Reviewer General Biology 2 PDF

**REVIEWER** **GENERAL BIOLOGY 2** **Lesson 1.** **Genetic Engineering**- direct manipulation of organism's genes uses biotechnology. It involves artificial manipulations, recombination's of DNA. Since ancient time, the practice of genetic engineering begun: **Artificial Selection**- process wh...

**REVIEWER** **GENERAL BIOLOGY 2** **Lesson 1.** **Genetic Engineering**- direct manipulation of organism's genes uses biotechnology. It involves artificial manipulations, recombination's of DNA. Since ancient time, the practice of genetic engineering begun: **Artificial Selection**- process which humans consciously select for or against particular features in organisms. (is done to indirectly manipulate genes) **Selective Breeding**- animals with desired characteristics are mated to produce offspring with those desired traits. **Hybridizations**- individuals with unlike characteristics are crossed to produced the best in both organisms. **Inbreeding**- breeding organisms that are genetically similar to maintain desired traits. FIVE BASIC PROCESSES IN GENTEIC ENGINEERING: **Step 1. DNA Extraction-** Gene of interest is taken through a series steps to remove DNA. **Step 2. Gene Cloning-** separate the single gene of interest and make thousands of it. **Step 3. Gene Desig-** replacing existing gene with a new gene. **Step 4. Transformation-** new gene is inserted into cells using gene gum method. **Step 5. Backcross Breeding-** enables breeders to transfer a desired trait. **Recombinant DNA-** mixing DNA from two different sources. **Restriction enzymes-** used to splice, connect (or ligate) and remove or add nucleotides to sequences of the DNA. **Distant Hybridizations**- transfer genes between distant related species. **Development of transgenic plants-** genetically transform plants with foreign genes called transgenic plants. **Development of root nodules in cereal crops**- can be transferred to cereal crops. **Development of C4 plants-** have higher potential rate of biomass production. **Bioethics**- study of controversial ethics brought by advances in biology and medicine. **Lesson 2.** **Geologic Time Scale- "**calendar" for events in earth's history. Describes the age of rocks, fossils, and the events that formed them. **Eons-** longest portion in the geologic time. **Precambrian-** it accounts for 88% of Earth's history. - **Hadean Eon-** few rocks were deformed and metamorphosed. - **Archaean Eon-** remains of microscopic algae and bacteria. - **Proterozoic Eon-** rifting of the continental crust. **Phanerozoic Eon-** it means visible life. The instant evolution of several animal phyla, the evolution of terrestrial plants, fish and terrestrial animals. - **Paleozoic-** beginning of early life. Development of terrestrial plants. Devonian period is known as the age of fish. - **Mesozoic era-** also known as the age of dinosaurs. Pangea rifted into Laurasia and Gondwanaland. - **Cenozoic era-** also known as the age of recent life or age of mammals. Most complete record of any era. **Paleogene Period**- Earth's climate was tropical. Continents drifted apart. **Neogene Period**- it gives rise to early primates. **Quaternary Period-** most recent period. 1. **4.6 -- 3.8 BYA.** Early earth is said to be violet because of meteorites and volcanic eruptions. Zircon crystal was formed. 2. **3.5 BYA**. Sedimentary rocks formation called stromatolites. 3. **3.0 BYA.** First photosynthetic organisms thrived the earth which is blue green algae called cyanobacteria. 4. **2.0 BYA.** First eukaryotes and influx of multicellular organisms occurred 1.2 billion years ago. 5. **500 MYA.** Paleozoic era when the trilobites and cephalods became dominant in ocea. 6. **251 -- 65.5 MYA.** Mesozoic era the age of reptiles that has span of 251 to 65.5 MYA. 7. **250 TYA.** Cenozoic era recent life homo erectus have evolved. **Relative Time-** earths geology in a specific order. Basis of fossils. **Absolute Time**- numerical ages in million years. Radioactive dating. **Lesson 3.** **Evolution-** helps us to understand the history of life. Evolution is the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient ancestors. Mechanisms of Evolution Changes 1. **Mutation**- occurs when there's a change in the genetic makeup cause by environmental stressors. (Accidental change in DNA) 2. **Gene Flow-** also called migration. When this happens, there is a tendency to increase the gene diversity in the populations. 3. **Genetic Drift**- change in gene pool of a population due to chance. - **Bottleneck effect**- takes place when population decreases due to various environmental. - Funder effect- happens when a small population of organisms separates from the larger group to invade new area. 4. **Natural Selection**- explains the difference in survival of an individual and reproduction in a particular environment. 5. **Non-random matting**- it causes evolution because it intrudes the natural pool of gene variations. **Lesson 4.** **350 BCE \> ARISTOTLE**- Species are identical, can be arrange hierarchically. **AD 1749 \> GEORGES-LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE BUFFON-** as species change, they migrate to another environment resulting in their distribution. **1753 \> CAROLUS LINNAEUS-** Order in the diversity of life. Father of taxonomy. **1978 \> THOMAS MALTHUS**- believed that populations grow geometrically. **1809 \> JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARCK-** theory of inheritance of acquired traits and theory of use and disuse. **1830 \> CHARLES LYELL**- all changes in the environment are unform and gradual. **1859 \> CHARLES DARWIN**- decent modification, father of evolution. **1859 \> ALFRED RUSSEL WALLASE**- process of natural selection. **Lesson 5.** **1. Study of fossils**- fossil records, different traces or remains of an organism changed over time. **2.Biogeography**- the distribution of similar fossils of animals. - **Geographic distribution**- organisms from a prior geographic region that were closely related evolved in far apart geographic regions. - **Convergent Evolution**- organisms of different species evolved similarly and adapt to the same environment - **Divergent Evolution-** species with common ancestor grow increasingly divergent, eventually leading to speciation. **3. EMBRYOLOGY**- closely related organisms go through similar stages in the embryonic development. **4. MOLECULAR EVIDENCE**- all living things are said to be basically alike with each other. The fact that all living things have DNA and/or RNA affirms the evolutionary theory that all living things share a common ancestor. **5. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY**- study of anatomical features contributes to the understanding of the evolution of anatomical structures and the evolutionary relationships among organisms. - **HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE**- reveal organisms' common origin and reflect a common ancestry. - **ANALOGOUS STRUCTURE**- such as the wings of a bird and a bat, have the same function. - **VESTIGIAL STRUCTURE**- proof that physical structures evolve. **Lesson 6.** **Phylogeny-** evolutionary history of a group of organisms. Integrating anatomy and genetics also aids us in determining the evolutionary relationship between different organisms, helping us make scientifically sound phylogenetic trees. **Phylon** which means "tribe" **Genesis** which means "origin" **Phylogenic Tree**- diagrams that trace evolutionary relationships and connections among organisms. (like a map of evolutionary history). **Root**- ancestral lineage gave rise to all organism. **Branch point**- point where split occurs. **Basal Taxon**- lineage that evolved early from the root and remains unbranched. **Sister Taxa**- 2 lineages stem. **Polytomy**- more than two lineages. **Paraphyletic group**- refers to a group of organisms with similar characteristics. **Monophyletic group-** is also called clade, which shows one common ancestor **Polyphyletic group-** same ancient ancestors but not related at all in terms of their most recent ancestors. **Soft polytomy**- indicates more than two immediate descendants. **Lesson 7.** **Systematics-** study of biological diversity and the relationships among organisms. **Taxonomy**- describing, naming, and classifying species. - **taxis =** arrangement - **nomos =** method **Why do scientists classify living organisms?** - To determine the following: 1. Known and unknown species. 2. Defining characteristics of each species. 3. Relationships between these species. **Aristotle**- classified all animals, Historia animalium; Grouped creatures into hierarchy **CAROLUS LINNAEUS** Developed the: **Binomial system of Nomenclature**= scientific naming system **Linnaean system**= taxonomic classification system **Binomial Nomenclature**- unique name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms. **Binomial Nomenclature Rules:** - **The name should be in Latin.** - **The entire two-part name must be written in *italics* when typewritten or [underlined] when handwritten.** - **The genus name must begin with a capital letter.** - **The specific epithet is never capitalized.** **Domain Archaea: Kingdom Archaea-bacteria**- ancient bacteria, prokaryotes, unicellular, cells don't have peptidoglycan and mostly extremophiles. **Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista**- plant-like, animal-like and fungi-like organisms, eukaryotes, mostly unicellular; mostly aquatic. **Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi-** some are parasites, others are saprophytes**,** eukaryotes**,** mostly multicellular, form spores for reproduction, cell walls contain chitin. **Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae-** two major groups: Bryophytes and Tracheophytes, eukaryotes**,** Multicellular**,** has chlorophyll, autotrophs**,** Cells are enclosed by a rigid cell wall. **Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia-** Two major groups: Vertebrates and Invertebrates**,** Eukaryotes**,** Multicellular**,** Heterotrophs**,** Biggest kingdom in the living world. **21^st^ CENTURY** **Literature**- came from Latin word "litera" means "letters of the alphabet" **Poetry-** written in lines and characterized by elements of rhythm, sound, imagery, and form. Main purpose is to express feelings, thoughts and ideas. (Free verse, couplet, limerick, etc.) a. **Narrative poetry**- tells a story in narrative way such as characters, settings, etc. b. **Dramatic poetry**- emotionally feeling drama story. c. **Lyric poetry**- focuses on feelings rather than telling a story. Prose- natural flows of speech and grammatical structure. a. **Fiction**- imaginations and creativity. b. **Non-fiction**- inspired by real life events. **Genre**- distinctive type or category of literary composition. **Literary elements**- the essential components that make up a piece of literature, such as plot, setting, and character. **Traditions**- specific traits of literary works define a generation or period in history. **Persuasive Writing**- (apologias and polemics), essays and essay collections; promotional writing (brochures, pamphlets, press releases, advertorials, etc.) **Academic Texts**- (scholarly papers including scientific papers, monographs, scientific journals, treatises, edited volumes, conference proceedings, etc.) **Context-** is the overall set-up of a story based on the contributing factors like setting (time and place), situations or events. **Writer's context**- It is the idea of the author as he/she writes the story based on his/her beliefs, experiences in life, and personal background. (writer's world) **Reader's context**- It is the perception/ interpretation of the reader on the story based on his/her personal experiences and knowledge. (reader's world) **Text's context-** It is the overall idea of the text; if it just discusses a certain topic or it is a representation of the author's experiences in life. Simply put, this is what the text is all about. **Social context**- It features the society in which the characters live and in which the author\'s text was produced. Simply put, it is the world where the story is based. **Symbolisms-** words representing the actual things we are pertaining to. They could be used in poetry and stories **Imagery**- is used to create a picture in the reader\'s mind through words which appeal to the senses **Visual imagery**- produced by the use of words that appeal to the sense of sight. **Auditory Imagery**- produced by the use of words that appeal to the sense of hearing. **Kinesthetic imagery**- produced by the use of words that appeal to the actions and movement. **Figures of speech**- are flowery words used to compare and represent a person, place, thing, animal, and events **Simile**- (indirect comparison) Ex. You are as beautiful as a goddess. **Metaphor**- (direct comparison) Ex. You are a snake. (traitor) **Personification**- (using action words for nonliving things) Ex. The wind is blowing. **Onomatopoeia**- (use of sounds to express something) Ex. broom\...broom... **Apostrophe**- (talking to someone who cannot respond in reality) Ex. Are you there, God? **Oxymoron**- (using two contradicting words to describe something) Ex. beautiful disaster **Figure of speech**- figurative language in the form of a single word or phrase. It can be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words. **Apostrophe**- a direct address to the dead, to the absent, or to a personified object or idea. This figure is a special form of Personification. **Hyperbole**- a statement is made emphatic by overstatement. Ex: "I've told you a million times" **Euphemism-** a mild word used to replace one that is thought to be too harsh. Ex. "She passed away last year." **Oxymoron**- a special form of Antithesis, whereby two contradictory qualities are predicted at once of the same thing. Ex: \"I am busy doing nothing.\" **Metonymy**- (literally, a change of name), an object is designated to be the name of something else which is generally associated with it. Ex: The Crown, for the King **Litotes**- an affirmative is conveyed by negation of the opposite, the effect being to suggest a strong expression by means of a weaker. It is the opposite of Hyperbole. Ex: The man is *no fool* (=very clever). **Illustrated** **Novel**- a story or narrative told through words complemented by illustrated images. **Digi-Fiction**- also called Triple Media Literature. It uses the combination of three media: book, movie/video, and internet website to tell a narrative, so readers must engage in navigating, reading. **Graphic** **novels**- are narratives told in comic-strip formats and published as a book. **Manga**- the Japanese word for comics. It is used in the English-speaking world as a generic term for all comic books and graphic novels originally published in Japan. **Doodle fiction**- literary presentation where the author incorporates doodle writing, drawings, and handwritten graphics in place of the traditional font. **Text-talk fiction-** stories told almost entirely in dialogue simulating social network exchanges. **Chick Lit**- an often humorous and lighthearted fiction which addresses issues of modern womanhood. **Flash Fiction**- a story narrated in an extremely brief way, but still offers plot and character development and implies a larger story. **Science fiction**- deals with imaginative concepts such as futuristic science and technology, space travel, time travel, faster than light travel, a parallel universe and extraterrestrial life. **Blog**- website containing short articles called posts that are updated regularly. Some blogs are written by one person containing his or her own opinions. **Hyper blog**- poetry that is available in webpage which takes advantage of hyperlinks. **Mind mapping**- graphical technique to visualize connections of ideas. **Mobile phone textula**- traditional Filipino poem. Tanaga that consist 4 lines with 7 syllables each. **Slideshow presentation**- PPT **Tag cloud**- stylized creation of words. **Video**- electronic device used to record. **Anecdotes**- a short amusing or interesting stories about a real incident. 1. **To bring cheer.** 2. **To reminisce.** 3. **To caution.** 4. **To persuade or inspire.** **Nature of literature-** can be either form of oral and written. **PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT** **5 AREAS OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT** **Physiological**- refers to physical changes in the senses and changes is movement. **Emotional-** something to do with your feelings that you experience. **Social**- relationship with others or to connect. **Cognitive**- refers to persons intellectual abilities shown in her thoughts, values, and beliefs. **Spiritual-** discovering oneself beyond the ego known as soul, spirit or the inner essence. **Ideal self**- the self that you aspire to be. **Actual self**- the one that you actually see. **Self -- Concept**- refers to your self-awareness. (Combination of actual self/present to your ideal self/future) **Self-knowledge**- social interactions that provide insight into how others react to you. **Self-image**- actual self can be seen by others but because we have no way of truly know how others view us, the actual self is our self-image. **Personal effectiveness**- making us all personal resources (talent, skills, energy, and time to achieve goals) **Johari's Window-** one great way of assessing the self and know how much the individual knows the self is by asking the people around them. **Adolescence**- a period of transition when the individual changes---physically and psychologically---from a child to an adult. It is a period when rapid physiological and psychological changes demand new social roles to take place. **ENTREPRENEUR** **Entrepreneur-** was derived from the French verb enterprendre, which means "to undertake". This is pinpointing to those who" undertake" the risk of enterprise. is the process of establishing a new business in a creative manner along with the ability to take risk, to make a profit, and absorb the **"entrepreneurial spirit."** **Competency-** the mixture of knowledge, skills, and attitude required to perform the entrepreneurial functions to attain the organizational success. **Knowledge** can be gained through attending quality trainings. **Skills** can be developed by executing it from the facts you have learned in the trainings. **Attitude** is the powerful weapon to perform all the activities to meet the institution's goal. **Common competency**- the one that describes the KAS (knowledge, skills, and attitude) present in all entrepreneur. **Core competency**- the ability for you to be competitive in the entrepreneurial world. **Value Proposition**- a business or marketing statement that summarizes why a consumer should buy a company\'s product or use its service. **Unique selling proposition**- refers to how you sell your product or services to your customer. You will address the wants and desires of your customers. **Unique Value Proposition and Value Proposition** - are two most famous tools used to explain why prospect customers buy each product and services. Based on each definition, we learn that USP and VP are frameworks of each business industry. The two propositions are valuable for the entrepreneurs. **Market Targeting**- a sage in market identification process that aims to determine the buyers with common needs and characteristics. Prospect customers are market segment that entrepreneurial venture intends to serve. 1**. Geographic segmentation** -- the total market is divided according to geographical location. Variables to consider: a\. Climate b\. Dominant ethnic group c\. Culture d\. Density (either rural or urban) 2\. **Demographic Segmentation** -- divided based consumers. Variables to consider: a\. Gender e. Education b\. Age f. Religion c\. Income g. Ethnic group d\. Occupation h. Family size 3\. **Psychological Segmentation**- divided in terms for customers think and believe. Variables to consider: a\. Needs and wants f. Brand concept b\. Attitudes g. Lifestyle c\. social class d\. Personality traits e\. Knowledge and awareness 4\. **Behavioral Segmentation**- divided according to customers behavior pattern as they interact with a company. Variables to consider: a\. Perceptions d. Benefits b\. Knowledge e. Loyalty c\. Reaction f. Responses **Customer Requirements**- are the specific characteristics that the customers need from a product or a service. **Service requirement**- intangible thing or product that is not able to be touched but customer can feel the fulfillment. **Output requirement**- tangible things or things that can be seen. Characteristic specifications that a consumer expects to be fulfilled in the product. **Market size**- like a size of arena where the entrepreneurs will play their business. **Service Business**- this type of business offers professional skills, advice and consultations. **Merchandising Business**- this type of business buys at wholesale and later sells the products at retail. They make a profit by selling the merchandise or products at prices that are higher than their purchase costs. **Manufacturing Business**- this type of business buys raw materials and uses them in making a new product, therefore combining raw materials, labor and expenses into a product for sale later on. **Franchising**- a business arrangement wherein the franchisor, who is the owner of the business, acquires distribution centers through the franchisees or the affiliated dealers. - **Dealerships** -- an establishment authorized to buy and sell specific goods, especially motor vehicles. A business that has the right to sell a company\'s products in a particular area using the company\'s name: a Toyota dealership. - **Direct selling** - Direct selling is the selling of products in a non-retail setting, for example, at home, online, or other venues that are not a store. It eliminates middlemen who are involved in distribution, such as wholesalers and regional distribution centers. - **Distributorship** -- a franchise granted by a manufacturer or company to market its goods especially at wholesale in a particular area. **Marketing mix**- set of controllable and connected variables that a company gather to satisfy a customer better than its competitor. **1. Product**- refers to any goods or services that are produced to meet the consumers' wants, tastes and preferences. **Goods**- can be categorized into business goods or consumer goods. **2. Place**- it represents the location where buyer and seller exchange goods or services. It also called as the distribution channel. **3. Price**- serious component of marketing mix. **Penetration pricing**- it is when the price charged for products and services is set artificially low in order to gain market share. **4. Promotion**- it refers to complete set of activities which communicate the product, brand or service to the user. **5. People**- your team, a staff that makes it happen to you. **6. Packaging**- outside appearance of a product. **7. Positioning**- it creates image in the minds of the target market. **Brand name-** is a name, symbol or other future that distinguishes seller's good or services in the marketplace. **Brand strategy-** is a long-term design for the development of a popular brand in order to achieve the goals and objectives. **Branding-** is a powerful and sustainable high-level marketing strategy used to create or influence a brand. **1. Purpose**- every brand makes a promise. But in a market in which customer confidence is little and budgetary observance being great, it's not just making a promise that separates one brand from another, but having a significant purpose. 1. **Functional**- focuses on the assessments of success in term of fast and profitable reasons. 2. **Intentional**- focuses on fulfillment as it relates to the capability to generate money and do well in the world. **2. Consistency**- avoid things that don't relate to or improve your brand. **3. Emotion**- This means you allow the customers have chance to feel that they are part of your brand. **4. Flexibility**- allows you to adjust and differentiate your approach from your competition. **5. Employee Involvement**- It is equally important for your employees to be well versed in how they communicate with customers and represent the brand of your product. **6.** **Loyalty-** the emphasis on a positive relationship between you and your existing customers sets the tone for what potential customers can expect from doing business with you. **7. Competitive Awareness**- do not be frightened of competition. Take it as a challenge to improve your branding strategy and craft a better value in your brand. **Business model**- describes the reasons of how an organization creates, delivers, and captures value in economic, social, cultural or other contexts. **Business plan-** is an important tool for you to have an idea about the future of your business. The following are the components found in a Business Plan: 1. **Introduction**- this part discusses what is the business plan all about. 2. **Executive Summary**- is part of the business plan which is the first to be presented but the last to be made. 3. **Management Section**- shows how you will manage your business and the people you need to help you in your operations. 4. **Marketing Section**- shows the design of your product/service; pricing, where you will sell and how you will introduce your product/service to your market. 5. **Financial Section**- shows the money needed for the business, how much you will take in and how much you will pay out. 6. **Production Section**- shows the area, equipment and materials needed for the business. 7. **Competitive Analysis**- is the strategy where you identify major competitors and research their products, sales and marketing strategies. 8. **Market**- The persons who will buy the product or services 9. **Organizational chart**- is the diagram showing graphically the relation of one official to another, or others of a company. Guidelines for successful business plan implementation: - **Objectives**- the entrepreneur should have a clear idea on what is his purpose of putting up his enterprise. - **Tasks**- this means that the entrepreneur must know what the tasks are he has to perform in order that his objectives will be realized. - **Time allocation**- This means that the entrepreneur should have a timetable or a schedule to follow every task, so that it will be accomplish on time and realize his objective. - **Progress**- This means that the entrepreneur should monitor the development of the tasks and the accomplishment of the objective. SOURCES OF OPPORTUNITIES: **1.** **Changes in environment**- entrepreneurial ideas arise when changes happen in the external environment **External environment**- refers to the physical environment, societal environment, and industry environment where the business operates. **2.** **Technological discovery and advancement-** person with entrepreneurial interest sees possibility of business opportunities in any new discovery or because of the use of latest technology.\\ **3. Government's thrust, programs, and policies-** priorities, projects, programs, and policies of the government are also good sources of ideas. **4. People's interest-** interest, hobbies, and preferences of people are rich source of entrepreneurial ideas. **5. Past experiences-** expertise and skills developed by a person who has worked in a particular field may lead to the opening of related business enterprise. **Buyers-** are the one that pays cash in exchange to your goods and services. **Potential New Entrants-** defined as the one who enters something.** ** **Rivalry among Existing Firms-** a state or situation in which people or groups are competing with each other. **Substitute Products**- means anything that takes the place or function of another. **Suppliers**- are the one that provide something that is needed or wanted. **Four M's of production, namely Manpower, Method, Machine, and Materials:** **Man Power**- talks about human labor force involved in the manufacture of products. **Methods**- discusses the process or way of transforming raw materials to finished products. **Machine**- discusses about manufacturing equipment used in the production of goods or delivery of services. **Materials**- talks about raw materials necessary in the production of a product. Materials mainly form part of the finished product. **Product Description**- know who your target market is, focus on the product benefits, tell the full story, use natural language and tone, use power words that sell, and use good images. **Prototype**- duplication of a product as it will be produced, which may contain such details as color, graphics, packaging and directions. **Suppliers-** your business partners, without them your business will not live. You need them as much as you need your customers to be satisfied. **Potential supplier**- has loyalty and value your partnership; a supplier that would lead you to the fulfillment of your business objectives, mission and vision. **PHYSICAL EDUCATION 2** **Dance-** expressive art form that communicates ideas through movement. It allows people to be more active, socialize within local communities, and develop creative skills. **1400 Ballet**- started in Italy. Gained its popularity when the lady of the arts, Catherine de Medeci... **1950 Contemporary Dance**- style that contributes jazz, ballet, and modern dance. **Douglass Nierras**- artistic director and choreographer of power dance. **1970 HipHop Dance-** originated from African tribe dances. **Folk dance**- celebrated worldwide with people of different cultures and religions using various forms of folk dance to portray emotions, stories, historical events or even aspects of daily life. **Ballroom dance-** a type of partner dance originating at the end of the sixteenth century in France. Commonly used as shorthand for any partner dance, ballroom has today evolved into two main subgenres-standard/smooth and Latin/rhythm. **2018 Dance Nowadays**- more hip-hop dances.