REVIEWERS.pdf

PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY - Philosophy originates from the Greek word *philosophia*, meaning "love of wisdom." - From the Greek word Sofia which means “wisdom”, and Philo which means “love.” ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY - Pre-Socratics: Early Gre...

PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY - Philosophy originates from the Greek word *philosophia*, meaning "love of wisdom." - From the Greek word Sofia which means “wisdom”, and Philo which means “love.” ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY - Pre-Socratics: Early Greek philosophers focused on cosmology, metaphysics, and the nature of the universe. - Anaximander: Concept of the apeiron (indefinite/boundless). - Anaximenes: Believed air is the fundamental element. - Heraclitus: Everything is in constant flux; change is the nature of reality. - Parmenides: Nothing changes; everything is eternal and immutable. - Pythagoras: Believed in the truth of numbers and immortality of the soul. SOPHISTS & SOCRATICS - Sophists: Traveling educators, emphasized human-centered philosophy. - Protagoras: "Man is the measure of all things." - Socrates: Focused on care for the soul and self-knowledge. PLATO & ARISTOTLE - Plato: Emphasized the balance of body and soul for true happiness. - Aristotle: Humans are rational animals; soul is the form of the body. UNDERSTANDING REALITY 1. Philosophical Reflection: - Examines existential and practical issues in life. 2. Philosophical vs. Scientific Questions: - Philosophical questions address the totality and lead to broader understanding. - Scientific questions are specific and confined to particular aspects. 3. Dialectics - Involves a systematic method of argument to distinguish truth from opinion. -Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis are central components of dialectical reasoning. MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY 1.Scholasticism - Philosophical system used to explain Christian doctrines using logical reasoning. - St. Anselm of Canterbury: Combined faith and reason to understand God’s will. - St. Augustine of Hippo: Explored the relationship between body and soul. - St. Thomas Aquinas: Reworked Aristotelianism, integrating it into Christian theology. 2. Concepts - Substance & Accidents: Distinguishing essential and non-essential qualities of objects. - Matter & Form: Everything has a purpose or end, emphasizing the actuality and potentiality of beings. MODERN PHILOSOPHY 1.Renaissance & Humanism - Humanism: Shift from focus on God to man’s nature and essence. - Key Figures: - Francesco Petrarca: Emphasized freedom of self and return to classical texts. - Niccolo Machiavelli: Political realism, focus on power and means. 2. Rationalism - Sole importance on reason and thinking. - René Descartes: Cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am"); foundation of human knowledge based on doubt and reason. 3. Empiricism - Experience as the source of knowledge. - John Locke: *Tabula rasa* (blank slate theory). - George Berkeley: "To be is to perceive." - David Hume: Human nature is a collection of perceptions. MEDIEVAL TO MODERN PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSITIONS 1. Rationalism vs. Empiricism - Rationalism emphasizes reason, while empiricism prioritizes sensory experience. 2. Evolution of Thought - Medieval philosophy sought to reconcile faith with reason. - Modern philosophy transitioned to a foundation based on human reason and empirical observations.  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REVIEWER ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM - Cosmology: The study of the universe’s properties, structure, and evolution. - Universe: Comprises planets, stars, galaxies, and all matter and energy. Derived from the Latin word universum. Often referred to as the cosmos. COMPONENTS OF THE UNIVERSE 1. Galaxy: A gravitationally bound system of stars, gas, and dark matter. Example: Milky Way. 2. Planet: A body orbiting a star, massive enough to be shaped by its own gravity. 3. Star: A luminous sphere of plasma held together by gravity. The Sun is the nearest star to Earth. 4. Ordinary Matter: Made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. 5. Dark Matter: Matter that has gravity but does not emit light, detectable only through its gravitational effects. 6. Dark Energy: A force counteracting gravity, causing the universe to expand. 7. Protostar: A very young star still gathering mass from its molecular cloud. THEORIES AND MODELS 1. Scientific Theories: - Big Bang Theory: The universe began as a single point that exploded and expanded, giving rise to all matter and energy. - Steady State Model: Proposes that the universe has no beginning or end, with new galaxies forming as old ones disappear. - Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: Formation of new atomic nuclei from protons and neutrons after the Big Bang. - Cosmic Inflation Theory: The universe expanded rapidly immediately after the Big Bang. 3. Non-Scientific Thoughts: Creation myths from various cultures (e.g., Egyptian gods, Bumba from African mythology, and monotheistic religions like Christianity and Islam). 4. Philosophical Perspectives: - Theism: Belief in a creator god responsible for the universe. - Atheism: Belief that the universe formed by itself, without divine intervention. IMPORTANT FIGURES AND DISCOVERIES 1. Edwin Hubble (1889–1953): - Discovered that "nebulae" were galaxies beyond the Milky Way. - Proved the universe’s expansion through redshift. 2. Hubble Space Telescope (1990): - Used for advanced astronomical observations. 3. Expanding Universe: - Galaxies are moving away from each other, supporting the theory of an expanding universe. SOLAR SYSTEM 1. Nebular Hypothesis: - Suggests that a rotating gas cloud cooled and contracted, forming the Sun at the center and planets from a disc. 2. Encounter Hypothesis: - A rogue star passed by the Sun, stripping hot gas that fragmented into planets. 3. Protoplanet Hypothesis: - A gas and dust cloud contracted around 4.6 billion years ago, forming the Sun and planets. MEMBERS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM 1. Inner Terrestrial Planets: - Made of silicates and iron, slower rotation, thin atmosphere, and higher densities. 2. Outer Gaseous Planets: - Known as gas giants, they have thick atmospheres, lower densities, and interiors rich in hydrogen and helium. EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS AND LAYERS Subsystems of Earth 1. Atmosphere: - A gaseous envelope surrounding Earth, transitioning to space. - Composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases. 2. Hydrosphere: - Includes all water on Earth (surface, underground, and atmospheric). - Covers 71% of the planet, with 97.2% as saltwater and 2.8% as freshwater. 3. Lithosphere: - The rigid, rocky outer layer of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle. 4. Biosphere: - The zone of life on Earth, encompassing all living organisms and undecomposed organic matter. LAYERS OF THE EARTH 1. Crust: - The outermost solid shell of Earth, accounting for 1% of Earth's volume. - Divided into: - Oceanic Crust: Formed at ocean ridges, composed of basalt. - Continental Crust: Composed of granitic rocks. 2. Mantle: - Composed of silicates of iron and magnesium. - Makes up 84% of Earth's total volume. 3. Outer Core: - A liquid layer composed mainly of iron and nickel. 4. Inner Core: - A solid, dense center composed mostly of iron, responsible for creating Earth's magnetic field. EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE AND ITS LAYERS 1. Troposphere: Contains most weather phenomena and 75-80% of the atmosphere's mass. 2. Stratosphere: Houses the ozone layer, absorbs UV radiation. 3. Mesosphere: Coldest layer, protects Earth by destroying meteors. 4. Thermosphere: Contains photochemical activity; aurora borealis occurs here. 5. Exosphere: Uppermost layer, gradually fades into outer space. HYDROSPHERE AND WATER CYCLE - The water cycle includes evaporation, collection, condensation, and precipitation. - Freshwater Resources: Include ice sheets, glaciers, wetlands, rivers, and underground water in aquifers. BIOSPHERE AND LIFE ON EARTH - The biosphere includes all living organisms and undecomposed organic matter. - Classification systems divide life into kingdoms based on structural and functional differences.  UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS REVIEWER - Culture: A complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other habits acquired by humans as members of society. - Material Culture: Tangible things like food, tools, dress, and accessories. - Non-Material Culture: Intangible aspects such as habits, ideas, religion, language, and behavior. - Cultural Variations: Differences in social behaviors exhibited by cultures worldwide, influenced by specific places and tribes. - Social Differences: Recognition of diverse social groups within a community. - Gender: Socially constructed characteristics of women, men, girls, and boys. - Gender Role: Societal expectations based on sex. - Socio-Economic Class: Social standing based on education, income, and occupation. - Ethnicity: Groups sharing common culture, language, and history. - Race: Groups with inherited physical characteristics. - Social Change: Major changes in behavior patterns, cultural values, and customs over time. - Political Identities: Political positions based on social group interests. - Democracy: Power shared by all people. - Monarchy: Power held by one person (King, Queen, or Emperor). - Dictatorship: Government controlled by one person. - Communist State: Public ownership of property/resources. - Theocracy: Government leaders are members of the clergy. STUDYING ANTHROPOLOGY, POLITICAL SCIENCE, AND SOCIOLOGY - Sociology: Study of social interactions, relationships, organizations, and structures. - Anthropology: Scientific study of humanity, focusing on biological, social, and cultural development. - Branches of Anthropology: - Physical/Biological Anthropology: Human evolution and variability. - Archaeology: Study of the human past using material remains. - Linguistics: Relation between language, society, and culture. - Ethnology: Study of humans as cultural beings. - Cultural Anthropology: Origins and history of human societies and cultures. - Political Science: Study of politics and power from various perspectives. - Derived from Greek "polis" (city) and Latin "scire" (to know). - Coined by Jean Bodin, focusing on institutions related to law. SOCIETY AND CULTURE AS A COMPLEX WHOLE - Society: A group of people living in a definable community sharing cultural components. - Relationship of Culture and Society: - Society is an organized group of individuals; culture is an organized group of learned responses. - Characteristics of Society: - Complex Whole: Interacting individuals where change affects stability. - Relatively Large: Social integration across families, clans, and communities. - Socialization: Teaching norms and expectations to members. - Endurance: Assisting members during crises for survival. - Common Culture: Shared symbols, norms, values, and patterns of interaction. - Defined Territory: Members share a specific geographic area. DIFFERENT VIEWPOINTS/PERSPECTIVES ON CULTURE - Cultural Relativism: All cultures deserve equal respect, promoting appreciation. - Xenocentrism: Inferiority of one’s culture compared to others, valuing foreign cultures. - Noble Savage Mentality: Belief that earlier cultures are superior to modern ones. - Ethnocentrism: Superiority of one’s culture, seeing it as the only valid way of living. - Sinocentrism: Chinese view of being the cultural center of the world. - Culture Shock: Disbelief when encountering different cultural patterns. BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION - Biological Evolution: Changes in genetics and traits over generations. - Paleontology: Studies life history through fossils. - Hominid: Early humans and human-like creatures. - Bipedalism: Walking on two legs. - Brain Expansion: Increase in brain size over time. - Four Categories of Hominins: 1. Sahelanthropus tchadensis (6-7 million years ago): Early bipedal with apelike characteristics. 2. Ardipithecus: Early hominid living in jungles with bipedal traits. 3. Australopithecus: Tool users with bipedal movement; includes "Lucy." 4. Homo: Classified as humans with larger brains; includes: - Homo habilis: "Handy Man," first stone tool makers. - Homo erectus: "Upright Man," used fire and lived in shelters. - Homo sapiens: Modern humans with similar physical anatomy. - Cultural Evolution: Changes in culture and way of life over generations. CULTURAL AND SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION A. Unilineal Evolution - Proposed by Lewis Henry Morgan, asserting that all human life passes through distinct stages of cultural development: 1. Lower Savagery: Knowledge of fire but not its effective use. 2. Middle Savagery: Knowledge of fire, no bow and arrow. 3. Upper Savagery: Bow and arrow invented, no pottery. 4. Lower Barbarism: Domestication of animals and plants, no metal smelting. 5. Middle Barbarism: Knowledge of agriculture and metalwork. 6. Upper Barbarism: Use of metals, no alphabet/writing. 7. Civilized World: Literacy and technological advancements. B. Natural Evolution Theory - Proposes that living organisms descended from simpler forms: 1. Paleolithic Stage: Old Stone Age; use of crude stones, hunting, and gathering. 2. Mesolithic Stage: Coastal living, fishing, and early tools. 3. Neolithic Stage: Food production, herding, and tool polishing. 4. Metallic Stage: Introduction of metals (copper, bronze). Sociocultural Evolution: Explains changes in human societies over time through technological advancements and various societal types: 1. Hunting and Gathering: Nomadic lifestyle, using basic tools. 2. Horticultural: Small-scale farming with simple tools. 3. Pastoral: Animal domestication, permanent settlements. 4. Agricultural: Neolithic Revolution, settled farming communities. 5. Industrial Societies: Machine usage and mass production from the 18th century. 6. Post-Industrial Societies: Dominance of information and communication technology.  WORLD RELIGION REVIEWER The Abrahamic Religions - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share a monotheistic foundation with Abraham as a key figure. - Common traits: One supreme being, reverence for prophets. The Indian Mosaic - India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. - These religions reflect the diverse and complex cultural fabric of India. Major Religions of the East 1. Confucianism: Focus on ethical governance and harmonious human relations. 2. Daoism: Emphasizes living in harmony with the Dao (the way the universe works). 3. Shintoism: Japanese religion focusing on the worship of kami (spirits) and nature. Geography of Faith - Western Frontier: Home to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, with Israel as a central location. - Indian Subcontinent: Birthplace of various religions shaped by geographic boundaries. - Eastern End: China’s river valleys as centers of culture; Confucianism and Daoism shaped Chinese governance and ethics. Cultural Milieu of Religions - Exclusive Religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, with emphasis on monotheism. - Non-Exclusive Religions: Belief in coexistence of multiple religious paths (e.g., Hinduism and Buddhism). Positive and Negative Effects of Religion Positive Effects: - Promotes social harmony, moral values, and purpose in life. - Can institute social change and provide answers to existential questions. - Encourages service and upliftment of humanity. Negative Effects: - Discrimination against other religions or social classes. - Can lead to conflicts and wars. - May perpetuate rigid social norms and limit freedom. Historical Events Influenced by Religion 1. Self-Immolation of Buddhist Monks: Used as a form of protest and sacrifice. 2. Sati in India: Practice of widow self-immolation. 3. The Inquisition: Religious persecution of heretics in medieval Europe, involving torture and execution.  READING AND WRITING SKILLS REVIEWER Understanding the Role of Content Schema in Reading Definition: Reading is the process of translating letters and symbols into meaningful information for understanding and everyday use. Readers use three schemas to comprehend texts: o Content Schema: Knowledge of the topic. o Linguistic Schema: Understanding of language and grammar. o Formal Schema: Structure and organization of texts. Schemata Definition: Schemata are the frameworks of knowledge based on past experiences and understanding. They help readers make sense of new reading materials by connecting them to what they already know. Activating Schema Strategies: o Pay attention to the title to predict content. o Relate the topic to personal experiences or prior knowledge. o Pose questions that the text might answer. Lesson 1: Using Graphic Organizers to Enhance Content Schema Graphic Organizers: Visual tools that present related concepts based on a reader's understanding. Benefits: o Highlight similarities and differences. o Develop skills in evaluating information. Types of Graphic Organizers: 1. Fishbone Diagram: Analyzes root causes of a problem. 2. KWLH Chart: Helps organize learning by noting what is Known, Want to know, Learned, and How it was learned. 3. Flow Chart: Represents steps within a sequence or process. 4. Venn Diagram: Compares and contrasts items. 5. Semantic Features Analysis Map: Explores relationships between concepts. 6. Concept/Idea Map: Shows relationships between ideas and topics. 7. Cluster Map: Groups similar items to display spatial relationships. Understanding Formal and Linguistic Schemata in Reading Formal Schema: Knowledge of text organization: o Narration: Details events. o Description: Explains topics to help visualize. o Exemplification: Gives examples for main ideas. o Classification: Breaks topics into parts. o Comparison and Contrast: Explains similarities/differences. o Definition: Explains qualities and meanings. o Cause and Effect: Shows reasons and results. o Chronology: Orders events as they happened. o Persuasion: Appeals to emotions or logic. Linguistic Schema: Vocabulary: Words and phrases. Language: Communication system. Grammar: Rules for sentence structure. Idioms: Phrases with meanings different from individual words. Metacognitive Strategies in Reading Metacognition: "Thinking about thinking." Involves monitoring one's understanding of a text. Strategies: o Making Connections: Relating text to self, other texts, or the world. o Asking Questions: Creating high-level questions before, during, and after reading. o Monitoring and Fix-Up: Recognizing when one understands or not. o Synthesizing: Integrating insights and reflections to demonstrate understanding. More Reading Strategies: Before Reading: Previewing, predicting, activating prior knowledge, and setting a purpose. During Reading: Identifying main ideas and details. After Reading: Summarizing, reflecting, and evaluating. Reading the Internet Trustworthy Sources:.edu,.gov domains, author credentials, accurate and updated content, etc. Characteristics of Electronic Texts: o Interactive features (videos, links). o Adjustable formats. o Searchable and portable. o Hyperlinked and multimodal. ONLINE VS OFFLINE READING Medium of Access: o Online: Digital devices and browsers/apps. o Offline: Physical books and print materials. Interactivity & Multimedia: o Online: Multimedia elements and hyperlinks. o Offline: Text and images; no multimedia. Storage & Durability: o Online: Stored electronically; can be backed up in the cloud. o Offline: Physical storage; prone to wear and tear. Customization & Accessibility: o Online: Adjustable text and display settings. o Offline: Limited customization; use of additional aids needed. Content Type & Availability: o Online: Frequently updated, real-time content. o Offline: Static content that may become outdated. ELECTRONIC TEXTS: Definition: Any text stored, displayed, and accessed digitally. Characteristics: o Non-linear (read in any direction). o Interactive and often incorporates hyperlinks. o COMMON TYPES OF ELECTRONIC TEXTS: PDFs, Word Documents, E-books, Online Articles, Emails, Webpages, Hypertexts. STEPS IN READING ELECTRONIC TEXTS: Clarify purpose. Navigate non-linear structure. Ensure the material is trustworthy. QUALITIES OF TRUSTWORTHY ELECTRONIC TEXTS: Author credentials, reputable source, accurate and up-to-date information, professional tone, transparency, peer review, and functioning links. EARCHING FOR TEXTUAL EVIDENCE TO FORMULATE EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS CRITICAL READING: Definition: Reading to go beyond what an author states; involves identifying text elements and patterns to make interpretations and formulate textual evidence. STEPS IN CRITICAL READING: 1. Restating – Summarize or paraphrase what a text says. 2. Describing – Analyze structure and language used. 3. Interpreting – Infer meaning, themes, and implications. AUTHOR’S PURPOSE: Categories: To inform, entertain, persuade (explicitly or implicitly stated). AUTHOR’S VIEWPOINT & TONE: Viewpoint: How the author perceives the topic. Tone: Attitude towards the topic (positive/negative). Guide Questions: o What’s the main idea? o How do word choices shape perspective? o What impressions do the examples create? AUTHOR’S BIAS & LOGICAL FALLACIES: Bias: Favoritism or prejudice. Fallacies: Beliefs not based on logic. 1. Hasty Generalization Making a conclusion based on limited cases/examples Ex. Paul likes cheeseburger. Mark likes cheeseburger. Therefore, men like cheeseburger 2. Dicto Simpliciter Treating a general rule to be a universal truth Ex. Milk is good for the bones. Everyone should drink milk. (Lactose-intolerant people should avoid drinking milk.) 3. Post Hoc Pointing to something as the effect or cause of something Ex. His parents did not increase her allowance, so she did not go to school for three days. (There could be another reason.) 4. Appeal to Pity Making people feel sorry instead of presenting a logical reason. Ex. This man should get the job, for he has five children and a wife to feed. 5. Poisoning the Well Intending to discredit or ridicule a person or an idea by presenting unanticipated information. Ex. Don’t listen to her. She is a daughter of two traditional politicians. 6. Bandwagon Making people believe that popular ideas are necessarily right. Ex. Seventy percent of housewives in Manila use Brand X, so you should use it too. CRITICAL READING STRATEGY (SQ3R): 1. Survey: Preview the material and skim. 2. Question: Formulate questions to guide reading. 3. Read: Read actively with questions in mind. 4. Recite: Pause to summarize and recall. 5. Review: Revisit questions and summarize.