretivist would see the findings of in-depth An interpretivist approach focuses on the individual research methods (such as unstructured interviews) as E rather than society, and on the micro scale rather more valid than the findings of a questionnaire, because than the macro scale. Focusing on small-scale the in-depth methods allow the researcher to develop interactions often means studying individuals and a detailed understanding of the respondents and how small groups rather than whole societies. Interpretivists they actually feel about the issue being researched. believe individuals are in control: people make the Interpretivists are less concerned about objectivity than societies they live in and change them through their positivists. Rather than trying to be neutral (which they PL actions. We are born into particular societies but, although we learn the norms and values of the society we grow up in, we do not have to accept them. Instead, these norms and values change continuously over time as people’s ideas change. Interpretivists are interested in how individuals make sense of society and of social actions – the things they do, their meanings and motivations. Interpretivists say that social reality does not exist separately from human actions; rather, it is embedded argue may not be possible), they feel that sociologists should be open about who they are and why they are doing the research. Subjectivity – the particular viewpoint of the researcher – can be more important than trying to be objective. KEY TERMS interpretivism: approaches that start at the level of the individual, focusing on small- M in these actions. Sociologists need to understand how scale interactions and usually favouring people make sense of the social reality around them qualitative methods before they can understand their actions. Interpretivists argue that if we want to understand an individual’s micro approaches: approaches that take a actions, we first have to understand the motivations small-scale view of social interaction between behind them and their meanings from the individual’s individuals and groups in society point of view. This way of understanding society is sometimes called verstehen, a word used by the German verstehen: a German word used to mean SA sociologist Max Weber, meaning to see things from the identifying with another person or group and point of view of others. seeing things from their point of view According to interpretivists, the subject of sociology is so qualitative data/research: information (such different from the natural sciences that sociologists need to as attitudes or kinds of actions) that cannot be use different methods. Positivists may be able to describe presented in numerical form; qualitative research the social world using quantitative data, but interpretivists generates this kind of data think it is more important to understand why people validity: the extent to which research findings behave as they do. Where positivists prefer experiments reflect reality and give a true picture and surveys, interpretivists prefer to use methods that produce qualitative data, such as unstructured interviews subjectivity: allowing a personal point of view and participant observation, which are more helpful to influence understanding and interpretation in uncovering why people behave as they do. 4 Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). 1 Research methods It can be used to cross-reference the researcher’s TIP interpretations of other data collected, to check Throughout this book, you will study the ways for accuracy. in which these different research approaches It can provide balance between methods, where one or perspectives have been applied to different may be weaker than another in a particular area topics in sociology (families, education, crime and of research. so on). When writing about research methods, you can bring in relevant examples from any of Limitations: the topic areas. Using several methods is time-consuming and expensive. The researcher needs to be skilled in several E STRETCH AND CHALLENGE research methods. Positivist and interpretivist approaches are based on What are the main differences between very different ideas, so it may be difficult to combine positivism and interpretivism? Create a table with them in one piece of research. two columns comparing the two approaches. Approaches that combine different research methods and evidence Triangulation PL Triangulation is when a researcher decides to use a variety of research methods, usually including both Longitudinal studies Longitudinal studies are carried out at intervals, over a period of time, rather than as a one-off piece of research. Longitudinal research is often used by government- funded research organisations to study basic questions about changing lifestyle, health, illnesses, education and employment and find out about changes over time. The census, carried out by governments in many countries every ten years, can be seen as a type of longitudinal study. M qualitative and quantitative data. This has many In most longitudinal studies, the same sample is advantages and is common in sociology. For example, a used each time. The group of people or households study may be conducted based on both observation and being studied is called the panel or the panel sample. structured interviews, or on both closed questionnaires Panel members are interviewed or complete and diaries. questionnaires on a regular basis, with a period of months or years between interviews. The key requirement of panel studies is that, as far as possible, SA KEY TERM the respondents are the same people throughout the study. This is also one of the main disadvantages of triangulation: use of two or more methods in the longitudinal studies, because respondents in the original same research project sample may drop out of the research at a later stage; Strengths and limitations of triangulation KEY TERMS Strengths: longitudinal study: research taking place at It can allow the researcher to support quantitative intervals over a long period of time data with qualitative examples, giving a study both sample: the group of people on whom reliability and validity. research is carried out, used to represent the It can be used to check the validity of the research. target population It can be used to check the reliability of the research using different sources. 5 Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK this affects the representativeness. However, a strength of longitudinal studies is that they do not rely on people’s ACTIVITY: RESEARCH 1.1 memory or provide a ‘snapshot’ of people’s opinions. The Centre for Longitudinal Studies in London runs Instead, they allow researchers to find out how people’s four longitudinal studies. Search online for the CLS lives, views and actions change over time. website and view the homepage. Working with three other learners, each choose KEY TERM one of the four projects. Click on it to find out more, then write a short summary to share with the representativeness: the degree to which research others in your group. findings about one group can be applied to a larger group or similar groups E CASE STUDY 1.1 The Up series – a television longitudinal study which went global PL The Up series is a longitudinal study in the form of a television documentary which began in the UK in 1956. In 7-up, a group of 7-year-old children were interviewed about their lives, their families and their future ambitions. Then they were revisited every seven years by the same documentary makers. Clips from what they had said in previous years were put together with updates and new interviews. This television series proved very popular, giving viewers an insight into how the lives of people from various M social backgrounds developed and changed over the decades. The series is still being made – with many of the original participants still taking part – and the most recent version, 63-up, was shown in the UK in Figure 1.2: 7-up children. 2019. A new UK version was started in 2000, with another set of 7-year olds. Task This longitudinal research-based documentary series SA has also been copied in other countries. In the USA, 1 In what ways does the data gathered they started with Aged 7 in America in 1991, and in longitudinal research differ from similar programmes have been made in Japan, information gathered in a one-off interview South Africa, Russia, Sweden, France, Denmark or questionnaire? and Australia. 2 How might the individuals involved in a longitudinal study such as the Up series be affected by taking part in this research? 6 Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). 1 Research methods Someone taking part in this kind of research REFLECTION may start to think more carefully about aspects In Activity: Research 1.1, did you and the of their lives they are questioned about; this others in your group include the same kinds of may lead them to act differently or even make information in your summaries, or did you focus different choices. on different things? How did you decide which information to include The analysis and evaluation of in your summary and what to leave out? Having heard the summaries from other members research choices of your group, is there anything you would change Bias E about yours? Bias may come from the researcher’s values, such as their political views. Positivists argue that researchers should be neutral and objective, so the findings would be the same Strengths and limitations of longitudinal research regardless of who carries out the research and analyses Strengths: the findings. Interpretivists argue that because sociology PL One of the standard criticisms of a lot of research is that it only gives us a ‘snapshot’ view of society – what things are like at one moment in time. A study based on questionnaires or interviews may tell us how some people think or behave in specific respects. But longitudinal research can show us how people’s lives change over time. This is a great advantage of this type of research. It becomes possible to see what factors may have caused changes in people’s lives over time. is about people, it is not possible to be completely unbiased. Researcher or interviewer bias – which may include the ways in which the interviewer asks questions or interprets answers – will inevitably have an effect on the research findings. KEY TERM interviewer bias: ways in which the interviewer asks questions or interprets answers that have an effect on the findings M Because the respondents have to be committed to the research, there is a good chance that they will provide valid data. Even deciding what to research is likely to be influenced Limitations: by the researcher’s values. Thus, researchers should be completely open about any bias so that readers can make This kind of research requires a considerable their own decisions about the validity and reliability commitment of time and funding over a long period. of the findings. This approach has been adopted SA There are, inevitably, people who stop participating by many feminist researchers, who tend to take an in the research. This is known as sample attrition. interpretivist approach. It happens because individuals die, move away or The ways in which researchers can influence the findings decide they do not want to take part anymore. One is called researcher imposition; that is, the problem way of dealing with this problem is by following of the researcher imposing themselves or their values individuals wherever they go and also by including on the research. This can happen because the social new household members to ‘top up’ the original characteristics of the researcher (gender, age and so on) sample (for example, when a child becomes an adult influence the answers given or the behaviour observed, and marries, their partner will be invited to join the or because the researcher words questions or analyses study). This keeps the total numbers roughly the data in particular ways. The findings of sociological same, but there is some movement of individuals research need to be interpreted; we cannot assume that into and out of the study at each wave. the meaning is clear to everyone. When interpreting Being part of research like this may change research, we need to be aware of any bias that may have the participants. Sociologists call this the influenced it. Hawthorne Effect. 7 Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK factory, to see what effect the changes had. They found STRETCH AND CHALLENGE that whatever variable they changed, the workers worked Is it possible for any research in sociology to be harder. The researchers realised that this was not because completely free of bias? Consider the case studies of the changes to variables, but because the workers in this unit and any other sociological research you knew they were being observed and their productivity know of. How can a sociologist make their research was being recorded. as free of bias as possible? You may have noticed a similar effect in your school or college. When a visitor is in a classroom, both the learners and the teacher may behave differently. Interviewer effect Since any interview involves at least two people, the E respondent and the interviewer, the responses may be affected by interviewer effect. This is when the answers are affected by, for example, the interviewer’s sex, age or ethnicity or their reaction to the answers received. People being interviewed may adjust their answers to give the interviewer a particular impression of themselves. For PL example, the interviewee may not want to offend the interviewer or give an answer they think the interviewer will disapprove of. Hawthorne effect or observer effect While the interviewer effect is an issue for interviews, the Hawthorne or observer effect is an issue in research that involves observing people. It refers to the ways people change their behaviour when they know they are being watched. As with the interviewer effect, this can M be because they want to give the observer a particular Figure 1.3: The Hawthorne or observer effect. impression of themselves, or simply because they are more aware of their actions due to being observed. Validity KEY TERMS As mentioned earlier, validity refers to the extent to which the research findings accurately reflect reality. The findings of participant observation SA interviewer effect: ways in which an interviewer may influence participants’ responses, for example and unstructured interviews are usually said to be through their characteristics, appearance or valid because they are detailed and give an in-depth verbal cues, such as facial expressions and tone understanding of how the respondents feel about the of voice research topic and how they actually behave, rather than just how they say they behave in a questionnaire. In Hawthorne or observer effect: the unintended these situations, it is more difficult for the respondents effects of the researcher’s presence on to mislead the researcher or provide false information. the behaviour or responses of the people However, while these methods produce valid findings, being studied their reliability is not as strong. These methods are favoured by interpretivists, who see validity as more important than reliability. The name Hawthorne comes from an American factory where this effect was observed. Researchers wanted to Reliability find out how to increase productivity – the amount of work the workers did – so they changed a number of As we have seen, reliability refers to the extent to which variables, such as the temperature and lighting in the research findings can be confirmed by repeating the study. 8 Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). 1 Research methods Although it is difficult to replicate sociological research exactly, research which uses standardised procedures and KEY TERMS can be repeated with a similarly representative sample target population: the whole group that the should produce broadly similar results (allowing for research relates to and to whom the findings of individual differences within a sample). Questionnaires and the research will be applied structured interviews are more reliable than participant observation and unstructured interviews, because they have generalisability: when the findings about a a standardised set of questions and so can be carried out sample can be said to apply to a larger group of many times with no variation in the procedures. However, people sharing the same characteristics these methods tend to be less valid, because standardised, closed questions do not allow respondents to expand on sampling methods/techniques: the different their answers or go into any detail about how they really ways in which samples can be chosen E feel. Such inflexible methods may not give a true picture of how the respondent really feels or behaves, and why. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.1 TIP Work with another learner. One of you choose the PL Many learners think that reliability and validity are similar or confuse them with each other. It is important to understand how they differ and use them in the right way. Reliability tends to link with the structured, quantitative methods associated with positivism, whereas validity is associated with qualitative, in-depth research favoured by interpretivists. Representativeness and generalisability positivist approach, the other the interpretivist approach. Without reading from your notes, explain the main points about your approach to your partner in one minute. Your partner should then ask you to say more about any points that were not clear. Then check the book and your notes to make sure what you said was correct. You will now have a clearer understanding of both approaches. Draw a poster for display, showing the main points about the approach you chose. M Most research is not carried out on the whole population being studied – the target population. Instead, it will ACTIVITY: DISCUSSION 1.1 focus on a smaller sample of people used to represent this target population. The sample used for the research Work in a group with three or four other learners. must be representative of the target population. This For each of the following, discuss whether a means it must be, in effect, a smaller version of the positivist approach or an interpretist approach SA population being studied, with the same proportions of would be better. people of different genders, ages and so on (according to what is relevant to the research). The researcher can then a Researching why boys and girls tend claim that the findings of the research apply not only to choose different school subject options to the sample but to the target population as a whole. b Researching which family members learners If findings can be applied to a larger group of people in your school or college live with than those who actually took part in the research, this is called generalisability. c Researching what activities young people take part in in their free time. Samples do not include the whole target population, so there are always differences between the results for a sample and the results for the target population. This is called sampling error. Researchers reduce sampling REFLECTION error by having a large random sample or using a representative sampling method to select their sample. To what extent were members of your group able The different types of sampling method – techniques to to agree? Did you find that your opinions changed select a sample – are explained in section 1.2. as the discussion went on? 9 Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.  We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Any references or material related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author(s). CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK or organisation (at which time they were primary data). KEY POINTS In most research projects, the researcher first studies all Sociologists use two broad approaches to the published research on the topic under investigation study society. (secondary data). Then they carry out research that produces new primary data, adding to knowledge on the The positivist approach argues that topic and supporting or questioning the secondary data. sociology should be as scientific as possible. Sociologists use four main types of secondary data: This involves: official statistics produced by government or taking a macro view official organisations studying social facts research by other sociologists, journalists and E the government producing quantitative data the media (television, radio, internet, newspapers looking for causation and correlation, and magazines) patterns and trends other sources, mainly of qualitative data, such as objectivity diaries, letters and photographs. reliability. taking a micro view PL The interpretivist approach argues that sociology cannot be scientific and should instead involve: studying meanings and motivations producing qualitative data trying to achieve verstehen KEY TERMS primary data: information collected by the sociologist using methods such as questionnaires, interviews or observations secondary data: information collected earlier by researchers or other organisations and used later by a sociologist M subjectivity Strengths and limitations of primary data validity. Strengths: As the researcher carried out the research themselves, they know how valid and reliable it 1.2 What types of is. They also know of any flaws or problems with SA the sources. data and evidence do The research will have been designed to focus on the researcher’s exact purpose a