RDA Qualitative Test Notes Week 2.docx

**[Grounded Theory]** The **term 'grounded theory'** comes from the idea that the theory that emerges from the study is derived from and rooted in the data that has been collected in the field rather than taken from the researcher. Constructivism/ social constructionism. **[What is theory in psych...

**[Grounded Theory]** The **term 'grounded theory'** comes from the idea that the theory that emerges from the study is derived from and rooted in the data that has been collected in the field rather than taken from the researcher. Constructivism/ social constructionism. **[What is theory in psychology?]** An organized set of ideas that are designed to explain a phenomenon of human behavior. It must be something that has gone through scientific analysis of some sort, and it's done through experimentation or scientific study of some sort. It is essential for developing predictions about behavior. **[Grounded theory study: characteristics (5)]** 1. The purpose of grounded theory (GT) is to **begin with the data** and use the data to **develop a theory.** Thus, the theory that emerges from the study is derived from and rooted/ grounded in the data that is collected in the field rather than being based on the literature. GT is helpful when **current theories** about a phenomenon are either **inadequate or non-existent.** 2. GT focuses on the **process** related to a particular topic, including people's **actions and interactions,** with the goal of **developing a theory about the process.** 3. GT has roots in sociology, but is now used in other social sciences, e.g., education, psychology, and social work. 4. A GT researcher must have a firm understanding of general concepts and theoretical orientations within his/her discipline (they will need an in-depth literature review early in the research process). 5. Researcher learns about the research topic through a thorough review of the related literature but should refrain from forming specific hypotheses about what might be found. **Conflicting views:** Too much prior knowledge makes it difficult for the researcher to be open minded when analyzing and interpreting findings; The benefits of an extensive lit review far outweigh the limitations. Wider reading gives more insights and clarity of thoughts about a problem. **[Grounded Theory: Method]** Data collection is **field based, flexible,** and likely to change over the course of the study. Interviews play a major role but observation, documents, historical records, video tapes and anything else (of potential relevance to the research question) may also be used. Data collected must include the **voices and perspectives** of the people being studied. Researcher develops categories to classify the data. Subsequent data collection is aimed at **saturating the categories** and at finding any **disconfirming evidence** that may suggest revisions of the categories identified or in the interrelationships among them. **Constant comparative method**- moving back and forth between data collection and data analysis, with analysis driving later data collection. **Conceptual density**- The resulting theory must include numerous concepts and the interrelationships amongst them. **[Grounded Theory: Data Analysis]** **Corbin and Straus (2008) suggest 4 steps:** 1. **Open coding:** Process of reducing the data to **a small set of themes** that describe the phenomenon investigated. Data are divided into segments and scrutinized for commonalities i.e., themes and categories. Each category is further analyzed for specific attributes which form sub-categories (themes). 2. **Axial coding:** Interconnections between categories and sub-categories are formed to understand more about them. They are based on the conditions leading to the phenomenon, and the context in which it's embedded. Researcher moves back and forth between data collection, open coding, and axial coding. 3. **Selective coding:** Categories and inter-relations (between categories and sub-categories) are combined to create a storyline of what's happening. 4. **Development of theory:** A theory is offered to explain the phenomenon in question. A theory is proposed in the form of a verbal statement, visual model, or a series of hypotheses. **Memo writing/ memoing and sorting during the coding process** This is a process that takes place during the coding phase. It describes the process by which the researcher writes out their analytical, conceptual, and theoretical notes as memos to remember them. These memos can be defined as: the theorizing write up of ideas about codes and their relationships as they strike the analyst during coding; the narrated records of the theorist's analytical conversations with him/herself about the research data; the documentation of the researchers thinking process and theorizing from the data. **Why do researchers make use of memo writing?** It allows the researcher to ask themselves "How can I make sense of this?" or "What is going on here?"; It helps the researcher to reflect on the codes they have generated, helps to clarify thinking and provides some analytical distance. Ultimately, it helps to make a data set manageable. **[Grounded Theory: Research Report]** The **style of writing** in a GT research report is typically objective and impersonal. The research report typically includes: i. A description of the research question ii. A review of the related literature iii. A description of the methodology and data analysis iv. **A presentation of your theory** v. A discussion of implications **[A Practical Application of Grounded Theory Research: Jeggels (2009)]** Jeggels (2009) **aimed** to apply the 'grounded theory' research method to explore the experiences of informal carers within their unique contexts. Specifically, to explore the experiences of informal carers of elderly dependents in a Cape Town metro area and to develop a grounded theory on informal care. **Choosing the method:** Jeggels observed that much research has been published on the experiences, needs and interventions to support informal carers however not so much so far on the involvement of informal carers in the rehabilitation of their relatives. The value of grounded theory lies in its contribution to areas in which little research has been done. Grounded theory is suitable for exploratory research. However, GT goes beyond the basic thematic analysis of qualitative data into **theory generation.** **Qualitative Method:** **Inductive analysis**- involves the generation of categories and themes from the data. Findings emerge from the researcher's interaction with the data. Sampling, data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. As opposed to **deductive-** where the researcher uses an existing framework to analyze the data. The interpretative social research approach is used in GT and is also generally used in exploratory social research. Studies on caregivers, informal carers and family carers tend to use GT as a research method. **Sampling:** Sample size is determined by a cyclical process of data collection and analysis and continues until **saturation** of the data- which is the point at which no new information emerges from the interview. **Data collection:** Field notes were used to capture additional contextual information about the informal carers. **Data Analysis** **Open coding:** **Questioning** means that concepts are examined by asking questions about them, e.g., What is it? When/why does it occur? Consequences? It allows for the linking of categories, examination of biases and move from descriptive analysis to conceptual analysis. **Constant comparative analysis:** Data collected is continually compared to existing categories. Data is linked to emerging categories and the categories are then compared to other categories-aka the **property and dimensional levels** of comparison. **Coding using computer software** (N.VIVO)- initial coding is followed by a more structured computer aided process. N.VIVO was used to facilitate open coding and tree coding, i.e., a line-by-line tree coding system in which the software helps to retrieve codes within cases and across cases. **Axial coding:** Involves **suggesting relationships between categories**, i.e., the data is rearranged in a **conceptual way.** Codes are grouped together to form sub-categories. Categories and sub-categories are conceptualized through a lengthy **constant comparison.** Sub-categories are linked to categories and eventually a **basic social process (BSP)** is revealed which is a central idea, event or happening in terms of the **paradigm model**-an analytical tool used to facilitate the exploration of the core category or basic social process. The aim of axial coding is to identify a BSP. Causal, contextual, and intervening conditions influence the BSP. **[Phenomenology]** It is traced back to the German philosophers Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. They both believed that it is important to **describe phenomena as lived/ experienced** by the researched, while at the same time finding **latent meaning in why things are the way they are.** This led to a belief that **participating individual's partner with the researcher** and share their experiences by identifying and bringing them to the forefront. Padgett (2008) defined phenomenology as 'exploring the lived experience of phenomenon'. The word phenomenon originated from the Greek word 'phaenesthai' which means to 'flare up' or 'appear' and its constructs originated from the Greek word 'phaino' which means to 'bring to light', 'to place in brightness'. **[Definition of phenomenology]** Phenomenological research is a qualitative research method that aims to **describe, interpret and understand** the meanings of experiences about a phenomenon from the perspective of those who have experienced it. Phenomenologists focus on describing what all the participants have in common as they experience a phenomenon (e.g., binge eating or grief). The goal of phenomenological research is to understand the essence of experience. Instead of seeking to answer, **"What causes X?"** one should ask **"What is it like to experience X?".** For example, a researcher might study the experience of cyberbullying to understand how it affects victims' mental health and social relationships. **[Phenomenology: Characteristics]** 1. Phenomenology refers to the **logical world** as it is **experienced,** and how **the person** 'experiencing' it is understood. Thus, phenomenology endeavors to clarify situations, create understanding of the lived experiences (lived by people in their everyday life) through data collected by the researcher. 2. Phenomenological research studies situations in which **the persons,** who had **first-hand experiences,** describe these experiences as they took place in their lives. In this manner, it reveals persons' experience in terms of what they are like, what they mean and how lived worlds present themselves to individuals in context. 3. The main purpose of phenomenological research is to **capture as accurately as possible** the **phenomenon as experienced within the context** of what occurred. 4. **Role of language-** the language used by participants in describing lived experiences in their context and their perception of them in the context **brings out the meanings of their experiences.** For example, when studying first time students coming to university you may observe the change in language they use as it expresses their new experiences. 5. Phenomenological research makes the participants experiences **organic** and **brings out the essence of those experiences** because participants are allowed **self-expression, ability of sense** and expression of **inner feelings** and emotions without shame or inhibition. 6. Through accessing lived experiences, there is an **exploration of common features in participants lived worlds** for the researcher to gain better understanding and perception of **other people in similar circumstances.** **[Hermeneutic Phenomenology]** An approach of **interpretation and understanding of texts,** in which the researcher interprets texts, including material from interviews, articles, blogs, etc., to explore the lived experiences of participants. **Example:** Research Question: What is the experience of being a foster care parent as interpreted through interview transcripts/blogs. **Hermeneutics research therefore** understands and acknowledges the situation/location of what's being interpreted and recognizes the role of language and historical interpretation; it also views inquiry as conversation and is comfortable with ambiguity. While the phenomenological approach helps in getting the essence of the lived experiences, the hermeneutic approach places emphasis on understanding and interpreting the experiences in textual form. Therefore, understanding a particular phenomenon and interpretating the phenomenon as it appears in written text or written words, is essential in this approach. **[Transcendental Phenomenology]** Focuses on people's meanings of their lived experience or phenomenon. What is the essence of the experience/ phenomenon? Research question asks, "What is the experience of the event/ phenomenon that you are interested in studying?" **[What is the difference between transcendental and hermeneutic phenomenology?]** With transcendental phenomenology the researcher seeks to obtain an unbiased description of raw data. As such the researcher **brackets** their personal biases. With hermeneutic phenomenology the researcher's opinion is important as the researcher seeks to interpret the descriptions and to co-construct meaning. **[Phenomenological Research: Methods]** Before embarking on a phenomenological study the researcher must determine whether phenomenology is appropriate to answer the research question and by considering the nature of the research question and phenomenological study, one must consider that a) Phenomenology refers to a **person's perception of the meaning of an event,** as opposed to the event as it exists external to the person and b) Phenomenological research **attempts to understand people's perception, perspectives and understandings about a particular situation.** 1. Directs attention to the **subjectivity of interpreted reality** based on individual experiences and lived meaning. 2. By looking at **multiple perspectives** of the same situation, the researcher can then make some **generalizations about what something is like from an insider's perspective.** 3. **The main form of data collection is interviews** but may be observation, documents, etc. 4. Interview is often **unstructured** and may range from **1 to 2 hours with a purposely selected sample of participants.** 5. Sample size is from **5 to 25** individuals who have all **had direct experience with the phenomenon under investigation.** 6. The researcher listens closely as the participants describe their everyday experiences related to the phenomenon. **[Phenomenological Research]** The researcher must be alert to **subtle, meaningful cues** in the participants expressions, pauses, questions and occasional sidetracks. The interview must be conducted **until saturation** happens, i.e., all questions are answered to the researcher's satisfaction. Usually, 1 or 2 broad open-ended questions regarding the participants experience of the phenomenon are asked. The researcher then uses probes (follow up questions) to find out more. **Bracketing (aka Epoch):** This is when the researcher suspends any **preconceived notions and personal experiences** that may unduly influence what the researcher **'hears'** the participant saying. It is done by discussing with colleagues and taking notes. It is highly recommended, including that of **previous research findings.** **In conclusion bracketing is when the** researcher sets aside any biases, preconceived notions, and experiences to comprehend how the phenomenon appears to the participant, rather than how it is perceived by the researcher. **[Phenomenological Study: Data Analysis]** It is important to find **central themes** in the descriptions of people's experiences. This is done using a strategy called **Horizontalization** which is when significant statements (i.e., sentences/ quotes) are taken from the transcripts to describe elements of participants' experiences of phenomena. Analysis of data from a phenomenological approach can be summarized in 6 steps: 1. Description of the phenomenon under study. 2. Development of a list of the significant statements in the data sources. 3. Grouping of the significant statements into meaningful units. 4. Description of what the participants experienced with the phenomenon. 5. Description of how the experience happened. 6. Composite description of the context of the phenomenon. **[Phenomenological Research: Research Report]** The result is a **general description of the phenomenon as seen through the eyes of those who experienced it first-hand.** There is **no specific structure for reporting** a phenomenological study. The research report should make the reader feel like they get to **better** **understand** what it is like for someone to **experience a specific phenomenon.** **[Limitations of phenomenology]** Recruiting participants can be difficult depending on the phenomenon of interest, e.g., **women ex-offenders.** Data collection can be time consuming. Analysis, interpretation can be difficult. Biases can happen even with bracketing. Small samples limits data collected on a particular phenomenon to a few people only.