RDC 261 Agricultural Operations 2 PDF

UNIT- 1 CONCEPTS OF AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS Introduction- ‘Agriculture is an activity of man primarily aimed at the production of food, fibre, fuel etc. by optimum utilization of terrestrial resources.’ It is the art of the cultivation of crops and rearing of useful livestock. Th...

UNIT- 1 CONCEPTS OF AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS Introduction- ‘Agriculture is an activity of man primarily aimed at the production of food, fibre, fuel etc. by optimum utilization of terrestrial resources.’ It is the art of the cultivation of crops and rearing of useful livestock. The agricultural produce include cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fibers, fodders, fruits, flowers, vegetables, medicinal and aromatics plants and sugar crops etc. Agricultural sciences cover crop production (Agronomy), Horticulture (fruits and vegetables), Floriculture (Flower), Arboriculture (trees), Soil Sciences, Plant Pathology, Entomology (insects), Animal Husbandry (Veterinary), Dairying, Fisheries, Nematology (small insects), Biochemistry, Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Economics, Microbiology, Biotechnology, Agro forestry, Genetics and Plant Breading, Extension, Meteorology, Seed Technology etc. Importance of Agriculture: 1 India is mainly an agrarian country. Over 75% of its population depends for their livelihood directly or indirectly, upon agriculture. 1. It helps in solving the food problem of the country. 2. It provides maximum opportunity for employment. 3. It supplements raw materials for other industries like, textiles, sugar, pharmaceuticals, oil mills, tyre, etc. 4. It increases the national income. 5. It supports various enterprises like Dairy, Poultry, etc. 6. It springs to feed urban areas of the country. 7. It is a source of foreign currency to the country. 8. It contributes towards national progress. 9. It is helpful in raising social status. 10. It reduces social disparity. 11. It increases the feeling of cooperation. 12. The agricultural produces are used as barter system in villages for exchange of commodities in place of money. Salient Features of Modern Agriculture: - 2 1. Farming is an industry of small and permanent nature. 2. It is an integration of home and business. 3. Farming is nature lover’s job. 4. Farming is a healthy activity. 5. The working hours are variable. 6. Lack of farmer’s control over production. 7. Difficulty in finance. 8. Hazardous nature of farming. It is prone to the vagaries of nature.  9. Dual function of management and ownership with farmer. 10. Lack of proper marketing facilities and standardization of farm produce. 11. Irregular income (Once or twice in a year). 12. Professional training of many farm operations is limited. 13. Fluctuation of prices of farm produce. 14. Farm duties are variable. 15. Perishable products. Some Problems Associated with Indian Agriculture:-  Smaller and fragmented land holding by the farmers.  Traditional practice of agriculture.  Scarcity of chemical fertilizers.  Poor condition of cattle.  Lack of good quality seeds.  Lack of irrigational facilities.  Natural calamities.  Shrinking of agriculture land due to urbanization and industrialization.  Farm duties are variable.  Perishable products.  Indebtedness, illiteracy, skeptics of farmers.  Lack of modern agricultural instruments.  Defective practices.  Lack of plant protection chemicals, viz., fungicides, insecticides and herbicides etc.  Dependence on monsoon.  Difficulties in marketing of the farm produce. Farming Systems:- System of farming implies the method of agriculture and the type of land ownership. These are as follows:- Peasant Farming: Farmer is master of his land. He cultivates his land himself with the help of his family members. State Farming: In this system, the land and other assets are owned by the Government and workers work as government employees and get all benefits as government servants. Capitalistic Farming: In this system, the land, livestock, and all other assets are owned by landlords or factories. The workers work as paid employees of the landlords and get their wages. Collective Farming: In this system, the member farmers collectively give their land, livestock and dead stock to the society. They work together at the direction of an elected managing committee. The payment is made on the basis of work day units and the property, land and animals etc. of individual members. An unskilled labour has to do works for more than the skilled labour to complete workday unit. Cooperative Farming:- In cooperative farming the members of the society collect their lands voluntarily and manage it jointly under a democratic constitution. Types: Cooperative Better Farming Cooperative Joint Farming Cooperative Tenant Farming Cooperative Collective Farming 3.Crop Rotation: It is the process of growing different crops on the same land in a pre- planned succession. It may be a one year, two years, or even three years rotation, depending upon the crops and climatic conditions of the region, where these crops are to be grown e.g. Rice – Wheat Rice – Chickpea Maize – Chickpea Rice – Wheat – Green manure Maize – Potato – Wheat. Principles of Crop Rotation: 1. A crop of tap roots plants should be followed by a crop with adventitious root plants. 2. Leguminous crops should be grown after non-leguminous crops. 3 More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops. 4 Selection of crops should be based on demand. 5 Crop of the same family should not be grown in succession because they act like alternate host for many insects, pests and diseases. 6 An ideal crop rotation provides maximum employment to the farm labour and his family, the machines and equipments are efficiently used and all agricultural operations are conducted timely. It helps to maintain the productivity of the soil. Rotational Crop Intensity (RCI) = Number of crops grown in a rotation x 100 Duration of rotation Example: Maize – Wheat – Potato – Moong (First year) Moong – Potato – Maize (Second year) RCI = 7/2x100 = 350% Cropping Scheme: It is a plan according to which various crops are grown on particular plots of a farm, within a given period of time with the object of obtaining Principles of Cropping Scheme: 1. Lay-out of Farm – A proportionate area of land should be allocated in a building for a lay- out e.g. Farm up to 50 hectares : 8-10% ; more than 50 hectares.: 4.5%; 2. Area of plots: - The area of individual plots should be equal. 3. Number of plots – The number of plots should be equal to the duration of rotation, or a multiple of that e. g.if the total duration of rotation in a cropping scheme is 4 years, the number of plots must be 4, 8, 12, or 16 etc. 4. Selection of crops – Should be on the basis of the situation and location of the farm. e.g. Near City - Vegetables on more than 50% of the area. Sugar Industry - Sugarcane on 60% of the area.  Dairy farm - Fodders, Oilseeds & Pulses on 10% of the area. 5. Facilities available – Crop should be selected on the basis of availability of electricity irrigation facility, input, labour, markets etc. 6. Main crop– Assemblage of cultivated plants, especially cereals in the fields. One which is planted at it optimum. Sole crop is used to refer to either of the individual crops 7. Companion crop- Subsidiary crops grown in association with the main crop. Cropping Sequence – Growing of two or more crops in a sequence on the same field in a year. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested. Ratoon Cropping – The cultivation of crop’s re-growth after its harvest (e.g. Sugarcane). Allelopathy – Allelopathy refers to any direct or indirect harmful effect of one plant on another through the production of chemicals. (allelochemicals), that escapes into the environment. Or Release of chemicals by a plant that inhibits the growth of nearby plants, thereby reducing the competition. Dry farming: The practice of growing crops in dry areas having low rainfall and no irrigational facilities. It is the system of tillage practices in dry region. The surface soil is always kept loose so as to reduce evaporation and return the scanty rain water present therein. Rain fed farming – Growing of full crops solely with the rain water received during the crop season. Usually rainfall is about 800 mm. under humid and sub- humid climate and the crops may experience little or no moisture stress during their life cycle. Organic Farming- Organic Farming is a system, in which the use of chemicals such as synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides is reduced to a minimum and the biological potential of the soil and under ground water resources are conserved and protected from natural and human induced degradation or depletion. It adopts suitable cropping models like agro- forestry and methods of organic replenishment. Objectives: 1. To produce food of high quality in sufficient quantity. 2. To work in harmony with the natural systems. 3. To maintain the genetic bio-diversity of the production system. 4. To promote sustainable use of natural resources. A. Nutrient Management:- It is done by applying the FYM (Farm Yard Manure), poultry manure, vermi-compost, green manure, crop residue and bio fertilizers such as Rhizobium Cyanobacteria, Azotobacter, Azospirillum etc. into the crop fields. B. Weeds Control: – It is achieved by- (a) Soil cultivation using mechanical hoes and harrows. (b) Flushing out germinating weed seeds. (c) Preparation of seed beds in dark. (d) Mulching. (e) Solarization. C. Pest Control: - ‘prevention is better than cure’. (a) Crop species, variety in choice and temporal and spatial pattern of crop rotation. (b) Inter cropping of white dove with cereals to reduce attack of aphids.  (c) Planting a strip of alfalfa in cotton field to control cotton pest. (d) Biological control agents like Bacillus thuringiensis as biopesticides against lepidopteron pest. D. Disease control – Cultural techniques like use of insect/disease resistant varieties produced by conventional breeding methods or genetic engineering helps in reducing the use of chemical pesticides and fungicides. CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS: 1. Based on season. 2. Economic classification. 3. Botanical classification. 4. Based to life period or age. 5. Based on nature of the soil and plants. 6. Based on their specific use. 1. BASED ON SEASON : (i) Kharif (July - October) - Paddy, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Arhar, Urd. (ii) Rabi (November - February) - Wheat, Barley, Gram, Pea, Masoor, Mustard, Sunflower, Berseem. (iii) Zaid (March - June) - Muskmelon, Bottle-gourd, Pumpkin, Bitter-gourd, Water- melon, Ridge gourd. 2. ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION : (i) Cereals :Grains used for bread making purpose in diets, e g. Wheat, Barley, Paddy, Oats, Bajra , Maize, etc. (ii) Oilseeds: Provide oil when extracted, e.g., Linseed, Groundnut, Castor, Coconut, Sesame, Mustard, Taramira, Oil palm. (iii) Pulses: Seeds are a good source of protein. Produce is found in the form of pods e.g., Gram, Pea, Arhar, Tur, Masoor, Moong, Urd, Lobia, Soyabean. (iv) Fibre crops: It bears to long fibres e.g. Cotton, Jute, Sunhemp, Brown hemp. (v) Fodder crops: Food material for cattle e.g. Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Lucern, Berseem, Elephant grass, Napier grass, M.P. Chari etc. (vi) Cash crops: Provides more return to farmers e.g. Sugarcane, Potato, Tobacco, Sugar beet. (vii) Catch crop : To catch, dodge and divert the insects and protect the main crop e.g. Bhindi in Cotton. (viii) Cover crops: It covers the field to check erosion from water e.g. Moong. (ix) Plantation crops: e.g. Coffee, Cocoa, Rubber, Coconut. (x) Vegetables:  Root vegetables: Radish, Turnip, Carrot. Bulb crops: Onion, Garlic. Legumes: Pea, Beans. Salad: Lettuce, Celery, Parsley. Cole crops: Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knolkhol. Fruit vegetables: Tomato, Brinjal. Tuber: Potato. Leafy vegetables: Spinach, Fenugreek, Palak, Chaulai, etc. (xi) Fruit crops: e.g.Banana, Mango, Citrus, Grape, Guava, Papaya, Pineapple, Apple, Apricot, Peach, Pear. (xii) Medicinal and Aromatic: e.g. Isabgol, Opium, Poppy, Belladonna, Lemon grass, Cinomella, Palma rosa oil grass, Peppermint, Khus. (xiii) Ornamentals and beautiful flowers: e.g., Rose, Jasmine, Chrysanthamum, Orchids, Marigold, Cycas, Croton, Bougainvillea, Dahelia. (xiv) Condiments and spices: e.g., Ginger, Turmeric, Chillies, Pepper. 3. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION: Brassicaceae- Mustard, Rapeseed, Taramira. Malvaceae – Cotton, Lady's finger (Bhindi). Fabaceae - Pea, Moong, Gram, Lobia, Beans, Lentils, Ground nut. Cucurbitaceae - Pumpkin, Bottle gourd, Ridge gourd, Bitter gourd, Tinda. Solanaceae - Potato, Chillies, Tobacco. Poaceae- Rice, Maize, Wheat, Barley, Oats, Sugarcane. Apiaceae- Carrot, Coriander, Jeera. Asteraceae – Sunflower, Marigold. Convolvualaceae - Sweet potato. Liliaceae - Onion, Garlic. Zingiberaceae - Ginger, Turmeric. 4. BASED TO LIFE PERIOD or AGE- Seasonal - Plants of one season only (short duration) e.g., Paddy, Wheat. Annual - Plants of one year life cycle e.g. Sugarcane, Arhar. Biennial - Plants of two years life cycle e.g. Sugarbeet. Perennial - More than two years life cycle, e.g., fruit trees, fodders (Napier- grass, etc.) 5. ACCORDING TO NATURE OF THE SOIL AND PLANTS: 1. Size of seeds – Small - Mustard, Tomato, Chillies.. Medium - Wheat, Paddy, Barley. Large - Maize, Pea, Gram. 2. Depth of root - Shallow rooted - Paddy, Wheat. Deep rooted - Kans, Carrot, Mustard. 3. Nodules on roots- Leguminous - Pea, Arhar, Moong, Urd. Non- leguminous- Khus, Carrot, Mustard. 4. Soil texture and soil pH- Crops of heavy soil - Cotton, Tobacco. Loamy soil - All important crops. Sandy soil- Ccucurbits, Tarbooj, Kharbooj, Kakri. Usar soil - Sunflower. Acidic soil - Rai, Paddy. 5. Soil erosion – Moong. 6. Water requirement - Water logged – Paddy. More water requiring crops -Vegetables, Sugarcane. Average water requiring crops-Wheat. Less water requiring crops-: Mustard, Rapeseed, Bajra. Draught resistant- Bajra. 6. BASED ON SPECIFIC USE : i. Green manure – crops grown for organic manuring to the fields by using green parts – Moong, Sunhemp, Dhaincha etc. ii. Cover crop – crops grown for conserving the soil from rain water e.g. Moong. iii. Inter crops - crops grown to minimize the loss due to failure of main crop e.g. Moong. iv. Trap crops – crops grown to protect the main crop from the attack of insects by attracting and dodging the insects e.g. Bhindi grown around the Cotton crop. INDIA (SOME FACTS) : 1. Agricultural production accounts for 40% of total production. 2. 50 % of national income is obtained from agricultural production. 3. About 70 % population rely directly or indirectly on agriculture. 4. 56.7 % employment is provided by agriculture. 5. 32.88 crore hectares land is under agricultural purposes. 6. 46 % of the land is under agricultural operations whereas, 22.6 % of the land is under forest. 7. Agricultural produce accounts for 35 % of the total national export. 8 Workable holding area is 7.05 crore hectares. 9. Availability of per capita grain is only 416.2 grams per day and 151.9 kg. per year 10. 35.7% of total income of the country is obtained from agricultural produce; where as 64.3 % of this income is from non-agricultural produce. 11. India has 16%of world population and 2.5% of land resources. 12. India has 4% of world’s fresh water resources. 13. Agriculture sector in India uses 85% of country’s available fresh water. 14. Irrigation efficiency is only 20 to 50%. 15. Agriculture contributes 29.1% towards Gross Domestic Products (GDP). 16. In countries like USA, Australia, Brazil etc. each farmer on an average holds 1000 hectares of cultivated land against an average holding of 1.41 hectares in India. 17. India has a geographic area of 328.73 million hectares. 18. There was a record production of foodgrains of 220 million tonne during 2003-04. 19. By 2006, the population of the country is expected to rise to 1094.1 millionswith a growth rate of 1.55% ( IASRI-IARI,1998 ) Important Features of Xth Plan (Agriculture)- 1. Reduction in poverty ratio from the present 26% to 21% by the year 2007. 2. Increase in forest trees from 19% in 2000 to 25% in 2007. India has only 2%forest land of the world but it supports 16% of the world’s population. 3. Providing drinking water for all by cleaning and linking of major rivers. Agra District – Agricultural Data at a Glance 1. Geographical Area- 402759 2. Community Development Blocks - 15 3. Tehsils - 6  4 Gram Panchayats 637 5. Villages- 940 6. Area- (in Hectares) i. Net area sown 287000 ii. Area sown more than once 131000 iii Net irrigated area 236000 iv. Gross irrigated area 251000 7. Agricultural Production (Metric Tons) i. Food grains 584 ii Sugarcane 17 iii Oilseeds 106 iv. Potato 848 8. Sources of Irrigation- Source Area (hectare) Percent Tube well 213067 90.14 Canal 19323 8.18 Wells 3296 1.39 Ponds, lakes etc. 419 0.18 Others 271 0.11 Total 236376 100.00 9. Land Utilization- Area (Ha.) Percent of the Total Agricultural Land (%) Net area sown 287294 72.10 Area used other than agriculture 37659 9.46 Forest 45437 11.40 Cultural Barren land 2809 0.80 Saline not suitable for agriculture 5557 1.40 Present fallow land 11984 3.01 Other fallow land 6371 1.60 Pasture and grazing land 919 0.23 Total Agricultural Land 398460 100.00 1. Production of Major Crops in the District (2001-02)- Name of the Crop Production (Metric Tons) i Cereals:  Rice 2476 Wheat 407041 Barley 30727 Jowar 823 Bajra 120855 Maize 383 ---------------- Total 562305 ii Pulses: Urad 212 Moong 52 Masur 758 Gram 11703 Pea 912 Arhar 7615 Moth 3 --------------- Total 21255 iii Oilseeds: Mustard/Rapeseed 105039 Til 477 Ground- nut 5 Sunflower 11 -------------------- Total 105532 D. Other Crops: Sugar cane 17142 Potato 848426 Cotton 16 --------------- Total 865584  2. Area of Major Crops- Crop Area (Ha.) Percent of the Total Area (%) Wheat 133214 33.00 Bajra 107560 27.00 Barley 10264 3.00 Total Pulses 16768 4.00 Total Oilseeds 81293 20.00 Other Major Crops 28677 7.00 Potato 24047 6.00 Total 401833 100.00 Source: District Statistical Bulletin- 2003 UNIT-III NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT, MANURES AND FERTILIZERS Green plants obtain their nutrition from the soil and air in the form of inorganic ions synthesized carbohydrates through the unique biological process of photosynthesis. These photosynthetic through numerous biochemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes at ambient temperature produce a range of organic compounds required by the plants. Whereas most of the C and O ions are obtained from the air, the other elements are absorbed from soil by the roots. Inorganic Nutrients 4 Sixteen elements are essential for all the plants to grow and complete their life cycle. These are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Iron, Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum. Chlorine and Manganese. Of these, the first nine elements are required in comparatively large quantities and therefore called as Macro nutrients and the other seven are required in small quantities and classified as micro nutrients. Classification of Essential Elements:  Basic Nutrients Macro Nutrients Micro Nutrients Primary Secondary Carbon(C) Nitrogen(N) Calcium(Ca) Iron (Fe) Hydrogen(H) Phosphorus(P) Magnesium(Mg) Zinc(Zn) Oxygen(O) Potassium(K) Sulphur(S) Copper(Cu) Boron(B) Molybdenum(Mo) Chlorine(C1) Manganese(Mn) Role of Inorganic nutrients: 1. These nutrients act as basic constituents of plant body- C, H, O. 2. These are useful in energy storage, transfer and bonding – N, S, P. 3. These are necessary for charge balance – K, Ca, Mg, ( act as regulator and carrier). 4. These nutrients act as catalyzer and activator in enzyme activation, and electron transport - Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Mn, and Cl. Deficiency symptoms of nutrients- 5 Deficiency of inorganic ions in the soil can be to some extent identified by symptoms exhibited by the plant. Identification of deficiency symptoms of nutrients: The deficiency symptoms are distinguished on the basis of (i ) Region of occurrence (ii) Presence or absence of dead tissues (iii) Chlorosis of entire leaf or interveinal- chlorosis. The symptoms of deficiency three primary elements are as follows- Nitrogen- Plants have stunted growth, the stem is erect but lateral buds do not develop. Leaves become pale green in colour. Leaves make an acute angle with the main stem. Phosphorus- Growth of plants is severely restricted. They are thin, erect and spindly. The bluish green older leaves become bronzed or develop reddish brown or purple tints. Leaves may be shed prematurely. Flowering and fruiting may be delayed. Potassium- Plants have a stunted and bushy growth. Pale green older leaves develop chlorosis between veins and light grey to bronze reddish brown or brown colouration along the leaf apex and the apical margin. The leaf tip and apical margin of leaf become scorched and necrotic. Toxicity symptoms: when a nutrient is present in the soil in excess of plant’s requirement the nutrient is absorbed in higher amounts which causes imbalance of nutrients or disorder in physiological processes. Toxicity symptoms are less common. Nitrogen: Excess nitrogen causes delay in maturity and increases the succulancy. The adverse effects of excess nitrogen are lodging and abortion of flowers. Crops become susceptible to pest and diseases. Phosphorus: Excess phosphorus causes deficiency of Fe and Zn. In some crops like maize, leaves develop purple coloration and plant growth is stunted. In Cotton, leaves become dark green in color, maturity of bolls is delayed and stems turn red. Iron: Tiny brown spots appear on the lower leaves of rice starting from tips and spreading to lowered bases. Leaves usually remain green, in extreme case , the entire leaf turns purplish brown in color. Manganese: The plant is stunted and tillering is often limited. Brown spots develop on the veins of the leaf blade and leaf sheeth especially on lower leaves. Manganese toxicity occurs in low land rice. Boron: Chlorosis occurs at the tips of the older leaves, especially along the margins. Large, dark brown, elliptical spots appear subsequently. The leaves ultimately turn brown and dry up. NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT Organic Manures- It has been a regular practice to add chemical fertilizers into the soil to enrich it with essential nutrients, more particularly NPK. Of late it has been realized that application of inorganic fertilizers causes soil infertility due to accumulation of salts. Therefore, the use of organic fertilizers such as manure, compost, green manure, vermi-compost and bio-fertilizers is now preferred. This practice is also a part of organic farming. 1.Farm Yard Manure: Decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with the litter and leftover materials from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle. FYM contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P and 0.5% K respectively. 2.Compost: A mass of rotted organic matter made from waste is called compost. The compost is made from farm waste like sugarcane trash, paddy straw, weeds and other plants. Compost contains 0.5% N, 0.15% P and 0.5% K respectively. 3.Green Manure: Green un-decomposed plant materials used as manure is called green manure. It is formed in two ways: (1) by growing green manure crops, and (2) by collecting green leaves from plants grown in waste lands. Green manure crops mostly belonging to Pea family such as Dhaincha ,Clusterbean and Sesbania, are grown in the field and incorporated in the field after sufficient growth. Sesbania rostrata is a stem nodulating green manure plant. Green manure contains 2-3%N, 0.5%P and 2%K respectively.. 4.Vermi-composting:Vermi-composting is the use of earthworms for composting organic residue. It is estimated that 1000 tons of waste organic matter can be converted by earthworms into300tons of vermi-compost. Earthworms weighing about 0.5-.06Kg consume large quantities of organic matter and excrete soil as casts. The weight of the material passing through the body each day is almost equal to the weight of the earthworm. The casts of earthworms have several enzymes and is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, calcium and magnesium and also in bacterial and Actinomycetes population and Mycorrhiza.  Vermi-composting is made in small pits of suitable size. 2 M x 1M x 0.5 M in a shady area in farm. The different waste materials available in the farm like cow dung, plant residues weeds etc. are placed in the pit layer wise and soil is added for each layer. Earthworms are released for each layer and water is applied. Compost is ready within 35-40 days. Advantages of Vermi- composting : 1. Vermi-compost is a rich mixture of major , micro nutrients containing 3%N, 1%P and 1.5% K. 2. It is excellent base for the establishment of beneficial free living and symbiotic microbes, as it increases total microbial population of nitrogen fixing bacteria and Actinomycetes. 3. The symbiotic Mycorrhiza on plant root system increases the VAM propagules survival up to 11 months on earthworm casts. 4. Increased microbial activity also improves the availability of soil phosphorus and nitrogen. 5. A number of plant growth promoters are observed in earthworm’s casts. 6. Quick response can be obtained. 7. Helps in aerating the soil. Role of Earth Worms in Vermi- Composting: Earth worms help in the preparation of compost and maintaining soil health as follows: 1. Improvement in soil fertility 2. Amelioration of physical condition of soil 3. Mixing of sub soil and top soil 4. Correction of undetermined deficiencies in plants 5. In re-cycling of city and rural wastes, sewage waste, waste water, sludge, and industrial waste e.g. paper, food and wood industry. 6. Supplementing traditional feed 7. Used in Unani system of medicine for treatment of certain diseases. Bio-fertilizers The atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen that can not be utilized by most of the plants. However, some free-living, saprophytic and symbiotic microorganisms in the soil can fix atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plants. Some soil-borne fungi and bacteria can also enhance the availability of phosphorus to the plants by solubalizing the insoluble phosphates in the soil. Some of these micro-organisms are being used as biofertilizers which are cost effective and considered eco-friendly. Some of the nitrogen fixing microorganisms in use as biofertilizers are: Rhizobium (symbiotic bacteria), Azotobacter (free-living soil bacteria) and Anabaena and Nostoc (nitrogen fixing blue green algae). The fungi that colonize the roots of plants are called Mycorrhiza. VAM(Vasicular-Arbuscular mycorrhiza) fungi provide significant benefits to the plants. Their hyphae extend into the soil away from roots and greatly increase the potential for the absorption of water and uptake of phosphorus and other nutrients by the plants. Example Gigaspora rosea. Advantages and disadvantages of Organic and Inorganic/ Chemical Fertilizers 6 Organic Manures Chemical Fertilizers 1. Provide all three Primary essential Provide only one or two primary essential elements i. e. N, P and K. elements i. e. N, P, K or N+P, N+K etc. 2. Suitable for all types of land. Not suitable for all types of land. 3. Improve the physical condition of the Do not improve physical condition of soils. soils. 4. Checks soil erosion. Do not check soil erosion. 5. Improve water holding capacity of soil. Do not improve water holding capacity of soil. 6. Reduce the evaporation of soil water. Do not reduce evaporation of soil water. 7. Provide micro elements also. Do not provide micro elements. 8. Amount of essential elements available Comparably large amount of available in very little quantity. essential elements. 9. Should be applied well before 2 Can be applied before sowing, at the time months, at least a fortnight before sowing of sowing and after sowing activity. activity. 10. Can not be applied in standing crops. Can be applied in standing crops specially N2 in installments. 11. Can not be applied in the form of Can be applied as foliar application, in liquid/solution. liquid form. 12. Required to be thoroughly mixed into Can be applied as localized placement top the soil after broadcasting it. dressing or basal dressing. 13. Do not require any king of technical Require technical know how of the knowledge. fertilizers and their application effects etc. 14. Farmers can prepare into their own. Can be synthesized in fertilizer factories Fields. Only. 15. Economical. Costly. 16. Transportation cost is more. Transportation cost is very less. 17. Its impact in the fields remain up to 2-3 Repeatedly application after each crop years. even after 4 months. 18. By its continuous application the By its continuous application soils become conditions are improved. either acidic or alkaline. 19. Provide organic matter to the soil. Do not provide organic matter to the soil. Average Nutrient Contents of Organic Manures- Organic manures Percentage N P2O5 K20 A. Bulky Organic Manures Farm Yard Manure (dry) 0.4-1.5 0.3-0.9 0.3-1.9 Urban Compost (dry) 0.7-2.0 0.9-3.0 1.0-2.0 Sewage Sludge (dry) 2.0-3.5 1.0-5.0 0.5-0.7 B.Green Manures: Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeate) 0.62 - - Moong (Phaseolus acureas) 0.72 0.18 0.53 Sunhemp (Crotaleria juncea) 0.75 0.12 0.51 C. Concentrated Organic Manure Oil Cakes: Neem Mustard 5.2 1.8 1.2 Mahua Cake 2.5 0.8 1.2 Ground Nut Cake 7.3 1.5 1.3 Cotton seed cake (Decorticated) 6.4 2.9 2.2 Cotton seed cake (Un Decorticated) 3.9 1.8 1.6 Comparison between F.Y.M, Compost and Vermi Compost: Particulars F.Y.M. Compost Vermi- Compost 1. Time required for preparation 6 Months 4 Months 2 Months 2. Amount of available nutrients Nitrogen 0.3 – 0.5% 0.5 - 1% 1.2 – 1.6% Phosphorus 0.4 – 0.6% 0.5 – 0.9% 1.5 – 1.8% Potash 0.4 – 0.5% 10% 1.2 – 2% 3. Number of beneficial Micro Very few Lesser Very Much organism 4. Requirement /Acre i) General Crop 4 tons 4 tons 1.5 tons ii) Medical Crops 8 tons 8 tons 3.0 tons 5. Expenditure for weed control Too Much Relatively Nil. low Fertilizers:- Fertilizers are industrially manufactured chemicals containing plant nutrients. Nutrient content is higher in fertilizers than inorganic manures and nutrients are released almost immediately. Classification of Fertilizers: A.On the basis of nutrients 1.Straight Fertilizers: Straight Fertilizers are those which supply only one primary plant nutrient namely nitrogen or phosphorus or potassium. e.g.Urea, Ammonium Chloride, Potassium Chloride, Potassium Sulphate. i. Nitrogenous Fertilizers: The fertilizers containing nitrogen are called nitrogenous fertilizers e.g. Urea, Ammonium Sulphate , Calcium Ammonium Nitrate etc. ii Phosphatic Fertilizers:- The fertilizers containing phosphorus content (P) are called Phosphatic fertilizers e.g. Super Phosphate, Basic Slag, Rock Phosphate, Bone Meal etc. iii.. Potassic Fertilizers: The fertilizers containing potassium (K) are called Potassic- fertilizers e.g.Potassium Chloride or Muriate of Potash, Potassium Sulphate. 2 Compound or Complex Fertilizers:- These fertilizers contain two primary nutrients in fixed proportion. Di -Ammonium Phosphate, Nitro phosphate, Potassium Nitrate.  3.Mixed Fertilizers:- These are the physical mixtures of two or more straight fertilizers in desired proportion and contain two or three primary plant nutrients. B. On the basis of Physical Form of the fertilizers: i) Solid Fertilizers :- Fertilizers found in solid e.g. powder, granule, crystal pill. ii) Liquid Fertilizers :- Fertilizers in liquid form for applying with irrigation water. C. On the basis of Concentration of Primary nutrients: i) Low Grade Fertilizers: which contain less then 25% of primary nutrients e.g. Super Phosphate, Sodium nitrate. ii) High Grade Fertilizers:- which contain more than 25% of Primary nutrients e.g.Urea,Di- Ammonium Phosphates. D. On the basis of Acidity and Basicity of Fertilizers:- i) Acid forming Fertilizers:- Fertilizers leaving acid residues in the soil eg. Urea, Ammonium Sulphate, Ammonium Chloride ii) Alkaline forming Fertilizers / Basic Fertilizers:- Fertilizers leaving basic residues in the soil e.g. Calcium Cyanide, Di- calcium Phosphate. Percentage Nutrient Contents in commonly used Chemical Fertilizers Particulars Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash (N2) (P205) (K2O) A. Straight Fertilizers i) Nitrogenous Fertilizers- Urea 46.4 - - Ammonium Sulphate 20.5 - - Calcium Ammonium Nitrate 25.0 - - Ammonium Nitrate 33.0 - - Calcium Cyanide 21.0 - - Ammonium Chloride 25.0 - - ii) Phosphatic Fertilizers- Single Super Phosphate - 16.1 - Double Super Phosphate - 32.0 - Triple Super phosphate - 48.0 - Ammonium Phosphate 20.0 20.0 - Rock Phosphate - 20-40 - Basic Slag - 14-18 - Di Calcium Phosphate - 34-39 - iii) Potassic Fertilizers- Potassium Chloride or Muriate of Potash - - 58-60 Potassium Sulphate - - 48-50 B Compound Fertilizers Mono ammonium Phosphate 11 - 48 Di Ammonium Phosphate 21 - 54 Nitro Phosphate (Suphala) 20 20 2 Potassium Nitrate 11 - 60 C. Mixed Fertilizers NPK Mixture 4 8 4 NPK Mixture 5 5 5 NPK Mixture 10 10 10 Method of Fertilizers Applications: 1. Broadcasting: Application of fertilizers uniformly on the soil surface is known as broadcasting. 2. Band Placement: Application of fertilizers in narrow bands beneath and by side of the crop row is known as band placement. 3. Sub-soil Placement: Placement of fertilizers in the sub-soil with the help of high power machinery. 4. Fertigation: Application of fertilizers with irrigation water. It is generally followed with drip irrigation. 5. Foliar Spray: Application of fertilizers to foliage of the crop as spray solution. 6. Basal Application: Application of fertilizers before or at the time of sowing is known as basal application. Partial dose of nitrogen, full doses of phosphorus and potassium are provided into the soil along with sowing of the seeds. 7. Top Dressing: Application of fertilizers in the standing crops is known as top dressing e.g. spreading of nitrogenous fertilizer ( Urea) in standing crops in two installments at the interval of three weeks of sowing. Balanced fertilization: It refers to application of N, P, K nutrients to the soil in quantities to bring the balance in nutrients in the soil to meet the requirement of any specific crop. e. g. for Wheat and Paddy crops recommended dose of N,P,K is 120Kg: 60Kg: 60Kg. per hectare.Diseases caused by viruses and mycoplasma. 1. Diseases incited by members of Animal Kingdom: (a) insects. (b) nematodes. II. Non-parasitic diseases : Diseases incited by: 1. Soil conditions such as: (a) soil moisture imbalances, (b) unfavorable physical structure, (c) deficient oxygen supply, (d) nutritional imbalance. 2. Meteorological conditions such as: (a) light deficiency, (b) unfavorable temperatures, (c) low relative humidity (e) excess rains etc. 3. Defective agricultural practices i.e. excessive use of pesticides or fungicides or fertilizers, 4. Industrial and other chemical contaminations of the atmosphere. Assignment Group – A Q-1) What are the importance of Agriculture? Write any 5 importance of Agriculture. 5- Mark Q-2) Write any 5 challenges with Indian Agriculture and salient features of modern agriculture  each. 5- Mark OR Q-3) What do you understand with crop rotation? Explain with example. 5- Mark Q-4) Explain the Macro Nutrients & Micro Nutrients with example. 10- Mark OR Q-5) What are the deficiency symptoms of nutrients? 10-Mark Q-6) What are the advantages and disadvantages of Organic and Inorganic chemical Fertilizers? 10-Mark Group – B 1. निम्नलिखित विषयों में से किसी एक पर लघु टिप्पणी लिखें :- 4-Mark (क) भारतीय संस्कृति में प्रकृति उपासना (ख) वसुदधैव कुटुंबकम (ग) अनेकता में एकता (घ) भारतीय जन (ड़) परिवार-एक सामाजिक संस्था 2. सही विकल्पों को चुने- Each 2- Mark (i) आनंदमय जीवन जीने के लिए आवश्यक है- (क) भौतिक उन्नति (ख) आध्यात्मिक उन्नति (ग) दोनों (ii) भारत में नदियों को कहा गया है- (क) प्रातः स्मरणीय (ख) एकता का प्रतीक (ग) जल का स्रोत (iii) वैदिक युग में शिक्षा की दो धाराएं थीं- (क)शारीरिक-मानसिक (ख) परा- अपरा (ग) मदरसा-मकतब