Qualitative Research Importance in Daily Life PDF

Practical Research 1: Qualitative Research and Its Importance in Daily Life ACE B. CARDEÑO [email protected] [email protected] Some Questions (True or False) 1. Qualitative research involves interviews and F...

Practical Research 1: Qualitative Research and Its Importance in Daily Life ACE B. CARDEÑO [email protected] [email protected] Some Questions (True or False) 1. Qualitative research involves interviews and FGDs. 2. Qualitative research requires having a hypothesis. 3. Qualitative research requires literature review. 4. Qualitative research aims to generalize. 5. Qualitative research focuses on variables.  What is qualitative research? Something to think about  Research studies that investigate the quality of relationships, activities, situations, or materials are frequently referred to as qualitative research. Qualitative Research  This type of research has a greater emphasis on holistic description—that is, on describing in detail all of what goes on in a particular activity or situation rather than on comparing the effects of a particular treatment (as experimental research), say, or on describing the Qualitative attitudes or behaviors of people (as in Research survey research).  What is the nature of reality according to qualitative Let’s look researcher? back…  In qualitative research, what is the relationship of the researcher to that Let’s look back… researched?  In qualitative research, what is the role of values? Let’s look back…  In qualitative research, what is the language of research? Let’s look back…  In qualitative research, what is the process of research? Let’s look back… General Characteristics of Qualitative Research Bogdan and Biklen describe five general characteristics of qualitative research.  First Characteristic of Qualitative Research The natural setting is the direct source of data, and the researcher is the key instrument in qualitative research.  Qualitative researchers go to the particular setting of interest because they are concerned with context— they feel that activities can best be understood in the actual settings in which they occur. Take Note Second Characteristic of Qualitative Research Qualitative data are collected in the form of words or pictures rather than numbers  Gestures, jokes, conversational gambits, artwork or other decorations in a room—all are noted by qualitative researchers. To a qualitative researcher, no data are trivial or unworthy of notice. Take Note  Third Characteristic of Qualitative Research Qualitative researchers are concerned with process as well as products.  Qualitative researchers are especially interested in how things occur. Take Note  Fourth Characteristic of Qualitative Research Qualitative researchers tend to analyze their data inductively.  As Bogdan and Biklen suggest, qualitative researchers are not putting together a puzzle whose picture they already know. They are constructing a picture that takes shape as they collect and examine the parts. Take Note  Fifth Characteristic of Qualitative Research How people make sense out of their lives is a major concern to qualitative researchers  Assumptions, motives, reasons, goals, and values—all are of interest and likely to be the focus of the researcher’s questions. Take Note  Creswell has identified five approaches to qualitative research, including: 1. Narrative Research; 2. Phenomenology; 3. Grounded Theory; 4. Case Studies; and Approaches 5. Ethnography to Qualitative Research  It is the study of the life experiences of an individual as told to the researcher or found in documents and archival material. Narrative Research  An important aspect of some narrative research is that the participant recalls one or more special events (an “epiphany”) in his or her life. A. Narrative Research  1. Biological Study; 2. Autobiography; 3. Life History; and 4. Oral History Different Forms of Narrative Research  It is a form of narrative study in which the researcher writes and records the experiences of another person’s life. Biographical Study  It is written and recorded by the individuals who are subject of the study (Ellis, 2004). Autobiography  How does biographical study and autobiography differ from one another? Something to think about…  It portrays an individual’s entire life, while a personal experience story is a narrative study of an individual’s personal experiences found in single or multiple episodes, private situations, or communal folklore (Denzin, 1989a). Life Story  It consists of gathering personal reflections of events and their causes and effects from one individual or several individuals (Plummer, 1983). Oral History  Narrative research is not easy to do, for number of reasons. Did you know?  The researcher must collect an extensive amount of information about his or her participant. Reason 1  The researcher must have a clear understanding of the historical period within which the participant lived in order to position the participant accurately within that period. Reason 2  The researcher needs a “sharp eye” to uncover the various aspects of the participant’s life. Reason 3  The researcher needs to be reflective about his or her own personal and political background, which may shape how the participant’s story is told and understood. Reason 4  A researcher undertaking a phenomenological study investigates a particular phenomenon (e.g., the experience of an employee in a multibillion company). B. Phenomenology  The researcher hopes to gain some insight into the world of his or her participants and to describe their perceptions and reactions (e.g., what it is like to work in a multibillion company). Phenomenology  How does phenomenological study and narrative study differs? Something to think about…  Phenomenologists generally assume that there is some commonality to how human beings perceive and interpret similar experiences; they seek to identify, understand, and describe these commonalities. Did you know?  This commonality of perception is referred to as the essence—the essential characteristic(s)—of the experience. Did you know?  Researchers might explore the experiences of 4P’s Senior high school students. Examples of Phenomenological studies  Researchers might explore the experiences of teachers who have used the inquiry approach in teaching eleventh-grade Chemistry. Examples of Phenomenological studies  Researchers might explore the experiences of nurses who work in the operating room of a large medical center. Examples of Phenomenological studies  Like narrative research, phenomenological studies are not easy to do. Did you know?  The researcher must get the participants in a phenomenological study to relive in their minds the experiences they have had. Reason  Those aspects of the participants’ experiences that they had in common. Themes  Researchers who conduct phenomenological studies search for the “essential structure” of a single phenomenon by interviewing, in depth, a number of individuals who have experienced the phenomenon. To sum it up…  A device such as a pattern of letters, ideas, or associations that assists in remembering something. C. Grounded Theory  In a grounded theory, the researchers intend to generate a theory that is “grounded” in data from participants who have experienced the process (Strauss & Cobin, 1998). Grounded Theory  Strauss and Cobin put it this way: “One does not begin with a theory, then prove it. Rather one begins with an area of study and what is relevant to that area is allowed to emerge.” Grounded Theory  In a study of parental influence on children’s reading of storybooks, Kelly Draper and I videotaped 32 parent-child pairs as they read to each other. We had few if any preconceptions about what we would find, only that we hoped that distinct patterns would emerge and that these would be associated with the Lancy describes the children’s evident ease/difficulty in process as learning to read. follows:  I spent literally dozens of hours viewing these videotapes, developing, using, and casting aside various categories until I found two clusters of characteristics which I called “reductionist” and “expansionist” that accounted for a large portion of the variation among parents’ Lancy reading/listening styles. describes the process as follows:  I was, of course, guided in my search for appropriate categories by my [experience] with the setting and by the transcripts of our interview with each parent. Lancy describes the process as follows:  In grounded theory study in the previously given example, how does a researcher gathers his or her data? Something to think about…  The data in a grounded theory study are collected primarily through one-on-one interviews, focus group interviews, and participant observation by the researcher(s). Did you know?  Let us consider a hypothetical example of a grounded research study. Suppose that a researcher is interested in how operation managers try to maintain and enhance morale among the team supervisors in BPO companies. He or she Examples of might conduct a series of in-depth Grounded interviews with a number of operation theory study managers in a few urban BPO companies.  Suppose the researcher finds that these operation managers utilizes a variety of strategies to keep morale high, including having frequent one-on-one “praise sessions” to reward good supervision, acknowledge the efforts of team supervisors through written and oral commendations at company meetings, Examples of Grounded theory study  writing supportive letters and placing them in the immediate supervisor’s personnel files, providing extra resources, replacing unnecessary meetings with routine information in writing, advising team supervisors of policy changes in advance and asking for their input and approval before hand, Examples of Grounded and so forth. theory study  Gradually, the researcher develops a theory about what effective operation managers do to maintain and enhance morale among their team supervisors. The theory is modified over time as the researcher observes and interviews even more operation managers and team Examples of supervisors. Grounded theory study  From the given example, how does a grounded theory study is conducted? Something to think about…  The researcher does not go in with a theory out of the data that are collected—that is, one that is grounded in the data. This approach is obviously highly dependent on the insight of the individual researcher. The Point to Stress Here:  What case study researchers have in common is that they call the objects of their research cases, and they focus their research on the study of such cases D. Case Studies  A case comprises just one individual, department in a company, company, or a program. For some researchers, a case is not just an individual or situation that can easily be identified (e.g., a particular individual, classroom, organization, or project); it may be an event (e.g.,company What is a Case? celebration), an activity (e.g., learning to use a computer), or an ongoing process (e.g., agents call simulation training).  There are some students who learn a second language rather easily. In hopes of gaining insight into why this is the case, one such student could be observed on a regular basis to see if there are any noticeable patterns or regularities in the student’s behavior. The student, as well as his or her Case study of a teachers, counsellors, parents, and person friends, might also be interviewed in depth.  There might be a particular elementary school in a given school district, for example, that is noteworthy for its success with at-risk students. The researcher might visit the school on a regular basis, observing what goes in a classrooms, during recess periods, in the hallways and lunchroom, during faculty Case Study of a meetings, and so on. Certain School:  Stake has identified three types of case studies as follows: Three Types of Case Studies  1. Intrinsic Case Study; 2. Instrumental Case Study; and 3. Multiple (or collective) Case Study. Three Types of Case Studies  In here, the researcher is primarily interested in understanding a specific individual or situation. (1) Intrinsic Case Study  Intrinsic case studies are often used in exploratory research when researchers seek to learn about some little-known phenomenon by studying it in depth. (1) Intrinsic Case Study  In here, a researcher is interested in understanding something more than just a particular case; the researcher is interested in studying the particular case only as a means to some larger goal. (2) Instrumental Case Study  A researcher might study how Miss Tonzie Sumulong teaches phonics, for example, in order to learn something about phonics as a method or about the teaching of reading in general. Example of Instrumental Case Study:  Researchers who conduct such studies are more interested in drawing conclusions that apply beyond a particular case than they are in conclusions that apply to just one specific case. Did you know?  In here, the researcher studies multiple cases at the same time as part of one overall study. 3) Multiple- (or collective) Case Study  A researcher choose several cases to study because he or she is interested in the effects of mainstreaming employees with disabilities into regular working stations in a company. Instead of studying the results of such mainstreaming in just a single working Example of station, the researcher studies its impact Multiple-(or collective) in a number of different classrooms Case Study  Which is to be preferred, multiple-or single-case designs? Something to think about…  The results of multiple-case studies are often considered more compelling, and they are more likely to lend themselves to valid generalization. Advantages of Multiple case study  Multiple-Case Studies often require extensive resources and time. Disadvantages of Multiple case study  From our previous discussion, how a researcher conducts an ethnographic research? What is important in this kind of research? Recall  What we already know: Ethnographic research focuses on the study of culture. Ethnographic Research  From our previous discussion, how a researcher conducts a historical research? What is important in this kind of research? Recall  What we already know: Historical research concentrates exclusively on the past. Historical Research Practical Research 1: Sampling Technique in Qualitative Research ACE B. CARDEÑO [email protected] [email protected]  Researchers who engage in some form of qualitative research are likely to select a purposive sample—that is, they select a sample they feel will yield the best understanding of what they are studying. Sampling Technique  1. Typical Sample; 2. Critical Sample; 3. Homogeneous Sample; 4. Extreme Case Sample; 5. Theoretical Sample; 6. Opportunistic Sample; 7. Confirming Sample; Nine Types Sampling 8. Maximal Variation Sample; Technique 9. Snowball Sample.  One that is considered or judged to be typical or representative of that which is being studied. Typical Sampling  A class of senior high school students selected because they are judged to be typical eleventh-graders. Typical Sampling  One that is considered to be particularly enlightening because it is so unusual or exceptional. Critical Sampling  Individuals who have attained high achievement despite some serious physical limitations. Critical Sampling  One in which all of the members possess a certain trait or characteristic. Homogenous Sampling  A group of high school students all judged to possess exceptional artistic talent. Homogenous Sampling  One in which all of the members are outliers who do not fit the general pattern or who otherwise display extreme characteristics. Extreme Case Sample  Students achieve high grades despite low scores on ability tests and poor home environments. Extreme Case Sample  Selecting a group of tribal elders to assess the relevance of Piagetian theory to the education of Native Igorots. Theoretical Sample  One chosen during a study to take advantage of new conditions or circumstances that have arisen. Opportunistic Sample  Eyewitness to a fracas at a certain department in a company. Opportunistic Sample  Follow-up interviews with employees in order to verify reasons why employees resign. Confirming Sample  One selected to represent a diversity of perspectives or characteristics. Maximal Variation Sample  A group of newly hired employees who possess a wide variety of attitudes toward recent company policies. Maximal Variation Sample  One selected as need arises during the conduct of a study. Snowball Sample  During the interviewing of a group of company supervisors, they recommend others who also should be interviewed because they are particularly knowledgeable about the subject of the research. Snowball Sample Practical Research 1: Steps in Qualitative Research ACE B. CARDEÑO [email protected] [email protected]  Before any study can begin, the researcher must identify the particular phenomenon he or she is interested in investigating. Identification of the phenomenon to be studied.  Suppose, for example, a researcher wishes to conduct a study to investigate the interaction between entry-level and tenured employees in a sales company. Example:  “To what extent and in what ways do entry-level and tenured employees in a sales company interact?” Research Question  The previous research question is known as foreshadowed problem. All qualitative studies begin with such problems—they are akin to the overall statement of the problem. Foreshadowed Questions  Foreshadowed problems are often reformulated several times during the course of a qualitative study. Foreshadowed Questions  The participants in the study constitute the sample of individuals who will be observed (interviewed, etc.)—in other words, the subjects of the study. Identification of the participants in the study  In almost all qualitative research, the sample is a purposive sample. Random sampling ordinarily is not feasible, since the researcher wants to ensure that he or she obtains a sample that is uniquely suited to the intent of the study. Did you know?  Unlike in most quantitative studies, hypotheses are not posed at the beginning of the study by the researcher. Instead, they emerge from the data as the study progresses. Generation of hypotheses  A researcher might hypothesize originally that interaction in a sales company between entry-level and tenured employees, outside working hours or during lunch break, will be minimal. In our previous example:  As the researcher observes the daily goings-on in the company, the hypothesis may be modified a number of times as the researcher becomes more aware of times and places where the employees actually do interact fairly regularly. In our previous example:  There is no “treatment” in a qualitative study, nor is there any “manipulation” of subjects. Data Collection  The participants in a qualitative study are not divided into groups, with one group being exposed to a treatment of some sort and the effects of this treatment then measured in some way. Take note:  Data are not collected at the “end” of the study. Rather, the collection of data in a qualitative research study is ongoing. Take note:  Analyzing the data in a qualitative study essentially involves analyzing and synthesizing the information the researcher obtains from various sources (e.g., observations, interviews, documents) into a coherent description of what he or she has observed or Data Analysis otherwise discovered.  Hypotheses are not usually tested by means of inferential statistical procedures, as is the case with experimental or associational research, although some statistics, such as percentages, may be calculated if it appears they can illuminate specific details about the phenomenon Take Note under investigation.  Data analysis in qualitative research, however, relies heavily on description; even when certain statistics are calculated, they tend to be used in a descriptive rather than an inferential sense. Take Note  In qualitative research, interpretations are made continuously throughout the course of a study. Whereas quantitative researchers usually leave the drawing of conclusions to the very end of their research, qualitative researchers tend to formulate their interpretations as they Interpretations go along. & Conclusions  A qualitative researcher who is observing the ongoing interactions of a sales company, for example, is likely to write up not only what he or she sees each day but also his or her interpretations of those observations. In our previous example:  A qualitative researcher who is observing the ongoing interactions of a sales company, for example, is likely to write up not only what he or she sees each day but also his or her interpretations of those observations. In our previous example: Practical Research 1: Generalization in Qualitative Research ACE B. CARDEÑO [email protected] [email protected]  A generalization is usually thought of as a statement or claim of some sort that applies to more than one individual, group, object, or situation. What is Generalization?  How to construct generalization? What do we mean by generalization? Something to think about…  When a researcher makes a statement, based on a review of the literature, that there is a negative correlation between age and employee’s motivation (tenured employees are slowly losing motivation than entry-level employees), he or she is making a generalization. Example of Generalization  Why researchers generalize or why do they make a generalization? Something to think about…  The value of generalization is that it allows us to have expectations (and sometimes to make predictions) about a future. The Value of Generalization  A generalization might not be TRUE in every case; however, it describes, often, what we would expect to find. Take Note:  A limitation of qualitative research is that there is seldom methodological justification for generalizing the findings of a particular study. While this limitation also applies to many quantitative studies, it is almost inevitable given the nature of qualitative research. Because of this replication of Limitations of qualitative studies is even more Qualitative Research important than it is in quantitative research.