Sean Whitfield - NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing - Active Learning Guide - Module 7 - Backgrounds in Nursing - History of Nursing - Completed (1).pdf

NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing History of Nursing Module 7: Backgrounds in Nursing Active Learning Guide Sean Whitfield READ Antiquity 1. What ancient practices from Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Indian, and Chinese cultures still have relevance today? Egyptian Ancient Egyptians ar...

NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing History of Nursing Module 7: Backgrounds in Nursing Active Learning Guide Sean Whitfield READ Antiquity 1. What ancient practices from Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Indian, and Chinese cultures still have relevance today? Egyptian Ancient Egyptians are noted for their accomplishments in health care at an early period in civilization. They were the first to use the concept of suture in repairing wounds. They also were the first to be recorded as developing community planning that resulted in a decrease in public health problems. One of the main early public health problems was the spread of disease through contaminated water sources. Specific laws on cleanliness, food use and preservation, drinking, exercise, and sexual relations were developed. Health behaviors were usually carried out to accommodate the gods (Catalano, 2015). A pharmacopoeia that classified more than 700 drugs was written to assist in the care and management of disease (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). As in the case of Shiphrah and Puah, the midwives who saved baby Moses, nurses were used by kings and other aristocrats to deliver babies and care for the young, older adults, and those who were sick. Greek From 1500 to 100 BC, Greek philosophers sought to understand man and his relationship with the gods, nature, and other men. They believed that the gods and goddesses of Greek mythology controlled health and illness. Temples built to honor Aesculapius, the god of medicine, were designated to care for the sick. Aesculapius carried a staff that was intertwined with serpents or snakes, representing wisdom and immortality. This staff is thought to be the model of today’s medical caduceus. Hippocrates (460–362 BC), considered the “Father of Medicine,” paved the way in establishing scientific knowledge in medicine. Hippocrates was the first to attribute disease to natural causes rather than supernatural causes and curses of the gods. His teachings also emphasized the patient-centered approach and use of the scientific method for solving problems (Catalano, 2015). Roman The Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD), a military dictatorship, adapted medical practices from the countries they conquered and the physicians they enslaved. At the end of the Dark Ages, there was a series of holy wars, including the Crusades. The first military hospital in Europe was established in Rome to care for the injured. Military nursing orders that were made up exclusively of men were also developed. They were very well organized and dedicated, and they wore suits of armor for protection, with the emblem of a red cross (Catalano, 2015; NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing Walton et al., 1994). The Romans practiced advanced hygiene and sanitation and emphasized bathing (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). Indian Dating from 3000 to 1500 BC, the earliest cultures of India were Hindu. The sacred book of Brahmanism (also known as Hinduism), the Vedas, was used to guide health care practices. The Vedas, considered by some to be the oldest written material, emphasized hygiene and prevention of sickness and described major and minor surgical procedures. The Indian practice of surgery was very well developed. The importance of prenatal care to mother and infant was also well understood. Public hospitals were constructed from 274 to 236 BC and were staffed by male nurses with qualifications and duties similar to those of the twentiethcentury practical nurse (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). Chinese The teachings of the Chinese scholar Confucius (551–479 BC) had a powerful effect on the customs and practices of the people of ancient China. Confucius taught a moral philosophy that addressed one’s obligation to society. Central to his teachings were service to the community and the value of the family as a unit. However, women were considered inferior to men. The early Chinese also placed great value on solving life’s problems. Their belief about health and illness was based on the yin and yang philosophy. The yin represented the feminine forces, which were considered negative and passive. The yang represented the masculine forces, which were positive and active. The Chinese believed that an imbalance between these two forces would result in illness, whereas balance between the yin and yang represented good health (Ellis & Hartley, 2012). The ancient Chinese used a variety of treatments believed to promote health and harmony, including acupuncture, hydrotherapy, and massage (Giger & Davidhizar, 2008). 2. What convictions or virtues do you think the Hebrew midwives displayed in their defiance of Pharoah (Exodus 1:15-21)? Give one or two qualities and explain your rationale. The Hebrew midwives showed their religious conviction. Religious conviction is having a belief and engaging in that belief in a religious activity. 19 The midwives answered Pharaoh, “Hebrew women are not like Egyptian women; they are vigorous and give birth before the midwives arrive.” 20 So God was kind to the midwives and the people increased and became even more numerous. 21 And because the midwives feared God, he gave them families of their own. Simply by believing in God and what he has taught them, they were able to convince the Pharaoh that the Hebrew women were more vigorous than the Egyptian women. Shiphrah and Puah believe in God and also in the Hebrew people. 3. After reading the Ferngren (2020) article, what did you learn about the early church’s role in the care of the sick and outcast? Name three “takeaways”. NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing The Christian Church was able to go against the times beliefs and morays of not helping the sick, leaving them to parish alone. It was routine for family member’s not to help and the temples of some god’s, even though they employed a doctor, they believed the sick would defile the premises of the temple. The Christian Church, through philanthropy was able to go against the grain and practice the doctrine of Incarnation. Philanthropy and charity is an example of God’s self giving love. The weaker and more in need your neighbor is, the greater higher the need to exhibit the passion of Christ, due to we were created in God’s image. Charity and philanthropy was reserved for “Caesar” and other higher class individuals to give out, since he is the ruling God figure in that culture and the wealthy have been favored. The concept of first responder’s grew out of the Christian Church network. The church recruiter men from lower poorer classes to transport and care for the sick, while putting themselves at risk for contracting the “disease” from those they were giving care to. These individuals were called parebalani, the reckless ones. 4. When and what were “Nursing’s Dark Ages”? The nursing dark ages have been described as between 1600 and 1850 due to not having enough places to nurse the sick. The places that were functioning as “hospitals” were in wretched conditions. Elderly prostitutes and prisoners were the ones providing care. The Reformation, which began in Germany in 1517, was a religious movement that resulted in a dissention between Roman Catholics and Protestants. During this period, religious facilities that provided health care closed. Women were encouraged toward charitable services, but their main duties included bearing and caring for children in their homes. Furthermore, hospital work was no longer appealing to women of high economic status, and the individuals who worked as nurses in hospitals were often female prisoners, prostitutes, and alcoholics. Nursing was no longer the respected profession it had once been. This period is referred to as the “Dark Ages” of nursing (Stegan & Sowerby, 2019). Early America 5. Ben Franklin said, “Without good and careful nursing many must suffer greatly and probably perish that might have been restored to health and comfort, and become useful to themselves, their families, and the public for many years after.” According to your book, what was one of Ben Franklin’s major contributions to healthcare in the United States? Plagues, such as scarlet fever, dysentery, and smallpox, caused thousands of deaths. Benjamin Franklin, who was outspoken regarding the care of the sick, insisted that a hospital be built in the colonies. He believed that the community should be responsible for the management and treatment of those who were ill. Through his efforts, the first hospital, called the Pennsylvania Hospital, was built in the United States in Philadelphia, in 1751 (Stegan & Sowerby, 2019). NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing 6. Many hospitals in the United States began as almshouses, sometimes called “pesthouses”. Why do you think they developed this name? Hospitals were called pesthouses due to them housing those infected with the pestilence known as the plague. Pesthouse was short for pestilence house. Modern Nursing 7. According to your textbook, how have wars and periods of economic stability/instability impacted nursing? Consider how the Civil War, Great Depression, WWI, WWII have affected the nursing profession. When the Civil War ended, the number of nurse training schools increased. The war had proven the need for more nurses to be formally trained. These early nursing programs offered little or no classroom education, and on-the-job training occurred in the hospital wards. The students learned routine patient care duties, worked long hours 6 days a week, and were used as supplemental hospital staff. After graduation, most of the nurses practiced as private duty nurses or hospital staff (Lindeman & McAthie, 1990). Furthermore, hospital work was no longer appealing to women of high economic status, and the individuals who worked as nurses in hospitals were often female prisoners, prostitutes, and alcoholics. Nursing was no longer the respected profession it had once been. This period is referred to as the “Dark Ages” of nursing (Stegan & Sowerby, 2019). The U.S. economy prospered during World War I and well into the 1920s. However, after the stock market crash in October 1929, economic prosperity quickly dissipated. Millions of men and women became unemployed. Before the Depression, many people had private duty nurses. However, during the Depression, many nurses found themselves unemployed because most families could no longer afford private duty nurses. The women’s movement of the 1970s greatly influenced nursing. Nurses began to focus not only on providing quality care to patients but also on enhancing the economic benefits of the profession. Hospitals were receiving significant reimbursements for patient care; however, nurses’ salaries did not reflect an adequate percentage of that reimbursement. Health care costs soared. This increase in health care costs built the framework for mandated changes in reimbursement. Nursing practice and the educational focus remained in the hospital setting. The types of patients needing health care changed in the 1980s. Homelessness became a common problem in large cities. Unstable economic developments contributed to an increase in indigent populations (Nies & McEwen, 2019). Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) emerged as a frightening, fatal epidemic. NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing The 1990s began with alarm over the state of the U.S. economy. Government statisticians reported an alarming increase in the national debt complicated by slow economic growth. In the early 1990s, average household incomes were stagnating. More women with families entered the workforce to afford the increasing cost of living. More nurses selected jobs in which they could work more hours in fewer days for more money, sometimes sacrificing the fringe benefits, allowing them to work a second job or earn higher pay through shift differential for working evening and night shifts. Through periods of war, socioeconomic change, health care reform, and global pandemics nurses have played a vital role in initiating change to improve the health care arena. Nurses have provided the integrity to maintain the quality of care in all health care settings. The evolution of the practice from the treatment of disease to health promotion and disease prevention has led the way in determining the type of providers needed to care for patients in the future. 8. Name three key pieces of legislation that impacted the nursing profession and explain how they affected nursing practice or health policy. In 1921, the federal government recognized the need to improve the health of women and children and passed the Sheppard-Towner Act, one of the first pieces of federal legislation to provide funds to assist in the care of special populations (Nies & McEwen, 2019). This funding provided public health nurses with resources to promote the health and well-being of women, infants, and children. Franklin D. Roosevelt, elected president of the United States in 1932, faced a country in shambles. He responded with several innovative and necessary interventions and ushered in the first major social legislation enacted in U.S. history. Titled the “New Deal,” the legislation had several social components that affected the provision of medical care and other services for indigent people across the country (Karger & Stoesz, 2005). The piece of legislation that had the greatest effect on health care in the United States was the Social Security Act of 1935, which set the precedent for the passage of the Medicare and Medicaid acts in 1965. The main purposes of the 1935 Social Security Act were to provide (1) a national old-age insurance system, (2) federal grants to states for maternal and child welfare services, (3) vocational rehabilitation services for the handicapped, (4) medical care for crippled children and blind people, (5) a plan to strengthen public health services, and (6) a federal-state unemployment system (Karger & Stoesz, 2005). The passage of the 1935 Social Security Act provided avenues for nursing care, and nursing jobs were created. With funds from the Social Security Act, public health nursing became the major source of health care for dependent mothers and children, the blind, and crippled children. Nurses found employment as public health nurses for county or state health departments (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2019). Hospital job opportunities also were created for nurses, and the hospital became the usual employment setting for graduate nurses. NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing 9. According to your textbook, what inequities, related to gender and race, have existed in nursing? Provide at least one example for each, and then briefly describe what historical circumstances/influences, have helped mitigate these inequities. Limited or deferred recognition for their work. The war was considered a global conflict, and nursing became an essential part of the military advance. Nurses were required to function under combat conditions and had to adapt nursing care to meet the challenges of different climates, facilities, and supplies. As a result of their service during World War II, nurses finally were recognized as an integral part of the military and attained the ranks of officers in the army and navy. Colonel Julie O. Flikke was the first army nurse to be promoted to colonel in the U.S. Army and served as Superintendent of the Army Nurse Corps from 1937 to 1942 (Deloughery, 1998; Robinson & Perry, 2001). Limited access to black nurses The Army and Navy Nurse Corps were created in 1901 and 1908, respectively, and an estimated 30,000 nurses served in World War I (Stegan & Sowerby, 2019). In 1908 the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses was founded. In 1920 Ludie Andrews won her lawsuit with the Georgia State Board of Nurse Examiners to secure Black nurses the right to take the state board examination and become licensed. Despite past laxity, the ANA House of Delegates at its 1972 convention passed an affirmative action resolution calling for a task force to develop and implement a program to correct inequities. The house also provided for the position of an ombudsman to evaluate involvement of minorities in leadership roles within the organization and to treat complaints by applicants for membership or by members of the association who had been discriminated against because of nationality, race, creed, lifestyle, color, age, or sex. It was also in the 1970s that the ANA elected its first Black president, Barbara Nichols, who served two terms. WATCH 1. After reading the section about Florence Nightingale in your textbook and watching the short video biography, list Nightingale’s 3 (or 4) most significant contributions to the development of modern nursing. Nightingale is credited with using public health principles and statistical methods to advocate for improved health conditions for British soldiers. Through carefully recorded statistics, Nightingale was able to document that the soldiers’ death rate decreased from 42% to 2% as a result of health care reforms that emphasized sanitary conditions. Because of her remarkable work in using statistics to demonstrate cause and effect and improve the NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing health of British soldiers, Nightingale is recognized for her contributions to nursing research (Nies & McEwen, 2019). Nightingale also demonstrated the power of political activism to effect health care reform by writing letters of criticism accompanied by constructive recommendations to British army leaders. Nightingale’s ability to overthrow the British army’s management method, which had allowed the deplorable conditions to exist in the army hospitals, was considered one of her greatest achievements (Nies & McEwen, 2019). In 1860, Nightingale established the first nursing school in England, St. Thomas’ Hospital of London. By 1873, graduates of Nightingale’s nurse training program in England migrated to the United States, where they became supervisors in the first of the hospital-based (diploma) nursing schools: Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, Bellevue Hospital in New York, and the New Haven Hospital in Connecticut. 2. Compare and contrast the backgrounds and experiences of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole before, during, and after the Crimean War. Florence Nightingale born into a wealthy family and was well traveled and educated. Nightingale was always concerned about the less fortunate and wanted to become a nurse. Her family attempted to discourage her from that patch and wanted her to get married and join her station in society and class. Nightingale completed a nursing program shortly before the start of the Crimean War. After the war started Nightingale was tasked with assembling a team of nurses to help with the wounded and dying. After the Crimean War Nightingale was responsible for establishing the first nursing program in England that started formal nursing education program that was responsible for reorganizing and advancing the profession of nursing. Mary Seacole before the Crimean War acquired her nursing skills at Blundell Hall, that included the use of hygiene, ventilation, warmth, hydration and good nutrition and care for the dying. During the Crimean War Seacole made many attempts to travel to the war front to nurse and help her fellow contrymen that were their serving. But she was refused multiple times due to her race. She had many references and years of experience but was not able to convince the power that be to allow her to travel and assist. Seacole also attempted to have a charity sponsor her trip. But again she was denied. Seacole was finally able to travel to Crimea on her own accord. While there she opened the British Hotel. This hotel was to be a mess table and quarters for convalescent officers. NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing After the Crimean War Mary Seacole traveled back to England destitute and going through bankruptcy and was in poor health. 3. After viewing the biographies of Lillian Wald and Mary Breckenridge, write a paragraph summarizing the contributions each of these individuals made to the development of the nursing profession. Lillian Wald was the originator of public health nursing, advocated for improved working conditions for women, improved living conditions for immigrants and established the practice of an onsite school nurse. Devised an infectious disease tracking system during the Spanish Flu. Lillian Wald was focused on transforming public health for the better for all people. Mary Breckinridge was devoted to improving the lives and health of children. After WWI, Mary Breckinridge traveled to France to help women and children that were impacted by the conflict. With that experience Mary Breckinridge established “frontier” healthcare in the rural countryside of Kentucky. She employed British midwives. She learned of their qualifications while in France. When WWII started those British midwives traveled back home and Mary Breckingridge decided to open a school for midwives. Babies and families continued to be served as a result of her vision of providing healthcare to her native rural population. 4. How would you characterize the work of Mary Seacole, Florence Nightingale, Lillian Wald, and Mary Breckenridge? Decide on 1 or 2 adjective(s) for each and explain your choice. I would say they were all committed and centered on helping those less fortunate. They were living the Incarnation doctrine to the fullest. Nightingale – Fore and central. Florence Nightgale was at the forefront and central to the nursing movement. Seacole – Resolute and steadfast. Mary Seacole did not allow government red tape to make the decision for her if she was going to get to Crimea or not. She was single minded, called in references and finally was able to get there on her own. Wald – Innovator and ground breaker. Lillian Wald was the right person in the right place when a crisis was occurring. She not only made innovations in public health but she also made change in the workplace for women but she also established in house nurse for schools that we benefit from today. Breckinridge – Leader and original. Mary Breckinridge foresaw a need for frontier healthcare. She was able to take her experience in France after WWI and apply the skills NURS 1000 - Introduction to Nursing History of Nursing and interventions she learned their to her own native population that needed assistance due to distance from large populations.