Cellular Respiration and DNA Science Notes PDF

 Celular Respiration and atp Glucose cannot be used directly it has to be Energy: energy is the ability to do work. We need Broken down. The energy is stored i...

 Celular Respiration and atp Glucose cannot be used directly it has to be Energy: energy is the ability to do work. We need Broken down. The energy is stored in the bonds energy to grow, to repair, to reproduce, to make muscles work, to create new cells, to power active transport. this energy is received through autotroughs our body stores fat to save energy as a part of (plants). They produce glucose by photosynthesis our caveman instincts. Our body does not like to burn fat however because its simpler to burn everything else. general info: Atp stands for adenosine triphosphate Aerobic: Takes place in the presence of oxygen. lactic acid fermentation: Glycolysis can continue in Anaerobic: takes place in the absence of oxygen the absence of oxygen by reducing pyruvate to lactic acid. This process is called lactic acid fermentation. Lactic acid is toxic and this pathway cannot keep going or muscles will be damaged. The liver converts the lactic acid back into a harmless substance. Lactic acid fermentation occurs in the skeletal muscle of mammals. fermentation creates small amounts alcohol. When high alcoholic drinks are made, this process is focused on - Inheritance and Dna - proteins are comprised of amino acids. there are 20 different types of amino acids. Different proteins are made by the combination of these amino acids. Proteins are produced by the ribosomes. These proteins help fight disease, help build new body tissue, the enzymes used in digestion and other chemical reactions are also proteins and they are a component of cell membranes. transcription. first step is the copying of genetic information from DNA to RNA. DNA has the genetic code for the protein that needs to be made. The proteins are made by the ribosomes- ribosomes are outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm. DNA is too large to leave the nucleus (double stranded) but RNA can leave the nucleus because it is single stranded. part of the DNA temporarily unzips and is used as a template to assemble complementary nucleotides into messenger RNA. mRNA translation. Second step: decoding of the mRNA into a protein. transfer RNA (uRNA) carries amino acids from the cytoplasm into the ribosomes. The amino acids come from the food we eat. proteins we eat are broken down into individual amino acids and than simply rearranged into new proteins according to the needs and directions of our DNA. a series of three adjacent bases in an mRNA molecule codes for a specific amino acid - called a codon. Each tRNA has 3 nucleotides that are complementary to the Condon in the mRNA. Each tRNA code for a different amino acid. Abstract dna. DNA, Genes and chromosomes. DNA contains sections called genes which code for protein. ekyarote has a nucleus, prokyarote does not. Proteins are crucial organic molecules. - Mutations Can be caused by the following. 1. evironmental factors/toxins (e.g. drug) 2. radiation 3. nature a change in the arrangement of bases in an individual gene or in the the structure of chromosomes. - Genetic Engineering - Genetic engineering is the use of technology to change the genes. It’s a super controversial field because well… sharp turn 1. Regulation: Different countries have varying to eugenics. It is the direct modification of a GMO. Genetic regulations regarding genetic engineering, leading to engineering is a field that elicits significant debate due to its inconsistencies in safety standards and public trust. potential impacts on health, environment, and society. Here are 2. Long-Term Effects: Critics argue that the long-term some of the primary controversies associated with genetic impacts of genetic modifications are not well engineering: understood and require more extensive testing and monitoring. GMO bacteria concerns involve the following: risk to human health (unsafe to Reasons to genetically modify crops eat). Harm to the environmental super weedscide use. Farmers ♡ — Insect resistant health. Seed and pollen drift. Creation of herbicide-resistant ♡ — herbicide resistant super weed. What about genetic engineering in humans.. ♡ — drought/freeze resistant genetically modified bacteria, are bacteria whose genetic ♡ — disease resistant material has been altered using genetic engineering ♡ — higher yield techniques. These modifications are made to introduce new ♡ — faster growth traits or enhance existing ones, often for various practical ♡ — improved nutrition applications in medicine, industry, agriculture, and ♡ — longer shelf life environmental management controversies: 1. Playing God: Many argue that altering the genetic makeup of organisms, especially humans, is an overreacsupsuperweedsthority and interferes with natural processes. 1. Human Genetic Modification: Genetic editing in humans, particularly germline editing (which affects future generations), raises concerns about unintended consequences and ethical implications regarding consent and the potential for eugenics. 2. Unintended Consequences: There is concern that genetic modifications may have unforeseen effects on the organism's health and the environment. 3. Gene Drives: The use of gene drives to spread specific genetic traits rapidly through populations, particularly in controlling pests or diseases, could have unpredictable ecological impacts. 4. Biodiversity: Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) might outcompete natural species, leading to a reduction in biodiversity. 5. Gene Transfer: There is a risk that modified genes could spread to wild populations, potentially creating "superweeds" or other ecological imbalances. 6. Corporate Control: The patenting of genetically modified seeds by large corporations can lead to monopolies, affecting farmers' autonomy and traditional agricultural practices. 7. Access and Inequality: There is a concern that genetic engineering technologies may exacerbate existing inequalities, with wealthy nations and individuals having better access to these advancements.  Dna Replication Repair and growth. mitosis Our body constantly needs to make new cells e.g skin, Background information about chromosomes blood the new cells (daughter cells) that are made need to be identical to the parent cells they come from. DNA replication step one: the double helix unwinds and unzips so there are to separate parent strands. The enzyme “helicase” helps with this process Mitosis happens in somatic cells (body cells). Daughter cells are identical to parent cells. It is used in growth and repair e.g. skin steps to mitosis 1. interphase: DNA is replicated but no chromosome can be seen yet 2. prophase: chromosomes contiune to condense and step two: the nulceotiedes from inside the cell attach to the appear as two chromatids joined together unzipped parent strands to complementary strands 3. metaphase: spindle fibres organise the chromosomes along the eqautor of the cell. Chromosomes are attached go spindle by the centromere 4. anaphase: chromatids are pulled further to ends of the cell because spindle fibres are contracting 5. telophase: two new nuclear form. chromatids are now called chromosomes. nuclear membrane start to form around each new nucleus 6. cytokinesis: cytoplasm is split and two new daughter step three: the bases join to make “rungs of the ladder” and cells are formed which are identical to the original the sugar - phosphate backbone is formed to make the parent cell. sides of the ladder  Mitosis In Detail Meiosis Sex cells called gametes. These only have half the number (halpoid number) of chromosomes. Sex cells are produced in the ovaries in females and in the testicles in males through a division called meiosis. The daughter cells end ip with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cells. cells divide to make new sex cell. Meiosis happens to make sex cells. daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes there are in the parent cells karyotype is an individual's complete set of chromosomes. The term also refers to a laboratory-produced image of a person's chromosomes isolated from an individual cell and arranged in numerical order. A karyotype may be used to look for abnormalities in chromosome number or structure. Crossing over ploidy Synopsis is the pairing of two homologous refers to the number of sets of homologous chromosomes in chromosomes that occurs during meiosis. cells. chiasmata are the sites of crossing over hapliod exchange of genetic material between non- Haploid describes a cell that contains a single set of sister chromatids chromosomes. The humadiplodmetesan also refer to the crossing over produces recombine number of chromosomes in egg or sperm cells, which are also chromosomes called gametes. In humadiplodmetes are haploid cells that contain 23 chromosomes, each of which a one of a chromosome pair that exists in diplod cells diploid Diploid is a term that refers to the presence of two complete sets of chromosomes in an organism's cells, with each parent contributing a chromosome to each pair. Humans are diploid, and most of the body's cells contain 23 chromosomes pairs. a matched pair of maternal and paternal chromosomes are called homologous. sexual reproduction fusion of two gametes to produce a single zygote. Introduces greater genetic variation allows genetic recombination. steps to meiosis 1. interphase: chromosomes double but arent visible yet. 2. prophase: chromones condense by coiling up and their chromatids can be seen. Paternal and maternal chromosomes come together in homologous pairs. This pairing is called synapsis. Chromosomes pair up and twist around each other. This causes tension and sections of chromatids may break off and exchange with corresponding sections of a different chromatid. These points of exchange are called chiasmata. The swapping of material is called crossing over. - Inheritance Inheritance and heredity are related concepts, but they have distinct meanings in biology: Inheritance: This refers to the process by which genetic information is passed from parents to their offspring. It involves the transmission of genes from one generation to the next. Genes, which are made up of DNA, carry the instructions for the development, functioning, and reproduction of organisms. Inheritance determines the traits and characteristics that offspring inherit from their parents. Heredity: This is the broader concept that encompasses the entire process of passing on genetic traits from parents to offspring. It includes not only the transmission of genes but also the expression and manifestation of these genes in the offspring. Heredity explains how traits are inherited and why offspring resemble their parents. In summary, inheritance is the mechanism of transferring genetic information, while heredity is the overarching concept that includes the patterns and principles of this genetic transmission. A karyotype is a chart which shows the chromosomes of a cell arranged in order of size, with the chromosomes which determine the sex always as the 23rd pair. phenotype phenotype physical appearance of the organism described in words e.g brown eyes genotype the genetic makeup symbolised with letters e.g. BB homozygous when an orgsnisam possesses two identical alleles e.g. YY or yy heterozygous when an organism possesses different alleles alelles alternate versions of the same gene. punette squares punett square is the standard way of working out what the possible offsprings genotypes will be - Dna Profiling - A technique used by scientists to distinguish between Use in crime individuals of the same species using only samples of Forensic science is the use of scientific knowledge in legal their DNA situations. The DNA profile of each individual is highly specific. The process of DNA fingerprinting was invented by Alec the chances of two people having exactly the same DNA Jeffreys at the University of Leicester in 1985. profile is 30,000 million to 1 (except for identical twins). He was knighted in 1994. material that can be used for DNA testing steps to dna profiling Blood Stage 1: Hair Cells are broken down to release DNA Saliva If only a small amount of DNA is available it can be Semen amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Body tissue cells DNA samples have been obtained from vaginal cells Step 2: transferred to the outside of a condom during sexual The DNA is cut into fragments using restriction intercourse. enzymes. Each restriction enzyme cuts DNA at a specific base The pattern of the DNA profile is then compared with those of sequence. the victim and the suspect. the sections of DNA that are cut out are called restriction If the profile matches the suspect it provides strong evidence fragments. that the suspect was present at the crime scene (NB: it does This yields thousands of restriction fragments of all not prove they committed the crime). different sizes because the base sequences being cut If the profile doesn’t match the suspect then that suspect may be far apart (long fragment) or close together (short may be eliminated from the enquiry. fragment). in medical uses step 3: DNA profiles can be used to determine whether a particular Fragments are separated on the basis of size using a person is the parent of a child. process called gel electrophoresis. A childs paternity (father) and maternity(mother) can be DNA fragments are injected into wells and an electric determined. This information can be used in Paternity suits, current is applied along the gel. Inheritance cases, Immigration cases DNA is negatively charged so it is attracted to the positive end of the gel. The shorter DNA fragments move faster than the longer fragments. DNA is separated on basis of size. A radioactive material is added which combines with the DNA fragments to produce a fluorescent image. A photographic copy of the DNA bands is obtained. Stage 4: The pattern of fragment distribution is then analysed. uses of DNA profiling solving crime and medical problems :)  Misc Codominance and incomplete dominance Natural selections is the idea that the population that adapts the best to its environment, is the one that survives. steps nessasry 1. produce offsrip 2. some variation in offspring 3. competiton between varied offspring 4. survival of the fittest 5. the better adapted pass their genes on genetic drift the change in allele frequencies as a result of chance processes these changes are much more produced in small populations Codominance is a hetrozygous condition where both allele are expressed. Codominance is a type of genetic inheritance Non-random mating pattern where both alleles of a gene are expressed equally A mating system in which at least some individuals in the phenotype of an organism. Unlike complete are more or less likely to mate with individuals of a dominance, where one allele completely masks the particular genotype than with individuals of other expression of another, in codominance, both alleles genotypes. contribute to the organism's traits. A classic example of codominance is seen in human blood gene flow types, specifically the ABO blood group system. For is the movement of allele into or out a population instance, a person with one allele for blood type A (IA) and one allele for blood type B (IB) will have blood type AB. (immigration or emigration). Gene flow can This is because both A and B alleles are equally introduced new alleles into a gene pool or can expressed, resulting in a phenotype that shows change allele frequencies characteristics of both alleles. The overall effect of gene flow is to counteract natural selection by creating less differences in populations incomplete dominance a third (new) phenotype appears in the hetrozygous condition. It is a blend of the other two. e.g if one parent has naturally curly hair and the other has straight, you could have naturally wavy sex linked traits sex linked traits are usually due to faulty recessive genes located on the x chromosomes. As we know, male sex chromosomes are XY while females are XX evolution. a change in the inherited traits or gene frequency between generations. there are number of ways which genes can change overtime