Sociology (16th ed.) Macionis - PDF

Chapter 1 The Sociological Perspective Learning Objectives 1.1 Explain how the sociological perspective 1.4 Link the origins of sociology to historical differs from common sense. social changes. 1.2 State several reasons that a global 1.5 Summarize s...

Chapter 1 The Sociological Perspective Learning Objectives 1.1 Explain how the sociological perspective 1.4 Link the origins of sociology to historical differs from common sense. social changes. 1.2 State several reasons that a global 1.5 Summarize sociology’s major theoretical ­perspective is important in today’s world. ­approaches. 1.3 Identify the advantages of sociological 1.6 Apply sociology’s major theoretical thinking for developing public policy, for approaches to the topic of sports. encouraging personal growth, and for ­advancing in a career. 29 30 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective The Power of Society to guide our choices in marriage partners 92% 100% 90% 77% 78% 80% Percentage of All U.S. Married Couples 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Both Partners Both Partners Both Partners within Five-Year with Same Same Race/ Age Range Level of Ethnicity Education U.S.U.S. Source: SOURCE: Census Census Bureau Bureau (2014). (2014). Do we simply “pick” our marriage partners? In 77 percent of all married couples in the United States, both partners are within five years of age of each other; in 78 percent, both partners have achieved the same level of schooling; and in 92 percent of married couples, both partners are of the same racial or ethnic category. Although we tend to think of love and m­ arriage as very personal matters, it is clear that society guides the ­process of selecting a spouse.  CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective 31 Chapter Overview You are about to begin a course that could change your life. Sociology is a new and exciting way of understanding the world around you. It will change what you see and how you think about the world around you, and it may well change how you think about yourself. Chapter 1 of the text introduces the discipline of sociology. The most important skill to gain from this chapter is the ability to use what we call the sociological perspective. This chapter also introduces ­sociological theory, which helps you build understanding from what you see ­using the sociological perspective. From the moment he first saw Tonya step off the subway train, Dwayne knew she was “the one.” As the two walked up the stairs to the street and entered the building where they were both taking classes, Dwayne tried to get Tonya to stop and talk. At first, she ignored him. But after class, they met again, and she agreed to join him for coffee. That was three months ago. Today, they are engaged to be married. If you were to ask people in the United States, “Why do couples like Tonya and Dwayne marry?” it is a safe bet that almost everyone would reply, “People marry because they fall in love.” Most of us find it hard to imagine a happy marriage without love; for the same reason, when people fall in love, we expect them to think about getting married. But is the decision about whom to marry really just a matter of personal feelings? There is plenty of evidence to show that if love is the key to mar- riage, Cupid’s arrow is carefully aimed by the society around us. Society has many “rules” about whom we should and should not marry. Up until about a decade ago, all states had laws that ruled out half the population by banning people from marrying someone of the same sex, even if the couple was deeply in love. But there are other rules as well. Sociologists have found that people, especially when they are young, are very likely to marry someone close in age, and people of all ages typically marry others in the same racial category, of similar social class background, of much the same level of education, and with a similar degree of physical attractiveness (Schwartz & Mare, 2005; Schoen & Cheng, 2006; Feng Hou & Myles, 2008; Shafer & Zhenchao, 2010; Shafer, 2013; see Chapter 18, “Families,” for details). People do end up making choices about whom to marry, but society narrows the field long before they do. When it comes to love, the decisions people make do not Seeing the General in the Particular simply result from the process philosophers call “free One good way to define the sociological perspective is will.” Sociology shows us the power of society to guide all seeing the general in the particular (Berger, 1963). This defini- our life decisions in much the same way that the seasons tion tells us that sociologists look for general patterns in the influence our choice of clothing. behavior of particular people. Although every individual is unique, a society shapes the lives of people in patterned ways that are evident as we discover how various catego- The Sociological ries (such as children and adults, women and men, the Perspective rich and the poor) live very differently. We begin to see the world sociologically by realizing how the general catego- 1.1 Explain how the sociological perspective differs ries into which we fall shape our particular life experiences. from common sense. Sociology is the systematic study of human society. Society sociology the systematic sociological perspective refers to people who live in a defined territory and share a way study of human society sociology’s special point of view of life. At the heart of sociology’s investigation of society is that sees ­general patterns of society a special point of view called the sociological perspective. in the lives of particular people 32 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective We can easily see the power of society over the individual by imagining how different our lives would be had we been born in place of any of these children from, respectively, Kenya, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Peru, South Korea, and India. For example, the Power of Society figure shows how the Seeing the Strange in the Familiar social world guides people to select marriage partners from At first, using the sociological perspective may seem like within their own social categories. This is why the large ma- seeing the strange in the familiar. Consider how you might jority of married couples are about the same age, have simi- react if someone were to say to you, “You fit all the right lar educational backgrounds, and share the same racial and categories, which means you would make a wonderful ethnic identity. What about social class? How does social spouse!” We are used to thinking that people fall in love class position affect what women look for in a spouse? In a and decide to marry based on personal feelings. But the so- classic study of women’s hopes for their marriages, Lillian ciological perspective reveals the initially strange idea that Rubin (1976) found that higher-income women typically ex- society shapes what we think and do. pected the men they married to be sensitive to others, to talk Because we live in an individualistic society, learning to readily, and to share feelings and experiences. Lower-income see how society affects us may take a bit of practice. If some- women, she found, had very different expectations and were one asked you why you “chose” to enroll at your particular looking for men who did not drink too much, were not vio- college, you might offer one of the following reasons: lent, and held steady jobs. Obviously, what women expect in a marriage partner has a lot to do with social class position. “I wanted to stay close to home.” This text explores the power of society to guide our ac- “I got a basketball scholarship.” tions, thoughts, and feelings. We may think that marriage “With a journalism degree from this university, I can results simply from the personal feelings of love. Yet the get a good job.” sociological perspective shows us that factors such as age, “My girlfriend goes to school here.” schooling, race and ethnicity, sex, and social class guide “I didn’t get into the school I really wanted to attend.” our selection of a partner. It might be more accurate to think of love as a feeling we have for others who match up Any of these responses may well be true. But do they with what society teaches us to want in a mate. tell the whole story?  CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective 33 Window on the World Cindy Rucker, 29 years old, recently Although she is only 28 years old, took time off from her job in the Baktnizar Kahn has five children, New Orleans public school system a common pattern in Afghanistan. Greenland to have her first child. (Den.) Area of inset U.S. RUSSIA CANADA GEORGIA KAZAKHSTAN MONGOLIA UNITED UZBEKISTAN NORTH ARMENIA KYRGYZSTAN STATES AZERBAIJAN TURKMENISTAN TAJIKISTAN KOREA TUNISIA LEBANON SYRIA CHINA SOUTH IRAN AFGHANISTAN KOREA JAPAN ISRAEL IRAQ MOROCCO West Bank KUWAIT BHUTAN 30° JORDAN PAKISTAN NEPAL 30° ALGERIA LIBYA BAHRAIN Hong BAHAMAS QATAR DOM. REP. Western Sahara EGYPT SAUDI Kong U.S. BELIZE Puerto Rico (U.S.) (Mor.) ARABIA U.A.E. INDIA MYANMAR Taiwan MEXICO CUBA ST. KITTS & NEVIS OMAN (BURMA) Macao ANTIGUA & BARBUDA MAURITANIA MALI LAOS BANGLADESH JAMAICA HAITI DOMINICA CAPE NIGER ERITREA YEMEN Martinique (Fr.) VERDE SENEGAL THAILAND PHILIPPINES ST. LUCIA GUATEMALA GRENADA BARBADOS BURKINA CHAD SUDAN VIETNAM ST. VINCENT & THE GRENADINES GAMBIA FASO NIGERIA DJIBOUTI EL SALVADOR TRINIDAD & TOBAGO MARSHALL GUINEA-BISSAU CAMBODIA ISLANDS HONDURAS VENEZUELA GUYANA GUINEA GHANA CENT. S. ETHIOPIA PALAU NICARAGUA French Guiana SIERRA LEONE BENIN AFR. REP. SUDAN SRI BRUNEI FEDERATED STATES COSTA RICA OF MICRONESIA COLOMBIA (Fr.) LIBERIA TOGO CAM. UGANDA SOMALIA MALDIVES LANKA MALAYSIA PANAMA CÔTE D’IVOIRE EQ. GUINEA RWANDA Singapore 0° KENYA 0° ECUADOR SURINAME SAO TOME & PRINCIPE GABON NAURU DEM. REP. KIRIBATI OF THE BURUNDI REP. OF THE CONGO CONGO TANZANIA COMOROS I N D O N E S I A PAPUA SOLOMON PERU BRAZIL TIMOR-LESTE NEW GUINEA ISLANDS TUVALU ANGOLA SEYCHELLES SAMOA MALAWI ZAMBIA VANUATU FIJI BOLIVIA MADAGASCAR ZIMBABWE NAMIBIA MAURITIUS TONGA BOTSWANA New PARAGUAY Caledonia 150° 120° CHILE MOZAMBIQUE AUSTRALIA (Fr.) SWAZILAND 30° 0 500 Mi SOUTH 30° LESOTHO AFRICA URUGUAY 20° 0° 20° 40° ARGENTINA NEW 0 500 Km ZEALAND EUROPE ICELAND SWEDEN NORWAY FINLAND 90° 60° 30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 60° ESTONIA Average Number of LATVIA RUSSIA Births per Woman DENMARK UNITED LITHUANIA KINGDOM BELARUS 6.0 and higher IRELAND NETH. BEL. GERMANY POLAND A N TA RCT I CA CZECH UKRAINE 5.0 to 5.9 LUX. REP. SLVK. SWITZ. AUS. HUNG. MOLDOVA 4.0 to 4.9 ROMANIA FRANCE SLO. CROATIA BOS. & HERZ. SERBIA 3.0 to 3.9 MONT. BULGARIA ITALY KOS. MAC. ALB. 2.0 to 2.9 40° SPAIN GREECE PORTUGAL TURKEY 1.0 to 1.9 MALTA CYPRUS Global Map 1–1 Women’s Childbearing in Global Perspective Is childbearing simply a matter of personal choice? A look around the world shows that it is not. In general, women living in poor countries have many more children than women in rich nations. Can you point to some of the reasons for this global disparity? In simple terms, such differences mean that if you had been born into another society (whether you are female or male), your life might be quite different from what it is now. Sources: Data from Population Reference Bureau (2014), Martin et al. (2015). Thinking sociologically about going to college, it’s im- with above-average incomes. As Chapter 20 (“Education”) portant to realize that only 7 out of every 100 people in the explains, if you are lucky enough to belong to a family world have earned a college degree, with the enrollment earning more than $119,000 a year, you are almost 60 per- rate much higher in high-income nations than in poor coun- cent more likely to go to college than someone whose fam- tries (Barro & Lee, 2010; OECD, 2012; World Bank, 2012). ily earns less than $28,000. Is it reasonable, in light of these A century ago, even in the United States most people had facts, to ignore the power of society and say that attending little or no chance to go to college. Today, enrolling in col- college is simply a matter of personal choice? lege is within the reach of far more men and women. But a look around the classroom shows that social forces still have much to do with who ends up on campus. For ­instance, Seeing Society in Our Everyday Lives most U.S. college students are young, generally ­between Another way to appreciate the power of society is to con- eighteen and about thirty. Why? Because our society sider the number of children women have. As shown in links college attendance to this period of life. But more than Global Map 1–1, the average woman in the United States has age is involved, because just 42 percent of men and women about two children during her lifetime. In the Philippines, between eighteen and twenty-four actually end up on however, the average is about three; in Guatemala, about campus. four; in Afghanistan, five; in Uganda, six; and in Niger, the Another factor is cost. Because higher education is so average woman has more than seven children (Population expensive, college students tend to come from families Reference Bureau, 2014).  34 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective Diversity Snapshot The wealthy have much more freedom than the poor, but once again, at the cost of a higher sui- White men are more than 12 times more likely than black or Hispanic cide rate. women to commit suicide. A century later, Durkheim’s analysis still 30 26.9 holds true. Figure 1–1 shows suicide rates for 25 various categories of people in the United States. Keep in mind that suicide is very rare—a rate of 20 Suicide Rate 17.0 10 suicides for every 100,000 people is about the 15 same as 6 inches in a mile. Even so, we can see 9.5 some interesting patterns. In 2013, there were 17 10 8.3 7.5 recorded suicides for every 100,000 white people, 5.6 5.3 5 three times the rate for African Americans (5.6) or 2.1 2.2 Hispanics (5.3). For all categories of people, sui- 0 cide was more common among men than among Men Both Women Men Both Women Men Both Women women. White men (26.9) were more than three sexes sexes sexes Whites African Americans Hispanic Americans times as likely as white women (7.5) to take their own lives. Among African Americans, the rate Figure 1–1 Rate of Death by Suicide, by Race and Sex, for the United States for men (9.5) was almost five times higher than for women (2.1). Among Hispanics, the rate for Suicide rates are higher for white people than they are for black people and Hispanic people. Within each category, suicide rates are higher for men than men (8.3) was nearly four times higher than the for women. Rates indicate the number of deaths by suicide for every 100,000 rate for women (2.2) (Centers for Disease Con- people in each category for 2013. trol and Prevention, 2014). Applying Durkheim’s Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014). logic, the higher suicide rate among white people and men reflects their greater wealth and free- dom, just as the lower rate among women and What accounts for these striking differences? Because ­African Americans reflects their limited ­social choices. As poor countries provide women with less schooling and ­Durkheim did a century ago, we can see general patterns fewer economic opportunities, women’s lives are centered in the personal actions of particular individuals. in the home; such women also have less access to contra- ception. Clearly, society has much to do with the decisions Seeing Sociologically: Marginality women and men make about childbearing. Another illustration of the power of society to shape and Crisis even our most private choices comes from the study of Anyone can learn to see the world using the sociological suicide. What could be a more personal choice than the perspective. But two situations help people see clearly decision to end your own life? But Emile Durkheim (1858– how society shapes individual lives: living on the margins 1917), one of sociology’s pioneers, showed that even here, of society and living through a social crisis. social forces are at work. From time to time, everyone feels like an outsider. For Examining official records in France, his own coun- some categories of people, however, being an outsider— try, Durkheim found that some categories of people were not part of the dominant group—is an everyday experi- more likely than others to take their own lives. Men, Prot- ence. The greater people’s social marginality, the better estants, wealthy people, and the unmarried had much they are able to use the sociological perspective. higher suicide rates than women, Catholics and Jews, the For example, no African American grows up in the poor, and married people. Durkheim explained the differ- United States without understanding the importance of race ences in terms of social integration: Categories of people in shaping people’s lives. Songs by rapper Jay-Z express the with strong social ties had low suicide rates, and more in- anger he feels, not only about the poverty he experienced dividualistic categories of people had high suicide rates. growing up but also about the many innocent lives lost to In Durkheim’s time, men had much more freedom violence in a society with great social inequality based on than women. But despite its advantages, freedom weak- race. His lyrics and those of many similar artists are spread ens social ties and thus increases the risk of suicide. Like- throughout the world by the mass media as statements of wise, more individualistic Protestants were more likely how some people of color—especially African Americans to commit suicide than more tradition-bound Catholics living in the inner city—feel that their hopes and dreams and Jews, whose rituals encourage stronger social ties. are crushed by society. But white people, as the dominant  CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective 35 majority, think less often about race, believing that race af- fects only people of color and not themselves despite the privileges provided by being white in a multiracial society. All people at the margins of social life, including not just ra- cial minorities but also women, gay people, people with dis- abilities, and the very old, are aware of social patterns that others rarely think about. To become better at using the so- ciological perspective, we must step back from our familiar routines and look at our own lives with a new curiosity. Periods of change or crisis make everyone feel a little off balance, encouraging us to use the sociological perspec- tive. The sociologist C. Wright Mills (1959) illustrated this idea using the Great Depression of the 1930s. As the unem- ployment rate soared to 25 percent, people who were out of work could not help but see general social forces at work in their particular lives. Rather than saying, “Something must be wrong with me; I can’t find a job,” they took a sociologi- cal approach and realized, “The economy has collapsed; there are no jobs to be found!” Mills believed that using what he called the “sociological imagination” in this way helps people understand not only their society but also their own lives, because the two are closely related. The Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life box on page 36 takes a closer look. People with the greatest privileges tend to see individuals as respon- Just as social change encourages sociological thinking, sible for their own lives. Those at the margins of society, by contrast, are quick to see how race, class, and gender can create disadvantages. sociological thinking can bring about social change. The The rap artist Jay-Z has given voice to the frustration felt by many more we learn about how “the system” operates, the more African Americans living in this country’s inner cities. we may want to change it in some way. Becoming aware of the power of gender, for example, has caused many women and men to try to reduce gender inequality in our society. seventy-six countries in this category include the United States and Canada, Argentina, the nations of Western ­Europe, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Japan, and Australia. Taken The Importance of a together, these nations produce most of the world’s goods and services, and the people who live there own most of Global Perspective the planet’s wealth. Economically speaking, people in these countries are very well off, not because they are smarter or 1.2 State several reasons that a global perspective is work harder than anyone else but because they were lucky important in today’s world. enough to be born in a rich region of the world. As new information technology draws even the farthest A second category is middle-income countries, nations reaches of the planet closer together, many academic disci- with a standard of living about average for the world as a whole. plines are taking a global perspective, the study of the larger People in any of these seventy nations—many of the coun- world and our society’s place in it. What is the importance of tries of Eastern Europe, some of Africa, and almost all of Latin a global perspective for sociology? America and Asia—are as likely to live in rural villages as in First, global awareness is a logical extension of the cities and to walk or ride tractors, scooters, bicycles, or ani- sociological perspective. Sociology shows us that our place mals as to drive automobiles. On average, they receive eight in society shapes our life experiences. It stands to reason, years of schooling. Most middle-income countries also have then, that the position of our society in the larger world considerable social inequality within their own borders, so system affects everyone in the United States. that some people are extremely rich (members of the business The world’s 194 nations can be divided into three elite in nations across North Africa, for example), but many broad categories according to their level of economic de- more lack safe housing and adequate nutrition (people liv- velopment (see Global Map 12–1). High-income countries ing in the shanty settlements that surround Lima, Peru, or are the nations with the highest overall standards of living. The ­Mumbai, India). 36 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life The Sociological Imagination: When society becomes industrialized, a peasant becomes a worker; a feudal lord is liquidated or becomes a busi- ­Turning Personal Problems nessman. When classes rise or fall, a man is employed into ­Public Issues or unemployed; when the rate of investment goes up As Mike opened the envelope, he felt the tightness in his or down, a man takes new heart or goes broke. When chest. The letter he dreaded was in his hands—his job was wars happen, an insurance salesman becomes a rocket finished at the end of the day. After eleven years! Years in launcher; a store clerk, a radar man; a wife lives alone; which he had worked hard, sure that he would move up in a child grows up without a father. Neither the life of an the company. All those hopes and dreams were now sud- individual nor the history of a society can be understood denly gone. Mike felt like a failure. Anger at himself—for not without understanding both. having worked even harder, for having wasted eleven years Yet men do not usually define the troubles they endure of his life in what had turned out to be a dead-end job— in terms of historical change.... The well-being they swelled up inside him. enjoy, they do not usually impute to the big ups and downs But as he returned to his workstation to pack his things, of the society in which they live. Seldom aware of the Mike soon realized that he was not alone. Almost all his col- ­intricate connection between the patterns of their own lives leagues in the tech support group had received the same let- and the course of world history, ordinary men do not usu- ter. Their jobs were moving to India, where the company was ally know what this connection means for the kind of men able to provide telephone tech support for less than half the they are becoming and for the kinds of history-making in cost of employing workers in California. which they might take part. They do not possess the By the end of the weekend, Mike was sitting in the living quality of mind essential to grasp the interplay of men and room with a dozen other ex-employees. Comparing notes society, of biography and history, of self and world.... and sharing ideas, they now realized that they were simply What they need … is a quality of mind that will help a few of the victims of a massive outsourcing of jobs that is them [see] what is going on in the world and... what part of what analysts call the “globalization of the economy.” may be happening within themselves. It is this quality... In good times and bad, the power of the sociologi- [that] may be called the sociological imagination. cal perspective lies in making sense of our individual lives. We see that many of our particular problems (and our What Do You Think? successes, as well) are not unique to us but are the result 1. As Mills sees it, how are personal troubles different from of larger social trends. Half a century ago, sociologist C. public issues? Explain this difference in terms of what Wright Mills pointed to the power of what he called the happened to Mike in the story above. sociological imagination to help us understand every- 2. Living in the United States, why do we often blame day events. As he saw it, society—not people’s personal ­ourselves for the personal problems we face? ­failings—is the main cause of poverty and other social 3. How can using the sociological imagination give us the problems. By turning personal problems into public issues, power to change the world? the sociological imagination also is the key to bringing people together to create needed change. *In this excerpt, Mills uses “man” and male pronouns to apply to all people. As In this excerpt, Mills (1959:3–5) explains the need for a far as gender was concerned, even this outspoken critic of society reflected sociological imagination:* the conventional writing practices of his time. The remaining forty-eight nations of the world are by with poor housing, unsafe water, too little food, and per- low-income countries, nations with a low standard of living haps most serious of all, little chance to improve their lives. in which most people are poor. Most of the poorest countries in Chapter 12 (“Global Stratification”) explains the the world are in Africa, and a few are in Asia. Here again, causes and consequences of global wealth and poverty. But a few people are very rich, but the majority struggle to get every chapter of this text makes comparisons between the United States and other nations for five global perspective the study of the larger world and our society’s place in it reasons: high-income middle-income low-income 1. Where we live shapes the lives we countries the nations countries nations with countries nations with lead. As we saw in Global Map 1–1, with the highest overall a standard of living about a low standard of living women living in rich and poor coun- standards of living average for the world as in which most people tries have very different lives, as sug- a whole are poor gested by the number of children they  CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective 37 have. To understand ourselves and appreciate how 4. Many social problems that we face in the United States others live, we must ­understand something about are far more serious elsewhere. Poverty is a serious how countries differ, which is one good r­eason to problem in the United States, but as Chapter 12 (“Global pay ­attention to the global maps found throughout Stratification”) explains, poverty in Latin America, this text. ­Africa, and Asia is both more common and more seri- 2. Societies throughout the world are increasingly inter­ ous. In the same way, although women have lower social connected. Historically, people in the United States standing than men in the United States, gender inequal- took only passing note of the countries beyond our own ity is much greater in the world’s poor countries. borders. In recent decades, however, the United States 5. Thinking globally helps us learn more about our- and the rest of the world have become linked as never selves. We cannot walk the streets of a distant city before. Electronic technology now transmits sounds, without thinking about what it means to live in the pictures, and written documents around the globe in ­United States. Comparing life in various settings also seconds. leads to unexpected lessons. For instance, were you One effect of new technology is that people the to visit a squatter settlement in Chennai, India, you world over now share many tastes in food, clothing, would likely find people thriving in the love and sup- and music. Rich countries such as the United States port of family members despite desperate poverty. influence other nations, whose people are ever more Why, then, are so many poor people in our own coun- likely to gobble up our Big Macs and Whoppers, dance try angry and alone? Are material things—so central to to the latest hip-hop music, and speak English. our definition of a “rich" life—the best way to measure But the larger world also has an impact on us. We human well-being? all know the contributions of famous immigrants such as Arnold Schwarzenegger (who came to the United In sum, in an increasingly interconnected world, we States from Austria) and Gloria Estefan (who came can understand ourselves only to the extent that we un- from Cuba). About 1.25 million immigrants enter derstand others. Sociology is an invitation to learn a new the United States each year, bringing their skills and way of looking at the world around us. But is this invita- talents, along with their fashions and foods, greatly tion worth accepting? What are the benefits of applying increasing the racial and cultural diversity of this the sociological perspective? country (Hoefer, Rytina, & Baker, 2012; U.S. Depart- ment of Homeland Security, 2014). 3. What happens in the rest of the world affects life here in the United States. Trade across national boundaries Applying the Sociological has created a global economy. Large corporations make Perspective and market goods worldwide. Stock traders in New 1.3 Identify the advantages of sociological thinking for York pay close attention to the financial markets in To- developing public policy, for encouraging personal kyo and Hong Kong even as wheat farmers in Kansas growth, and for advancing in a career. watch the price of grain in the former Soviet republic of Georgia. Because most new jobs in the United States Applying the sociological perspective is useful in many ways. involve international trade, global understanding has First, sociology is at work guiding many of the laws and never been more important. policies that shape our lives. Second, on an individual level, In the last several decades, the power and wealth making use of the sociological perspective leads to important of the United States have been challenged by what personal growth and expanded awareness. Third, studying some analysts have called “the rise of the rest,” mean- sociology is excellent preparation for the world of work. ing the increasing power and wealth of the rest of the world. As nations such as Brazil, Russia, India, and China have expanded their economic production, Sociology and Public Policy many of the manufacturing and office jobs that once Sociologists have helped shape public policy—the laws supported a large share of the U.S. labor force have and regulations that guide how people in communities live moved overseas. One consequence of this trend is that, and work—in countless ways, from racial desegregation as the country struggles to climb out of the recent re- and school busing to laws regulating divorce. For example, cession, the unemployment rate remains high and may in her study of how divorce affects people’s income, the stay high for years to come. As many analysts see it, sociologist Lenore Weitzman (1985, 1996) discovered that our current “jobless recovery” is one result of a new women who leave marriages typically experience a dra- global economy that is reshaping societies all around matic loss of income. Recognizing this fact, many states the world (Zakeria, 2008). passed laws that have increased women’s claims to marital 38 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective property and enforced fathers’ obligations to provide sup- praise very successful people as superior and consider port for women raising their children. others with fewer achievements personally deficient. A sociological approach, by contrast, encourages us Sociology and Personal Growth to ask whether such common beliefs are actually true and, to the extent that they are not, why they are so By applying the sociological perspective, we are likely to widely held. The Thinking About Diversity box takes a become more active and aware and to think more critically look at low-wage jobs and explains how the sociologi- in our daily lives. Using sociology benefits us in four ways: cal perspective sometimes makes us rethink common- 1. The sociological perspective helps us assess the sense ideas about other people and their work. truth of “common sense.” We all take many things 2. The sociological perspective helps us see the opportu- for granted, but that does not make them true. One nities and constraints in our lives. Sociological thinking good example is the idea that we are free individuals leads us to see that in the game of life, society deals the who are personally responsible for our own lives. If cards. We have a say in how to play the hand, however, we think we decide our own fate, we may be quick to and the more we understand the game, the better p ­ layers Thinking About Diversity: Race, Class, and Gender Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting After working for more than a year at a number of other low-wage jobs, including cleaning motels in Maine and work- By in America ing on the floor of a Walmart in Minnesota, she had rejected All of us know people who work at low-wage jobs as wait- quite a bit of “common sense.” First, she now knew that tens resses at diners, clerks at drive-throughs, or sales associates of millions of people with low-wage jobs work very hard every at discount stores such as Walmart. We see such people just day. If you don’t think so, Ehrenreich says, try one of these about every day. Many of us actually are such people. In the jobs yourself. Second, these jobs require not just hard work United States, “common sense” tells us that the jobs people (imagine thoroughly cleaning three motel rooms per hour all have and the amount of money they make reflect their per- day long) but also special skills and real intelligence (try wait- sonal abilities as well as their willingness to work hard. ing on ten tables in a restaurant at the same time and keeping Barbara Ehrenreich (2001) had her doubts. To find out everybody happy). She found that the people she worked with what the world of low-wage work is really like, the success- were, on average, just as smart, clever, and funny as those she ful journalist and author decided to leave her comfortable knew who wrote books for a living or taught at a college. ­middle-class life to live and work in the world of low-wage Why, then, do we think of low-wage workers as lazy or as jobs. She began in Key West, Florida, taking a job as a wait- having less ability? It surprised Ehrenreich to learn that many ress for $2.43 an hour plus tips. Right away, she found out low-wage workers felt this way about themselves. In a society that she had to work much harder than she ever imagined. that teaches us to believe personal ability is everything, we By the end of a shift, she was exhausted, but after sharing learn to size up people by their jobs. Subject to the constant tips with the kitchen staff, she averaged less than $6.00 an supervision, random drug tests, and other rigid rules that usu- hour. This was barely above the minimum wage at the time ally come along with low-wage jobs, Ehrenreich imagined that and provided just enough income to pay the rent on her tiny many people end up feeling unworthy, even to the point of not apartment, buy food, and cover other basic expenses. She trying for anything better. Such beliefs, she concludes, help had to hope that she didn’t get sick, because the job did not support a society of extreme inequality in which some people provide health insurance and she couldn’t afford to pay for a live very well thanks to the low wages paid to the rest. visit to a doctor’s office. What Do You Think? 1. Have you ever held a low-wage job? If so, would you say you worked hard? What was your pay? Were there any benefits? 2. Ehrenreich claims that most well-off people in the United States are dependent on low-wage workers. What does she mean by this? 3. How much of a chance do most people with jobs at Wendy’s or Walmart have to enroll in college and to work toward a different career? Explain.  CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective 39 we become. Sociology helps us learn more about the world work, much as clinical psychologists do, with the goal of im- so that we can pursue our goals more effectively. proving the lives of troubled clients. A basic difference is that 3. The sociological perspective empowers us to be ac- sociologists focus on difficulties not in the personality but in tive participants in our society. The more we under- the individual’s web of social relationships. stand how society works, the more active citizens we But sociology is not just for people who want to be become. As C. Wright Mills (1959) explained in the box, ­s ociologists. People who work in criminal justice—in it is the sociological perspective that turns a personal ­p olice departments, probation offices, and corrections problem (such as being out of work) into a public issue facilities—gain the “sociology advantage” by learning (a lack of good jobs). As we come to see how society af- which categories of people are most at risk of becoming fects us, we may support society as it is, or we may set criminals as well as victims, assessing the effectiveness of out with others to change it. various policies and programs at preventing crime, and 4. The sociological perspective helps us live in a diverse understanding why people turn to crime in the first place. world. North Americans represent just 5 percent of the ­S imilarly, people who work in health care—­including world’s people, and as the remaining chapters of this ­doctors, nurses, and technicians—also gain a sociology book explain, many of the other 95 percent live very dif- advantage by learning about patterns of health and illness ferently than we do. Still, like people everywhere, we within the population, as well as how factors such as race, tend to define our own way of life as “right,” “natural,” gender, and social class affect human well-being. and “better.” The sociological perspective ­encourages The American Sociological Association (2002, 2011a, us to think critically about the relative strengths and 2011b; 2015) reports that sociology is also excellent weaknesses of all ways of life, including our own. ­preparation for jobs in dozens of additional fields, includ- ing advertising, banking, business, education, govern- ment, journalism, law, public relations, and social work. Careers: The “Sociology Advantage” In almost any type of work, success depends on under- Most students at colleges and universities today are very in- standing how various categories of people differ in beliefs, terested in getting a good job. A background in sociology is family patterns, and other ways of life. Unless you plan to excellent preparation for the working world. Of course, com- have a job that never involves dealing with people, you pleting a bachelor’s degree in sociology is the right choice for should consider the workplace benefits of learning more people who decide they would like to go on to graduate work about sociology. and eventually become a secondary school teacher, college professor, or researcher in this field. Throughout the United States, tens of thousands of men and women teach sociology in universities, colleges, and high schools. But just as many profes- sional sociologists work as research- ers for government agencies or private foundations and businesses, gathering important information on social behavior and carrying out evaluation research. In today’s cost-conscious world, agencies and companies want to be sure that the programs and policies they set in place get the job done at the lowest cost. Sociologists, especially those with advanced research skills, are in high demand for this kind of work (Deutscher, 1999; American Socio- logical Association, 2015). In addition, a smaller but in- creasing number of professional Just about every job in today’s economy involves working with people. For this reason, studying sociologists work as clinical soci- sociology is good preparation for your future career. In what ways does having “people skills” help ologists. These women and men police officers perform their job? 40 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective The Origins of Sociology Without land, countless tenant farmers had little choice but to head to the cities in search of work in the new factories. 1.4 Link the origins of sociology to historical social As cities grew larger, these urban migrants faced many changes. social problems, including pollution, crime, and homeless- Like the “choices” made by individuals, major historical ness. Moving through streets crowded with strangers, they events rarely just happen. The birth of sociology was itself faced a new and impersonal social world. the result of powerful social forces. Political Change Europeans in the Middle Ages viewed society as an expression of God’s will: From the royalty to the serfs, each person up and down the social Social Change and Sociology ladder played a part in the holy plan. This theological view Striking changes took place in Europe during the eighteenth of society is captured in lines from the old Anglican hymn and nineteenth centuries. Three kinds of change were espe- “All Things Bright and Beautiful”: cially important in the development of sociology: the rise of a factory-based industrial economy, the explosive growth of The rich man in his castle, cities, and new ideas about democracy and political rights. The poor man at his gate, God made them high and lowly A New Industrial Economy During the Middle And ordered their estate. Ages in Europe, most people plowed fields near their homes or worked in small-scale manufacturing (a term derived from But as cities grew, tradition came under attack. In the Latin words meaning “to make by hand”). By the end of the writings of Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), John Locke (1632– eighteenth century, inventors used new sources of ­energy— 1704), and Adam Smith (1723–1790), we see a shift in focus the power of moving water and then steam—to operate from a moral obligation to God and king to the pursuit large machines in mills and factories. Instead of laboring at of self-interest. In the new political climate, philosophers home or in small groups, workers became part of a large and spoke of personal liberty and individual rights. Echoing these anonymous labor force, under the control of strangers who sentiments, our own Declaration of Independence states owned the factories. This change in the system of production that every person has “certain unalienable rights,” includ- took people out of their homes, weakening the traditions ing “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” that had guided community life for centuries. The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was an The Growth of Cities Across Europe, landowners even greater break with political and social tradition. The took part in what historians call the enclosure movement—they French social analyst Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859) fenced off more and more farmland to create grazing areas thought the changes in society brought about by the for sheep, the source of wool for the thriving textile mills. French Revolution were so great that they amounted to “nothing short of the regeneration of the whole human race” (1955:13, orig. 1856). A New Awareness of Society Huge factories, explo­ding cities, a new spirit of individualism—these changes combined to make people more aware of their surroundings. The new disci- pline of sociology was born in England, France, and Germany—precisely where the changes were greatest. Science and Sociology And so it was that the French social thinker Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term sociology in 1838 to de- scribe a new way of looking at society. This makes sociology one of the young- What we see depends on our point of view. When gazing at the stars, lovers see romance, est academic disciplines—far newer but scientists see thermal reactions. How does using the sociological perspective change than history, physics, or economics, for what we see in the world around us? example.  CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective 41 Of course, Comte was not the first Comte’s Three Stages of Society person to think about the nature of soci- ety. Such questions fascinated many of the Theological Stage (the Metaphysical Stage Scientific Stage brilliant thinkers of ancient civilizations, Church in the Middle (the Enlightenment and (modern physics, including the Chinese philosopher Ages) the ideas of Hobbes, chemistry, sociology) K’ung Fu-tzu, or Confucius (551–479 Locke, and Rousseau) b.c.e.), and the Greek philosophers Plato (c. 427–347 b.c.e.) and Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.). 1 Over By the beginning of the twentieth century, sociology the next several centuries, the Roman emperor Marcus had spread to the United States and showed the influ- Aurelius (121–180), the medieval thinkers Saint Thomas ence of Comte’s ideas. Today, most sociologists still con- Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) and Christine de Pisan (c. 1363– sider science a crucial part of sociology. But as Chapter 2 1431), and the English playwright William Shakespeare (“Sociological Investigation”) explains, we now realize (1564–1616) wrote about the workings of society. that human behavior is far more complex than the move- Yet these thinkers were more interested in imagining ment of planets or even the actions of other living things. the ideal society than in studying society as it really was. We are creatures of imagination and spontaneity, so human Comte and other pioneers of sociology all cared about how behavior can never be fully explained by any rigid “laws society could be improved, but their major objective was to of society.” In addition, early sociologists such as Karl understand how society actually operates. Marx (1818–1883), whose ideas are discussed in Chapter Comte (1975, orig. 1851–54) saw sociology as the prod- 4 (“Society”), were troubled by the striking inequalities of uct of a three-stage historical development. During the industrial society. They hoped that the new discipline of earliest, the theological stage, from the beginning of human sociology would not just help us understand society but history to the end of the European Middle Ages about 1350 also lead to change toward greater social justice. c.e., people took a religious view that society expressed God’s will. With the dawn of the Renaissance in the fifteenth cen- tury, the theological approach gave way to a metaphysical Sociological ­Theory stage of history in which people saw society as a natural 1.5 Summarize sociology’s major theoretical rather than a supernatural system. Thomas Hobbes (1588– approaches. 1679), for example, suggested that society reflected not the perfection of God so much as the failings of a selfish hu- The desire to translate observations into understanding man nature. brings us to the important aspect of sociology known as What Comte called the scientific stage of history began theory. A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts with the work of early scientists such as the Polish astrono- are related. The job of sociological theory is to explain social mer Copernicus (1473–1543), the Italian astronomer and behavior in the real world. For example, recall Emile Dur- physicist Galileo (1564–1642), and the English physicist kheim’s theory that categories of people with low social and mathematician Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Comte’s integration (men, Protestants, the wealthy, and the unmar- contribution came in applying the scientific ­approach— ried) are at higher risk of suicide. first used to study the physical world—to the study of As the next chapter (“Sociological Investigation”) society.2 explains, sociologists test their theories by gathering Comte’s approach is called positivism, a scientific ap- evidence using various research methods. Durkheim proach to knowledge based on “positive” facts as opposed to mere did exactly this, finding out which categories of people speculation. As a positivist, Comte believed that society oper- were more likely to commit suicide and which were less ates according to its own laws, much as the physical world likely and then devising a theory that best squared with operates according to gravity and other laws of nature. all available evidence. National Map 1–1 on page 42 dis- plays the suicide rate for each of the fifty states. In deciding which theory to use, sociologists face two 1 The abbreviation b.c.e. means “before the common era.” We use this basic questions: What issues should we study? And how throughout the text instead of the traditional b.c. (“before Christ”) to reflect the religious diversity of our society. Similarly, in place of the should we connect the facts? In the process of answering traditional a.d. (anno Domini, or “in the year of our Lord”), we use the these questions, sociologists look to one or more theo- abbreviation c.e. (“common era”). retical approaches as “road maps.” Think of a theoretical 2 Illustrating Comte’s stages, the ancient Greeks and Romans viewed ­approach as a basic image of society that guides thinking and the planets as gods; ­Renaissance metaphysical thinkers saw them research. Sociologists make use of three major theoretical as astral influences (giving rise to astrology); by the time of Galileo, scientists understood planets as natural objects moving according to approaches: the structural-functional approach, the social- natural laws. conflict approach, and the symbolic-interaction approach. 42 CHAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective Seeing Ourselves In the Plains and Mountain regions, and across the mountainous Appalachian region of the country, population density is very low, so people are more isolated. This isolation contributes to a higher rate of suicide. WASHINGTON NORTH VERMONT MAINE MONTANA DAKOTA MINNESOTA OREGON MICHIGAN NEW HAMPSHIRE IDAHO SOUTH WISCONSIN NEW MASSACHUSETTS DAKOTA YORK WYOMING RHODE ISLAND CONNECTICUT IOWA PENNSYLVANIA NEBRASKA NEW JERSEY NEVADA OHIO INDIANA D.C. DELAWARE UTAH ILLINOIS WEST VIRGINIA MARYLAND COLORADO CALIFORNIA KANSAS VIRGINIA MISSOURI KENTUCKY NORTH CAROLINA TENNESSEE ARIZONA OKLAHOMA ARKANSAS NEW SOUTH MEXICO CAROLINA GEORGIA Number of Suicides ALABAMA per 100,000 People MISSISSIPPI Above average: ALASKA TEXAS 15.0 or more LOUISIANA Average: FLORIDA 11.0 to 14.9 HAWAII Below average: 10.9 or fewer U.S. average: 12.3 National Map 1–1 Suicide Rates across the United States This map shows which states have high, average, and low suicide rates. Look for patterns. By and large, high suicide rates occur where people live far apart from one another. More densely populated states have low suicide rates. Do these data support or contradict Durkheim’s theory of suicide? Why? Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015). The Structural-Functional Approach interdependently to help the entire organism survive, social structures work together to preserve society. The The structural-functional approach is a framework for structural-functional approach, then, leads sociologists building theory that sees society as a complex system whose to identify various structures of society and investigate parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. As its their functions. name suggests, this approach points to social structure, Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) expanded our under- any relatively stable pattern of social behavior. Social struc- standing of the concept of social function by pointing out ture gives our lives shape—in families, the workplace, that any social structure probably has many functions, some the classroom, and the community. This approach also more obvious than others. He distinguished between mani- looks for a structure’s social functions, the consequences fest functions, the recognized and intended consequences of any of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole. All social pattern, and latent functions, the unrecognized and un- social structures, from a simple handshake to complex intended consequences of any social pattern. For example, the religious rituals, function to keep society going, at least manifest function of the U.S. system of higher education is in its present form. to provide young people with the information and skills The structural-functional approach owes much to