Chemistry of Elements in the Periodic Table - Review (PDF)

## MODULE 2: CHEMISTRY OF ELEMENTS IN ## THE **PERIODIC TABLE** ### B1. Group IA - The Alkali Metals **General Properties** - Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs - Univalent, +1 - Soft, waxy, and has high metallic luster - Low sp.gr.; low MP - Alkali salts are freely-soluble in water - Forms simple cations - Most act...

## MODULE 2: CHEMISTRY OF ELEMENTS IN ## THE **PERIODIC TABLE** ### B1. Group IA - The Alkali Metals **General Properties** - Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs - Univalent, +1 - Soft, waxy, and has high metallic luster - Low sp.gr.; low MP - Alkali salts are freely-soluble in water - Forms simple cations - Most active, electro-positive metals - Easily oxidized in air (stored under mineral oil) - Reacts with water violently - M + H2O → H2 + MOH - Oxides and hydroxides are strongly BASIC ### B1.1 Lithium **Lithium** - Greek word lithos - "stone" - Lightest metal - Carmine red in non-luminous flame - Former ingredient of 7Up® - contained lithium citrate - As hangover cure - Li+ - CNS depressant - Li toxicity - nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) 1. **Lithium bromide** - hypnotic 2. **Bromide syrup** - Bromides of Li, Na, K, Ca and NH4+ - sedative 3. **Lithium carbonate** - Antacid, antirheumatic, diuretic 4. **Lithium citrate** - Antacid - less irritating to stomach ### B1.2 Sodium - Latin name Natrium, obtained from niter - Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (electrolysis of NaOH caustic soda) - Abundant in nature in the form of NaCl - rock salt - Bright golden yellow in non-luminous flame - Na+ - predominant cation in ECF 1. **Sodium hydroxide** - "Caustic soda, lye" - Very deliquescent - absorbs moisture in air and liquifies - Escharotic corrosive to tissue - Uses: - in soap preparations - as standard solution in acid-base titrations 2. **Sodium chloride** - "Rock salt, table salt" - Electrolyte replenishment - Renders solutions to be isotonic - Prescription "fiat isotonic collyrium" - Normal saline solution (NSS), 0.9% NaCl - Physiological salt solution 3. **Sodium acetate** - Diuretic, treatment of cystitis and UTI 4. **Sodium carbonate** - Anhydrous → "soda ash" - Decahydrate → "sal soda", "washing soda" - as anhydrous - buffer preparations - as solution - lotion preparations 5. **Sodium bicarbonate** - "Baking soda" - Antacid - Misuse can lead to "rebound acidity" - Urinary alkalizer 6. **Sodium nitrite** - Smooth muscle relaxant (slow onset) for angina pectoris - Treatment for cyanide poisoning 7. **Sodium citrate** - Oral: alkalizer, diuretic - Parenteral: anticoagulant 8. **Sodium phosphate** - disodium hydrogen phosphate - dibasic sodium phosphate - Saline laxative, cathartic 9. **Sodium biphosphate** - sodium dihydrogen phosphate - monobasic sodium phosphate - Urinary acidifier 10. **Sodium thiocyanate** - antihypertensive 11. **Sodium thiosulfate** - External: ringworm infection - IV: dermatitis - Treatment for iodine and cyanide poisoning 12. **Sodium sulfate** - "Glauber's salt" - Saline laxative 13. **Sodium borate** - "Borax", sodium tetraborate - Bacteriostatic (as eye-wash and wet dressing) - Water-softener 14. **Sodium bromide** - Sedative 15. **Sodium iodide** - Solubilizing agent in iodine solution - Histolytic - destroys tissues - Expectorant 16. **Sodium hypochlorite** - Sodium hypochlorite Solution (5% NaOCl) - laundry bleaching agent - Labarraque's Solution - NaOCI diluted with equal volume of water - Oxidizing and bleaching agent - Modified Dakin's solution - Diluted NaOCI solution (0.5%) - Disinfectant, irrigating solution for wound 17. **Compound effervescent powders** - "Seidlitz powders" - Mild laxative - Comes in: - Blue paper - sodium bicarbonate and potassium sodium tartrate - White paper - tartaric acid - Reaction → CO2 (effervescence) → Increases palatability 18. **Soda Mint** - Sodium bicarbonate + aromatic ammonia - Carminative, antacid 19. **Soda lime** - Calcium hydroxide + Na/K hydroxides - Absorbs CO2 - For metabolism tests, anesthesia, oxygen therapy 20. **Sodium bicarbonate and Calcium carbonate powder** - "Sippy Powder No. 1" - Antacid 21. **Sodium citrate solution** - Diaphoretic - increases sweating 22. **Compound sodium borate solution** - "Dobell's solution" - Astringent, antiseptic 23. **Theobromine and Sodium acetate** - Diuretic in cardiac edemas 24. **Sodium nitrate** - "Chile saltpeter" - Manufacture of nitric acid and fertilizer ### B1.3 Potassium **Potassium** - Latin name Kalium, obtained from *Salsola kali* - Isolated by Sir Humphry Davy from *potash* - various mined and manufactured potassium salts - Violet color in non-luminous flame - K+ - predominant cation in ICF 1. **Potassium acetate** - diuretic 2. **Potassium bicarbonate** - Antacid, urinary alkalizer 3. **Potassium bitartrate** - "Cream of Tartar" - Diuretic, laxative 4. **Potassium bromide** - sedative 5. **Potassium carbonate** - Alkalizer in pharmaceutical preparations 6. **Potassium chlorate** - Oxidizing germicide - Manufacture of pyrotechnics, matches 7. **Potassium chloride** - diuretic 8. **Potassium citrate** - Diuretic, expectorant, laxative 9. **Potassium hydroxide** - "Caustic potash" - Similar to NaOH but more deliquescent, stronger and more expensive than NaOH 10. **Potassium mercuric iodide** - Germicide 11. **Potassium nitrate** - "Saltpeter" - Diuretic, diaphoretic 12. **Potassium permanganate** - "Chameleon mineral" - Very powerful oxidizing agent - Antiseptic, treatment of urethritis 13. **Potassium sodium tartrate** - "Rochelle salt, Sal Seignette" - Mild laxative and hydragogue - Component of Fehling's solution 14. **Sulfurated Potash** - "Liver of sulfur, hepar sulfuris" - Mixture of K polysulfides and thiosulfate - Treatment of parasitic skin diseases 15. **Potassium thiocyanate** - Smooth muscle relaxant ### B1.4 Rubidium - Discovered by Bunsen and Kirchhoff - Seldom used in medicine ### B1.5 Cesium - Discovered by Bunsen; first element discovered using spectroscope - No commercial importance; never used in medicine ### B1.6 Ammonium - NH4+ cation behaves like an alkali metal - "hypothetical metal ion" 1. **Ammonium bromide** - sedative 2. **Ammonium carbonate** - "Sal volatile, Preston salt, Hartshorn, Salt of Hartshorn" - Reflex stimulant - Expectorant 3. **Ammonium hydroxide** - Strong ammonia solution - Stronger ammonia water - 27-29% NH3 - Used in manufacture of ammonium salts, nitric acid, fertilizers - Diluted ammonia solution - Ammonia water - 9-10% NH3 - "Spirit of hartshorn" - Product of destructive distillation of horns of male deer - "Household ammonia" - For cleaning and washing due to water softening and saponifying properties 4. **Aromatic Ammonia Spirit** - Gastric stimulant, carminative, antacid 5. **Ammonium acetate solution** - "Spirit of Mindererus" 6. **Expectorant Mixture** - "Mistura pectoralis, Stoke's Expectorant" 7. **Ammonium Chloride** - "Muriate of Ammonia, Sal ammoniac" - Expectorant, diuretic ### B2. Group IIA - The Alkaline Earth Metals - Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba - Bivalent, +2 - Reactions: - M + H2O → H2 + M(OH)2 - M + H2 → MH2 - M(OH)2 + heat → MO + H2O - Solubility: - Hydroxide salts are less water-soluble than those of alkalis - Carbonates, sulfate, phosphates and fluoride salts are INSOLUBLE in water ### B2.1 Calcium **Calcium** - Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (through electrolysis) - Found in nature in the form of carbonate (chalk, marble, limestone) - Brick red in non-luminous flame - Ca+2 ion - 2nd most abundant cation in the ECF - Pharmacologic action: - Nerve transmission - Proper cardiac function - Blood coagulation - Structural basis of skeleton 1. **Calcium bromide** - sedative 2. **Calcium carbonate** - Most abundant and widely distributed calcium salt - Forms: - Amorphous - Chalk - Crystalline - Limestone, marble - Used as building material - Precipitated calcium carbonate - Precipitated chalk - External: as dentifrice (tooth powder) due to mild abrasive property - Internal: antacid - Prepared Chalk - Drop chalk - Antacid 3. **Calcium chloride** - Urinary acidifier - Ringer's Solution - Isotonic solution of Three Chlorides - Ca, Na and K chlorides - Lactated Ringer's Solution - Ca, Na and K chlorides + sodium lactate 4. **Calcium gluconate** - Calcium supplement 5. **Calcium hydroxide** - "hydrated lime or slaked lime" - Mixed with 3-4x of water → "Milk of Lime" - Saturated aqueous solution → "Lime Water" - Uses: - Antacid - Mild astringent - Saponifying agent for oils 6. **Calcium oxide** - "Lime, Calx, Quicklime" - Slaking: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 - Used in making insecticides 7. **Sulfurated Lime Solution** - "Vleminckx' Solution" - Lime + sublimed sulfur - Treatment of acne 8. **Dibasic calcium phosphate** - Source of calcium and phosphorus - Can be supplied with Vitamin D → increases Ca absorption 9. **Tribasic calcium phosphate** - Precipitated calcium phosphate - "Bone ash" - Antacid 10. **Bleaching Powder** - Chlorinated Lime, Chloride of Lime - CaOCI(CI) H2O - Disinfectant, bleaching agent 11. **Calcium sulfate** - As dihydrate → Gypsum - filler for wall paper - As hemihydrate → Plaster of Paris - used in surgery for making casts 12. **Calcium sulfide** - Sulfurated lime, calcic liver of sulfur, hepar calcis - Treatment of acne ### B2.2 Strontium **Strontium** - Isolated by Sir Humphry Davy (through electrolysis) - Found in nature in the form of sulfate (barite, heavy spar) - Crimson red in non-luminous flame - Similar with Ca+2 ion but has weaker effect and less toxic 1. **Strontium bromide** - sedative 2. **Strontium hydroxide** - Used in sugar industry 3. **Strontium nitrate** - Used in pyrotechnics ### B2.3 Barium **Barium** - Yellowish green in non-luminous flame - Ba+2 is highly toxic 1. **Barium chloride** - Used in the treatment of Stokes-Adams disease ("heart-block") - Veterinary use: constipation in horses - Rat poison 2. **Barium sulfate** - Radiopaque contrast media - Oral: Barium meal - Rectal: Barium enema - Commercial use: making lithopone paints 3. **Barium hydroxide** - "Caustic baryta" - Aqueous solution → baryta water - Use: CO2-absorbent 4. **Barium nitrate** - Used in manufacture of green fire 5. **Barium oxide** - "Calcined baryta" - Used in manufacture of hydrogen peroxide 6. **Barium sulfide** - Depilatory - removes hair from skin ### B2.4 Beryllium **Beryllium** - Named after mineral *beryl* - Aka "glucinum" - sweet taste - Be+2 - toxic - Never employed in medicine; used in wires for pianos and scientific instruments ### B2.5 Magnesium - First isolated by Sir Humphry Davy, named after town called Magnesia - Found in the forms of - Talc - native hydrated magnesium silicate - Dolomite - CaCO3 MgCO3 - Kieserite - native magnesium sulfate - Burns with a blinding white light - used in photography and pyrotechnics - Mg-salts are laxative. - Mg+2 - 2nd most abundant cation in the ICF 1. **Magnesium carbonate** - "Magnesia alba" - Antacid, laxative - Clarifying or filtering agent in syrups - Abrasive in tooth powders 2. **Magnesium citrate** - Laxative, cathartic 3. **Magnesium hydroxide** - Antacid with mild laxative effect - Magnesia magma - "Milk of Magnesia" - A suspension prepared by hydration of MgO 4. **Magnesium oxide** - Antacid, laxative - "Magnesia" - Light - made by heating MgCO3 to dull redness - Heavy - MgSO4 + Na2CO3 → heat 5. **Tribasic magnesium phosphate** - Antacid 6. **Magnesium sulfate** - As heptahydrate → Epsom salt - Saline cathartic 7. **Magnesium trisilicate** - Antacid with adsorbent and protective property - Emulsifying agent 8. **Asbestos** - Fibrous minerals and poor heat conductors 9. **Talc** - Native hydrated magnesium silicate - Filtering agent ### B3. Group IB - The Coinage Metals **General Properties** - Cu, Ag, Au - Employed for ornamental and coinage purposes - "Noble metals" - Occur free in nature - Chemically inert - Slowly oxidized in air - Malleable and ductile - Best Metals for electrical conductivity - 1st Ag→ 2nd Cu → 3rd Au - Best Metals for heat conductivity - 1st Ag→ 2nd Au → 3rd Cu - Possess oligodynamic effect - toxic effect of metals on microbes ### B3.1 Copper **Copper** - Latin name *Cuprum*, from "Cyprus" where many ores are mined - Red metal - Cu+2 salts - blue to emerald green in non-luminous flame - Cu ions - protein precipitant, fungicide - astringent, emetic - acts as catalyst for the storage and release of iron *Menke's Disease - Cu Deficiency* *Wilson's Disease - Cu Toxicity* - Hepatolenticular degeneration - Antidote: - British Anti-Lewisite (BAL) or Dimercaprol - Penicillamine *Copper alloys* - Brass - Cu + Zn - Bronze - Cu + Sn - German silver - Cu + Zn + Ni - Sterling - Cu + Ag 1. **Cupric citrate** - Astringent, antiseptic 2. **Cupric sulfate** - "Blue vitriol or blue stone" - Component of Fehling's solutions and Benedict's solution → solutions used to detect reducing sugars - Emetic - Antidote for phosphorus poisoning 3. **Cupric acetate and acetic acid** - Components of Barfoed's reagent - test for reducing sugars 4. **Basic cupric acetate** - "Green verdigris" 5. **Cupric hydrogen arsenite** - "Scheele's mineral, Swedish Green" 6. **Cupric acetoarsenite** - "Paris Green, Parrot Green" - Insecticide 7. **CuSO4 5H2O and CaO** - "Bordeaux mixture" - algaecide and fungicide for swimming pool ### B3.2 Silver **Silver** - Latin name Argentum, "shining" - White metal with metallic luster - Ag+ ion - Protein precipitant - Colloidal silver preparations - Antiseptic, astringent - Irritant, corrosive - Argyria - darkening of skin due to long period of use of silver preparations 1. **Silver nitrate** - Eye antiseptic for newborn babies - Silver nitrate pencil - Lunar caustic - Toughened silver nitrate - Ammoniacal silver nitrate solution - Howe's solution 2. **Mild silver protein (19-23% Ag)** - "Mild protargin" - Mild antiseptic - Brands: Silvol, Argyrol 3. **Strong protein silver (7.5-8.5% Ag)** - "Strong protargin" - Stronger antiseptic action than mild silver protein - Brand: Protargol 4. **Colloidal silver chloride** - Antiseptic 5. **Colloidal silver iodide** - Antiseptic 6. **Silver sulfadiazine** - prophylaxis, treatment of infections in burn wounds 7. **Silver bromide** - Antiseptic - Photography 8. **Silver oxide** - CO absorbent 9. **Silver picrate** - Picragol, Picrotol - Antiseptic ### B3.3 Gold **Gold** - Latin name *Aurum*, "shining dawn, aurora" - "King of all metals" - Due to color, scarcity and permanency - Universal symbol of highest purity and value - Most malleable and ductile metal - Yellow color - Selenic acid - Only single acid that can dissolve gold - Aqua regia - Best reagent for dissolving gold - A mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid (1:3) - Pure gold = 24-carat or 1000 fine - % Au = carat / 24 x 100 % Au = fineness / 1000 x 100 - Pure gold is too soft → often alloyed with Cu or Ag for hardness - Uses: - Gilding and plating - As dental crowns, bridges and inlays (gold leaf) **Chrysotherapy** - Treatment of diseases (especially RA) with gold compounds - Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) 1. **Sodium aurothiomalate** - Commonly used gold-based DMARD 2. **Auranofin** - Orally available gold drug for RA 3. **Gold-198** - Radioactive isotope, anticancer 4. **Gold and sodium thiosulfate Complex** - IV treatment of lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis ### B4. Group IIB - The Zinc Group - Zn, Cd, Hg ### B4.1 Zinc **Zinc** - Bivalent, +2 - Burns with bluish-white flame - Use of Zn metal - Galvanizing iron → protects from corrosion - Used in batteries - Use of Zn+2 ion - Protein precipitant - Astringent - Mild antiseptic - Adjuvant in insulin preparations to enhance stability - Zn poisoning (Antidote: NaHCO3) - Zn deficiency (Parakeratosis) 1. **Zinc acetate** - Astringent - Mild antiseptic 2. **Zinc chloride** - Escharotic for gangrenous sores - As mouthwash - antiseptic and astringent - For embalming and preservation of the anatomical specimens 3. **Zinc iodide** - antiseptic 4. **Iodine and Zinc oxide glycerite** - Diluted Talbot's solution - Antiseptic and astringent 5. **Zinc oxide** - Zinc white, Chinese white - Antiseptic and astringent - As ointment or dusting powder - treatment of eczema, psoriasis, pruritis - Used in manufacture of adhesive tape - Used as paint pigment - Calamine - 98% ZnO + 2% ferric oxide - Very fine pink powder - Used in the form of powder, ointment or lotion - treatment of skin diseases - Zinc-eugenol cement - 70% ZnO - Dental filler - Zinc oxide paste - Lassar's plain zinc paste - Zinc oxide hard paste - Unna's hard zinc paste 6. **Medicinal Zinc peroxide** - Mixture of zinc peroxide, zinc carbonate and zinc hydroxide - Sterilized dry powder used in controlling surgical infections due to anerobic bacteria 7. **Zinc stearate** - Dusting powder - antiseptic and astringent 8. **Zinc sulfate** - As heptahydrate - White vitriol - Emetic and astringent - Mordant in dye - intensify or fixed stains - White Lotion - Lotion alba - Zinc sulfate + potassium sulfide - Sulfide - for skin disease - Zinc - astringent ### B4.2 Cadmium **Cadmium** - Bivalent, +2 - Uses - Electroplating with no high polish or luster desired - Rust-proofing - Cd+2 ion - Similar action with Zn+2 ion but more toxic - Poisoning → death due to arresting respiration - Itai-itai disease - mass cadmium poisoning in Japan 1. **Cadmium sulfate** - Astringent in ophthalmic practice 2. **Cadmium sulfide** - Employed as yellow pigment "Jaune Brilliant" ### B4.3 Mercury **Mercury** - Latin name *hydrargyrum*, "Liquid silver or quick silver" - Shining silvery-white metal liquid - Forms amalgams (alloys) with many metals - HYDRARGYRISM - chronic Hg poisoning - Minamata disease - methylmercury poisoning in Japan *Pharmaceutical uses of Mercury* - Elemental Mercury - Quicksilver, hydrargyrum - As ointment - treatment of syphilis and crab-louse infestation - Used in metallurgy of gold and silver - Used in amalgams, thermometers, barometers - Blue ointment - Mild mercurial ointment - Strong mercurial ointment - 9-10% Hg - Parasiticide - Mercurial ointment - 47.5-52.5% Hg - Treatment of syphilis - Mercury Mass - Blue Mass, Blue Pill - Cathartic - Mercury with Chalk - laxative - Ammoniated mercury - "White precipitate" - As dusting powder - treatment of eczema and parasitic skin diseases - Mercuric chloride - Corrosive sublimate, mercury bichloride - Extremely poisonous - Germicidal - 0.10% concentration - Disinfectant hand wash - Used in preparing Yellow Lotion (Lotio flava, Yellow wash) - Mercuric cyanide - Antiseptic, antisyphilitic - Mercuric iodide - Mixed with KI to prepare Mayer's reagent - a testing agent for alkaloids - Mayer's reagent + KOH → Nessler's reagent (test for ammonia in water) - Irritant poison - Action similar to mercuric chloride - Used to prepare Donovan's Solution - Mercuric oxide - Yellow HgO - "yellow precipitate", 99.5% HgO - Fine impalpable powder - As ophthalmic ointment - antiseptic - Red HgO - "red precipitate", 1% HgO - Coarse powder - As ointment - skin antiseptic - Mercurous chloride - Also called "White precipitate" in French prescriptions - "Calomel, subchloride of mercury" - Cathartic - Used in preparation of Black Lotion (Lotio nigra, Black wash) - Mercuric nitrate - Component of Millon's reagent (test for proteins) - As ointment - antiseptic ### B5. Group IIIA - The Boron Group - "Triels", Trivalent, +3 - IIIA - B, Al, Ga, In, TI - IIIA forms ALUMS - IIIA hydroxides are amphoteric ### B5.1 Boron - Elemental form is never employed in medicine and pharmacy 1. **Boric acid** - "Boracic acid" - Used as dusting powder or ointment base - Antiseptic - Used in preparation of Lister's solution (antiseptic mouthwash) 2. **Sodium borate** - "Borax", sodium tetraborate - Bacteriostatic (as eye-wash and wet dressing) - Water-softener 3. **Sodium perborate** - Treatment of Vincent's angina "trench mouth" - Dentifrice ### B5.2 Aluminum - Used in making cooking utensils, instruments due to its lightness, strength and non-corrosive property 1. **Aluminum chloride** - Antiseptic and astringent - Used as catalyst in organic synthesis (Friedel-Craft's Reaction) 2. **Aluminum hydroxide** - Used as dry mordant - Combined with organic dyes to form lakes - Aluminum hydroxide gel - Colloidal aluminum hydroxide - Antacid and protective in the treatment of peptic ulcer 3. **Aluminum phosphate** - As gel - antacid, astringent, demulcent 4. **Aluminum silicates** - Kaolin - Native hydrated aluminum silicate - Adsorbent used in diarrhea due to food poisoning - Bentonite - Absorbent - ulcers and moist infections - Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate - Stabilize emulsions - Suspending agent - Clarifying agent - Adsorbent - Pumice - Of volcanic origin, complex silicates of Al, Na, and K - Used as distributing agent 5. **Aluminum sulfate** - As solution - antiseptic and astringent 6. **Aluminum subacetate solution** - Excellent source of aluminum hydroxide 7. **Aluminum acetate solution** - "Burow's solution" - Aluminum subacetate solution + Glacial acetic acid - Antiseptic and astringent on skin 8. **Alum** - Potassium (or ammonium) aluminum sulfate dodecahydrate - Astringent ### B5.3 Thallium - Thallium acetate - Formerly used in creams as depilatory - Very toxic - Gallium and Indium have little to no medicinal/pharmaceutical importance. ### B6. Group IIIB - The Scandium Group - IIIB - Sc, Y - Yttrium and Scandium have little to no medicinal/pharmaceutical importance. ### B7. Group IVA - The Carbon Group - "Tetrels" - IVA-C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb ### B7.1 Carbon *Allotropes* - Crystalline - Diamond - Pure native form, one of the hardest substances (10 on Mohr's scale) - Colorless, tinted or black crystal - Graphite - Soft, black shiny solid - Greek word *Graphein* "to write" - Fullerene - *Amorphous* - Coal, charcoal, coke 1. **Activated Charcoal** - From destructive distillation of plant substances - Adsorptive, treatment of stomach or intestinal disorders 2. **Purified animal charcoal** - Of animal origin (bone), purified by dissolving in HCl and water - Similar to activated charcoal but less adsorptive 3. **Carbon tetrachloride** - Use with CAUTION as anthelmintic - Main constituent of fire extinguishers 4. **Carbon dioxide** - "carbonic acid gas" - Oxygen gas mixed with 5% CO2 → treatment of poisoning by CO, alcohol, methanol, morphine - Carbon dioxide snow (dry ice) - Remedy for skin disorder (e.g. acne, eczema, psoriasis, warts) 5. **Carbon disulfide** - Solvent in rubber industry ### B7.2 Silicon 1. **Purified siliceous earth** - "Purified kieselguhr", "purified Tripoli" - A form of silica (silicon dioxide) - Absorbent and clarifying agent - Polishing powder for metals 2. **Silicon dioxide** - "Silica" - Crystalline - quartz - quartz with impurities → Gems - Amorphous - agate, jasper, opal *Glass - a mixture of various silicates* - 1. Soft glass - lead silicate + sodium silicate - 2. Hard glass - potassium silicate + Mg/Al oxides - 3. Flint glass - low refraction, high dispersion; used in making lenses for optical instruments - 4. Crown glass - high refraction, low dispersion - 5. Soda lime glass - for common bottles - 6. Borosilicate glass - very tough, lower coefficient of expansion; used in chemical glassware and cooking utensils ### B7.3 Germanium - Germanium dioxide - Stimulates formation of RBC and for treatment of anemia ### B7.4 Tin - Resistant to very weak acids and alkalis - Used for household utensils, chemical apparatus - Tinplate - iron + tin (making tin cans) 1. **Stannic oxide** - For staphylococci infections - Dentifrice 2. **Stannous chloride** - As dihydrate - tin salt; used as mordant 3. **Stannic chloride** - "Fuming spirit of Libavius" 4. **Stannic sulfide** - "artificial gold" ### B7.5 Lead - Galena - principal primary ore of lead - Uses - plumbing, water pipes - making storage batteries - paint pigments 1. **Lead acetate** - "sugar of lead" - As Lotion - astringent - As wash - treatment of poison ivy 2. **Lead subacetate solution** - "Goulard's Extract" 3. **Diluted lead subacetate solution** - "Lead water" 4. **Lead oxide** - "Litharge", lead monoxide - Used in preparation of lead subacetate solution 5. **Lead carbonate** - Basic lead carbonate → "white lead" - Paint pigment 6. **Lead chloride** - Astringent - As pigment - "Cassel's yellow" 7. **Lead chromate** - "King's Yellow" ### B8. Group IVB - The Titanium Group - IVB-Ti, Zr, Hf, Ce, Th ### B8.1 Titanium - "sons of the earth" - Alloys with steel, used in aircraft, spacecraft and missiles - Titanium dioxide - Used as white pigment in creams and paints - Ward off light rays - for sun-screen preparations - Opacifying agent in capsule and tablet coatings - Zirconium and its salts have little to no medicinal/pharmaceutical importance. ### B8.2 Cerium - Cerium oxalate - Antiemetic, esp during early stages of pregnancy ### B9. Group VA - The Nitrogen Group - VAN, P, As, Sb, Bi - "Pnictogens" – to choke ### B9.1 Nitrogen - "Mephitic air" (D. Rutherford) - "Azote" meaning "without life" (A. Lavoisier) - 79% by volume in the atmosphere - Found in nature as Chile saltpeter (sodium nitrite) - Found in soil - Necessity for development of plants - nitrogen fixation 1. **Nitrous oxide** - "laughing gas" - has exhilarating effect when inhaled - analgesic and anesthetic 2. **Ammonia** - "Alkaline air" - Colorless gas with strong pungent odor - Produced commercially by Haber process - Ammonium hydroxide solution - Ammonia water 3. **Liquid ammonia** - Used for refrigeration and manufacture of artificial ice 4. **Strong ammonia solution** - Stronger ammonia water - 27-29% NH3 - Used in manufacture of ammonium salts, nitric acid, fertilizers 5. **Diluted ammonia solution** - Ammonia water - 9-10% NH3 - "Spirit of hartshorn" - Product of destructive distillation of horns of male deer - "Household ammonia" - For cleaning and washing due to water softening and saponifying properties 6. **Ammonium bromide** - sedative 7. **Ammonium carbonate** - "Sal volatile, Preston salt, Hartshorn" - Reflex stimulant - Expectorant 8. **Aromatic Ammonia Spirit** - Gastric stimulant, carminative, antacid 9. **Ammonium acetate solution** - "Spirit of Mindererus" 10. **Expectorant Mixture** - "Mistura pectoralis, Stoke's Expectorant" 11. **Ammonium Chloride** - "Muriate of Ammonia, Sal ammoniac" - Expectorant, diuretic ### B9.2 Phosphorus - Greek word - "I bear light" → phosphorescence - Properties - Allotropes - White P-most reactive; stored under kerosene - Red P-less reactive than White P - Scarlet P - obtained by heating PI3 with Hg; mixed w/ potassium chlorate to make matches - Violet P - obtained by heating white P with Na - Black P - obtained by heating P with Pb; least reactive 1. **Hydrides of Phosphorus** - Phosphine (PH3) - Colorless, poisonous gas with rotten fish odor - Product of putrefaction of organic material - Phosphorescence → "will-o-wisp or ignus fatuus" 2. **Halides of Phosphorus** - PF3, PF5, PCI3, PCI5, PBr3, PBr5, Pl3 3. **Sulfides of Phosphorus** - P2S5, P4S7, P4S3 4. **Oxides of Phosphorus** - Diphosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) - "Flowers of P" - Used for drying gases 5. **Acids of Phosphorus** - Phosphoric acid - Orthophosphoric acid - A triprotic acid - Used as gastric tonic and stimulant - Diluted form - treatment of Pb poisoning ###