Attention Study Guide PDF

**[Attention]** **[Defining Attention: Perspectives and Theories in Psychology]** **1. Titchener (1908): Attention as the "Nerve" of Psychology** Titchener emphasizes the centrality of attention to psychological theory. He suggests that the way psychologists conceptualize attention reflects...

**[Attention]** **[Defining Attention: Perspectives and Theories in Psychology]** **1. Titchener (1908): Attention as the "Nerve" of Psychology** Titchener emphasizes the centrality of attention to psychological theory. He suggests that the way psychologists conceptualize attention reflects their broader approach to understanding the mind and behavior. This reflects the **importance of attention** in psychological systems, as it influences perception, memory, and action. Titchener's claim highlights that attention is foundational for studying human cognition and mental faculties. **Significance:** Attention is not just a topic within psychology; it is a lens through which various psychological processes (e.g., learning, decision-making) are understood. By linking attention to the "nerve of the psychological system," Titchener underscores its integrative role across different areas of psychology. **2. William James (1890): Classic Definition of Attention** **Definition**: "Attention is the taking possession of the mind in clear and vivid form... It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others." Attention is **selective**: Focusing on relevant stimuli while filtering out distractions. It involves **cognitive prioritization**: Allocating mental resources to what matters most in a given moment. **Examples:** Listening to a friend in a noisy environment. Watching a lecturer while ignoring other students' chatter. **Significance:** James's definition aligns with **selective attention** theories, where limited resources require prioritization. It highlights the **dual nature of attention**: both an active process (choosing to focus) and a passive one (filtering distractions). **3. J.B. Watson (1919): Behaviorist Critique of Attention** Watson critiques the vagueness of traditional psychological terms like attention. Claims psychologists have used terms like "attention" uncritically, without clear operational definitions. Reflects the **behaviorist movement's rejection of mentalistic concepts** like attention and consciousness. **Behaviorist View:** Behaviorists focused on observable behavior, avoiding introspective and subjective concepts. For example, instead of studying attention as a mental process, Watson might study how stimulus cues guide observable behavior. **Significance:** Watson's critique marked a **temporary decline in attention research** during the early 20th century. It wasn't until the cognitive revolution in the mid-20th century that attention research was revived with new methodologies (e.g., information processing models). **4. Treisman (1964): Revival of Attention Research** Treisman notes that early definitions of attention (e.g., "focalization of consciousness") were unproductive for empirical research. These subjective definitions led to **inconclusive debates** and stalled progress. Advances in **information processing theory** and **neuropsychological studies** helped revive interest in attention. **Treisman's Contributions:** Proposed the **attenuation model of attention**: Suggested that unattended stimuli are not completely filtered out but are weakened (attenuated). For example, hearing your name in a noisy room suggests some unattended information is still processed. **Significance:** Treisman redefined attention research by linking it to measurable processes like filtering and selection. Her work helped establish attention as a **central topic in cognitive psychology**. **5. Shiffrin (1988): Modern Definition of Attention** Shiffrin offers a broad definition: Attention includes all aspects of cognition that involve **control** and **resource allocation**. Attention is tied to managing **limited processing capacity** in the brain. **Key Components of Shiffrin's Definition:** 1\. **Control**: Attention involves deliberate actions, like choosing to focus on a specific stimulus. Example: Deciding to listen to a specific person in a crowd. 2\. **Limited Capacity**: The brain cannot process everything simultaneously. Attention manages this limitation by prioritizing some stimuli over others. 3\. **Dealing with Constraints**: Attention helps manage competing demands and constraints, ensuring effective task performance. **Significance:** Shiffrin's definition aligns with **resource theories of attention** (e.g., Kahneman, 1973), which describe attention as a limited mental resource. It emphasizes the **adaptive role of attention** in managing cognitive overload. **[Behaviorism: Removal of Mentalistic Psychology]** **Behaviorism's Rejection of Mentalism**: Behaviorists like **J.B. Watson** dismissed concepts like attention, arguing they were too vague, introspective, and unmeasurable. Psychology shifted focus to observable, measurable behavior, avoiding terms like "consciousness" and "attention." **Key Principle**: Behavior is explained through **stimulus-response associations**, with no need for concepts like internal processes or mental states. For example, instead of asking how attention works, behaviorists focused on what stimuli cause certain behaviors. **Critique**: Behaviorism was successful in promoting rigorous experimental methods but failed to account for complex behaviors that involved internal processing, like language, memory, and problem-solving. **[Orientation Reflex]** **What is the Orientation Reflex?** The **orientation reflex** is an automatic, involuntary response to a novel or significant stimulus in the environment. Example: Turning your head toward a sudden loud sound. **Significance**: The reflex is an early example of **automatic attention**, where attention is drawn to stimuli without conscious effort. It shows that even in the absence of explicit attention, certain stimuli can capture focus (e.g., survival-related cues). **Relevance to Attention Research**: The orientation reflex highlights the **automatic and involuntary** aspects of attention. It contrasts with controlled attention, where focus is deliberate and goal-directed. **[The Cognitive View and the Mental Processes]** **Shift to Cognitive Psychology**: In the 1950s and 1960s, psychologists shifted back to studying **internal processes**, spurred by the failures of behaviorism. This shift was influenced by advances in communication theory and cybernetics (see below). **Mental Processes**: Cognitive psychology reintroduced the study of **how the mind processes information**: Attention Memory Language Problem-solving Focus was on creating measurable, testable models of these internal mechanisms. **[Cues to Reach the Cognitive Paradigm: Problems with Behaviorism Paradigm]** **Limitations of Behaviorism**: **Lack of Explanation for Internal Processes**: Behaviorism could not explain phenomena like selective attention or problem-solving. For example, why does a person attend to one conversation in a noisy room? **Complex Human Behaviors**: Language, decision-making, and memory could not be explained solely through stimulus-response associations. **No Account of Novel Behavior**: Behaviorism struggled to explain how people perform actions they have never explicitly learned. **Emergence of Cognitive Paradigm**: Behaviorism's limitations led to the **cognitive revolution**, which treated the mind as an active processor of information rather than a passive responder to stimuli. **[Communication Theory and Cybernetics: The Mind as a Computer System]** **Influence of Communication Theory**: Psychologists began to compare the mind to a communication system. **Claude Shannon's communication model** (1949): Input (stimuli) → Processing (filtering, attention) → Output (response). **Cybernetics and Computer Metaphor**: The mind was conceptualized as a **computer system**, processing inputs, storing data, and producing outputs. **Key Concepts**: **Buffer Store**: Short-term memory where information is temporarily held. **Selective Filter**: Attention as a filter that prioritizes certain inputs for processing (e.g., Broadbent's Filter Theory). **Limited Capacity**: Like a computer, the human brain can process only a finite amount of information at once. **Significance**: This metaphor allowed psychologists to create models of mental processes that could be tested experimentally. It laid the foundation for **information-processing theories of attention**. **[Attention and Will: Voluntary vs. Involuntary Attention]** 1. **Voluntary Attention (Controlled Processes)**: Deliberate focus on a specific task or stimulus, often driven by goals or instructions. Example: Studying for an exam despite distractions. 2. **Involuntary Attention (Automatic Processes)**: Attention captured by external stimuli without conscious effort. Example: A loud noise or bright light grabs your focus. **Dual-Process Theories**: Attention operates on two levels: 1\. **Controlled Attention**: Requires mental effort, is slow, and involves conscious decision-making. 2\. **Automatic Attention**: Requires no effort, is fast, and is triggered by external cues. **Significance**: The distinction between voluntary and involuntary attention explains how we balance goal-directed behavior with environmental responsiveness. This dual nature of attention is critical for understanding multitasking and automaticity. **[Problems with the Definition of Attention]** Attention has been defined in multiple ways, leading to challenges in creating a unified theory. Key problems include: 1. **Selective Attention:** **Definition**: The ability to focus on one stimulus while ignoring others. **Challenge**: How does the brain decide what to select? Example: The "cocktail party effect" shows that unattended stimuli (like hearing your name) can sometimes break through. Models like **Broadbent's Filter Theory** suggest early selection based on physical traits, but later evidence (e.g., Treisman) shows flexibility in filtering. 2. **Control System:** Attention is often viewed as a control system for managing cognitive resources. **Challenge**: If attention is a control mechanism, how does it regulate itself without becoming circular? For example, saying "attention decides what to focus on" raises the question: What controls attention itself? 3. **Homunculus Problem:** Many early theories implicitly relied on a **homunculus** (a "little man" in the brain) to explain attention. **Critique**: This creates a circular explanation: If attention is controlled by a separate agent, then what controls that agent? Modern theories avoid this by treating attention as an **emergent property** of brain networks rather than a central controlling mechanism. **[The Cognitive Perspective: The Second World War Influence]** **Historical Context**: During **World War II**, practical problems with multitasking and information processing in complex environments (e.g., radar operators, pilots) highlighted the **limitations of human attention**. Psychologists were motivated to study **attention and human performance** in real-world contexts. **Key Realizations**: Humans have **limited processing capacity** and can only focus on a subset of incoming information. For example, pilots had to monitor numerous visual displays and auditory messages, often leading to overload and errors. **Influence on Cognitive Psychology**: Attention research evolved to address these limitations scientifically. It moved away from behaviorism's narrow focus on observable behavior, incorporating models of internal processes like memory, attention, and decision-making. **[Welford and SOA (Stimulus Onset Asynchrony): The Bottleneck]** **Welford's Experiments (1952)**: Welford studied how people respond to two stimuli presented in quick succession. **SOA (Stimulus Onset Asynchrony)**: The time interval between two stimuli. **Findings**: When the second stimulus follows closely after the first (short SOA), the response time to the second stimulus is slower. At longer SOAs, the response to the second stimulus is faster. **Bottleneck Hypothesis**: Welford concluded that there is a **processing bottleneck**: The brain processes one stimulus at a time in a sequential manner. The processing of the first stimulus must be completed before the second stimulus can be handled. **Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)** **Definition**: The **Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)** refers to the delay in response to a second stimulus when two tasks are performed close in time. Example: Pressing a button for a light and identifying a sound presented immediately after. **Significance**: PRP demonstrates the **limit of human processing capability**. It supports the idea that there is a single **central processing mechanism** that cannot handle multiple tasks simultaneously. **Real-World Relevance**: This concept explains why multitasking often leads to slower responses and errors. **[Dichotic Listening: Early Experiments on Selective Attention:]** 1. [**Cherry's Shadowing Task (1953)**:] Participants were presented with two different messages in each ear (dichotic listening). They were asked to focus on one message and repeat it aloud (shadowing). **Findings**: Participants could focus on one message based on physical characteristics like voice pitch or location. However, they had little to no memory of the unattended message's content. **Exceptions**: Some salient information, like hearing one's name, could break through the attentional filter. **Significance**: Cherry's work demonstrated the concept of **selective attention**, where we filter out irrelevant stimuli to focus on what matters. 2. **[Broadbent and the Flow of Information]** **Broadbent's Filter Theory (1958)**: Broadbent proposed a model of attention based on **information flow** in the nervous system: 1\. Incoming information enters a **buffer store** where it is briefly held. 2\. A **selective filter** processes inputs based on physical characteristics (e.g., pitch, location). 3\. Selected information passes into a **limited-capacity processing channel** for further analysis. 4\. Unattended information is lost unless processed quickly. **Significance**: Broadbent's model was one of the first attempts to explain attention as an information-processing system. It emphasized the **limited capacity** of the human mind to process multiple inputs simultaneously. 3. **[The Beginning of Information Processing: Information Reduces Uncertainty]** **Concept of Information**: Information was conceptualized as something that reduces uncertainty. Example: Tossing a coin: Before the outcome, uncertainty exists (two possible outcomes: heads or tails). The result (e.g., heads) provides information that resolves this uncertainty. **Quantifying Information**: **Shannon and Weaver (1949)**: The amount of information depends on the degree of uncertainty. Example: A six-sided die provides more information than a coin toss because there are more possible outcomes. **Relevance to Attention**: The brain processes information to reduce uncertainty about the environment. Attention helps prioritize the most relevant inputs for reducing uncertainty efficiently. 4. **[Transmission of Information]** **Maximal Information Transmission**: The efficiency of information transmission is highest when: 1\. A given stimulus consistently produces the same response. 2\. There is minimal uncertainty in the stimulus-response relationship. **Rate of Information Transmission**: Formula: **Information transmitted / Time to respond (TR)**. This measure provides a way to quantify how effectively the nervous system processes information. 5. **The Nervous System as a Single Limited Channel** **Key Idea**: Broadbent likened the nervous system to a **single channel** with limited capacity. This means it can only process a limited amount of information at a time, leading to a bottleneck when multiple inputs compete for processing. **Implications**: This explains phenomena like the **PRP** and multitasking limitations. Parallel inputs are temporarily held in a **buffer store**, but only one input can be processed at a time. 6. **[The Selective Filter: The Split Span Task]** **Split Span Task (Broadbent, 1954)**: Participants were presented with six digits in pairs (e.g., 1-2, 3-4, 5-6), with one digit in each ear. After hearing all pairs, they were asked to recall the digits. **Findings**: Participants often recalled all digits from one ear before recalling those from the other ear. This suggests that the brain processes inputs **ear-by-ear**, rather than simultaneously. **Selective Filter**: Broadbent explained this using his **filter theory**: The brain selects one channel (e.g., one ear) to focus on. Information from the unattended channel is held in a buffer store but decays quickly if not attended to. **[Dichotic Listening: Filter Models]** **Definition**: Dichotic listening involves presenting two different auditory messages, one to each ear, simultaneously. This technique helps study selective attention. **[1.1. Shadowing Task]** **Procedure**: Participants are instructed to focus on one message (relevant) and repeat it (shadowing) while ignoring the other (irrelevant). **Findings**: Participants can easily remember the attended message but struggle with the ignored one. Physical characteristics (e.g., voice pitch, location) help in focusing on one message. **Significance**: Demonstrates **selective attention** and supports the idea of filtering irrelevant information at an early stage. **[1.2. Split-Span Technique]** **Procedure**: Participants are presented with sequences of numbers or letters split across both ears (e.g., 1 in the left ear, 2 in the right ear, simultaneously). Task: Recall the numbers in the order they were heard or grouped by ear/channel. **Findings**: Participants typically recall all inputs from one ear first before recalling inputs from the other ear. **Significance**: Suggests that the brain processes one channel of information at a time. Supports Broadbent's **filter theory**, which emphasizes sequential, limited-capacity processing. **[2. Broadbent's Filter Model (1958)]** **Key Components**: 1\. **Input**: Incoming sensory stimuli (e.g., auditory inputs in dichotic listening tasks). 2\. **S-System (Sensory System)**: Temporarily stores all incoming information in parallel. Allows brief access to all stimuli before filtering. 3\. **Filter**: Selects information based on physical characteristics (e.g., location, pitch). Blocks irrelevant information to prevent overload of the limited-capacity system. 4\. **Limited Capacity Channel**: Processes selected information sequentially. Information not passed through the filter is lost. 5\. **Storage of Probabilities**: Relevant information can be stored in **long-term memory** for future use. 6\. **Effectors**: Translate processed information into a response. **Significance**: The model explains how attention works in environments with competing stimuli. It highlights the **limited processing capacity** of the human mind and the role of the filter in prioritizing inputs. **Information Processing: Reducing Uncertainty** **Concept**: Information is valuable because it reduces uncertainty about the world. Example: Tossing a coin. Before the outcome, there is uncertainty (50% chance for heads or tails). The result reduces this uncertainty. **Quantifying Information**: Information transmission is highest when: 1\. A stimulus consistently elicits the same response. 2\. There is minimal noise or interference. **Rate of Transmission**: **Formula**:  Information Processed/ Time to Respond **Information Processed**: The amount of meaningful information selected and acted upon. **Time to Respond (TR)**: The time taken to process the information and generate a response Measures how efficiently the brain processes inputs. **Relevance to Attention**: Selective attention ensures that only the most informative stimuli are processed, optimizing cognitive efficiency. **Nervous System as a Single Limited Channel** **Key Idea**: The nervous system operates like a **single-channel system** with limited capacity. It can process only one stream of information at a time, leading to a bottleneck when multiple inputs compete. **Implications**: Explains multitasking limitations (e.g., **Psychological Refractory Period**). Information that cannot be processed immediately is temporarily stored in a **buffer** but decays quickly if not attended to. **Selective Filter** **Role of the Filter**: The filter acts as a **gatekeeper**, selecting inputs based on physical characteristics and allowing only the relevant information to reach higher-level processing. **Demonstrated by the Split-Span Task**: The task shows that attention is directed sequentially (e.g., one ear at a time) rather than in parallel. Supports the idea that attention protects the limited-capacity system from overload. **Visual Representation** The diagram in the slide illustrates the flow of information in Broadbent's model: 1\. **Input → S-System → Filter**: Initial sensory inputs are stored briefly in the S-System, then filtered based on relevance. 2\. **Filtered Information → Limited Capacity Channel**: Only selected inputs are processed sequentially in the limited-capacity channel. 3\. **Processed Information → Long-Term Memory or Response**: Relevant information is stored or used to generate responses. **Significance of These Concepts** These foundational studies and models explain **how attention operates in complex environments**. They provide evidence for the brain's **limited capacity** and the necessity of filtering irrelevant information. They form the basis of modern attention research, including theories on multitasking, selective attention, and information processing. **[Problems with Rigid Filter Theory]** **Broadbent's Filter Theory (1958)** suggested that unattended stimuli are completely blocked before reaching the limited-capacity processing channel. However, subsequent studies found evidence that unattended stimuli are processed to some extent, which posed challenges to the rigid filter model. **Key Findings Against the Rigid Filter Model** 1\. **Moray (1959): Unattended Ear and Recognition Memory** Participants in dichotic listening tasks were sometimes able to notice meaningful information (e.g., their own name) from the unattended ear. **Key Insight**: This suggests that unattended stimuli can bypass the filter and receive semantic processing, contradicting Broadbent's model. 2\. **Wood & Cowan (1995): Confirmation of Moray's Findings** Replicated Moray's experiments under stricter conditions. Found that meaningful or personally relevant information from the unattended channel could break through attention filters. **Significance**: Showed that attention is not an all-or-nothing process; unattended inputs may still be partially processed. **[Treisman's Attenuation Model (1964)]** To address the limitations of Broadbent's rigid filter theory, Treisman proposed the **attenuation model**, which introduced flexibility in how attention operates. **Key Features of Treisman's Model** 1\. **Attenuation Instead of Blocking**: Unattended stimuli are not completely filtered out; instead, they are **attenuated** (weakened). This allows some unattended information to pass through for further processing, albeit at a reduced strength. 2\. **Thresholds for Processing**: Each stimulus has a **threshold** for recognition: High-priority stimuli (e.g., your name) have lower thresholds and are more likely to be recognized even when attenuated. Low-priority stimuli have higher thresholds and are less likely to break through. 3\. **Flow of Information**: The model retains elements of Broadbent's structure: Inputs → Sensory Buffer (S-System) → Attenuator → Limited-Capacity Channel. However, the **attenuator** allows partial processing of unattended information based on its significance. **Diagram Explanation** **Input and Sensory System (S-System)**: All incoming sensory stimuli are stored briefly in parallel. **Attenuator**: Replaces the rigid filter in Broadbent's model. Weakens (attenuates) irrelevant stimuli instead of completely blocking them. **Limited-Capacity Channel**: Processes selected stimuli serially, prioritising relevant inputs. **Storage and Response**: Processed information is stored in long-term memory or used to generate responses. **Significance of Treisman's Model** **Flexibility**: Explains why certain unattended stimuli (e.g., a name or emotional words) can still be processed. **Real-World Relevance**: Reflects the adaptive nature of attention, which allows critical stimuli to interrupt focus when necessary. **Foundation for Later Theories**: Influenced models that incorporate both bottom-up (stimulus-driven) and top-down (goal-driven) attention mechanisms. **[Deutsch & Deutsch Model (1963): Late Selection Theory]** **Core Idea**: Unlike early selection models (e.g., Broadbent's Filter Theory), the Deutsch & Deutsch model proposes that **all sensory inputs are processed fully** to the level of meaning (semantic processing) before attention is applied. The decision about which stimuli to respond to is made **after this full processing**, based on **importance or pertinence**. **Key Components in the Model (From Diagram):** 1\. **Input**: All stimuli from the environment are received and enter the system simultaneously. 2\. **Sensory Processing**: All inputs are fully analyzed for their physical, syntactic, and semantic characteristics. Example: If a person hears multiple conversations in a room, all conversations are processed to understand their meaning. 3\. **Pertinence Device**: The pertinence device assigns importance to each input based on the context or current goals. Example: A person may focus on one conversation because it aligns with their immediate interests or needs. 4\. **Signal Selection**: Based on the pertinence device, one input is selected for further action or response. Example: A person decides to respond to their name being called in a noisy room. 5\. **Attended Object (Objeto Atendido)**: The selected input becomes the focus of attention, and a response is generated. **[Early vs. Late Selection]** **Early Selection** (e.g., Broadbent's Filter Theory): Attention acts as a filter at the sensory processing stage, allowing only selected stimuli (based on physical characteristics) to undergo deeper processing. Unattended stimuli are filtered out and not processed further. **Strength**: Explains how attention reduces information overload. **Weakness**: Cannot explain why unattended information (e.g., hearing your name) sometimes breaks through. **Late Selection** (Deutsch & Deutsch Model): All stimuli are processed to the level of meaning before attention is applied. Selection occurs later, based on importance or pertinence. **Strength**: Explains phenomena like the "cocktail party effect," where unattended but meaningful stimuli (e.g., your name) can capture attention. **Weakness**: Processing all stimuli to the level of meaning is resource-intensive and may not align with evidence of limited processing capacity. **[Early Experiments on Selective Visual Attention ]** **1. Visual Attention vs. Auditory Attention** **Visual Information**: Unlike auditory stimuli, visual information is **distributed in space** and **remains over time**. Visual experiments can present entire displays **simultaneously in parallel**, allowing greater control over the display and manipulation of stimuli. **Key Advantage**: Researchers can manipulate the **time** a stimulus is displayed and explore the **physical and semantic relationships** between targets and distractors. **[Key Contributions of the Deutsch & Deutsch Model]** 1\. **Importance-Based Selection**: Shifts the focus of attention theories from physical attributes (early selection) to **semantic relevance**. Attention prioritizes stimuli based on their pertinence to current goals or context. 2\. **Applicability to Real-World Scenarios**: Explains how we can process a lot of information unconsciously but respond only to the most important stimuli. Example: During multitasking, you might unconsciously process background conversations but react only when someone mentions something highly relevant to you. 3\. **Comparison to Treisman's Attenuation Model**: While Treisman's model weakens (attenuates) unattended stimuli, the Deutsch & Deutsch model argues that all stimuli are fully processed before selection. **Criticism of the Deutsch & Deutsch Model** 1\. **Cognitive Load**: Processing all incoming stimuli to the level of meaning is computationally expensive and may exceed the brain's capacity. 2\. **Empirical Evidence**: Some experiments (e.g., dichotic listening tasks) suggest that not all unattended stimuli are fully processed, especially when tasks are demanding. **[Sperling (early selection) and Selective Attention]** **Context and Research Focus:** George Sperling (1960) conducted experiments to understand the capacity and duration of visual sensory memory (**iconic memory**) and how selective attention operates within this system. His studies revealed that while humans can briefly retain a large amount of sensory information, only a small portion of it can be transferred to **working memory** through selective attention. **Experimental Setup**: Sperling used a **tachistoscope**, a device that briefly displays stimuli (e.g., letters) for very short periods (milliseconds). The tachistoscope allows for precise control over **exposure duration** and can present **complex visual displays** with various fields and probes. **Initial Findings**: **Whole Report Condition**: When subjects viewed 12 letters for 50 ms, they could only report 4-5 items, suggesting a **high capacity, rapidly fading memory** for visual information. **Interpretation**: Sperling concluded that visual memory (called **iconic memory**) holds information briefly before it decays, unless it is processed further. - **[Partial Report vs. Total Report]** **1. Total Report Method:** **Procedure**: Participants were briefly shown a grid of 12 letters (e.g., 3 rows of 4 letters) for 50 milliseconds. They were asked to recall **all the letters** they could remember. **Findings**: Participants could only recall 3--4 letters, even though they reported "seeing" all of them. Conclusion: The limitation wasn't due to the inability to see the letters but rather the rapid decay of the visual memory before all items could be recalled. Suggests a **capacity limitation in transferring information from sensory memory to short-term memory**. **2. Partial Report Method:** **Procedure**: Similar to the total report method, but after the grid of letters was displayed, participants were cued (e.g., by a tone) to report only one specific row (e.g., the top row). The tone was presented **after** the display disappeared. **Findings**: Participants could recall almost all the letters in the cued row (3--4 items out of 4), indicating that the entire grid was briefly available in sensory memory. However, the accuracy decreased as the delay between the display and the cue increased. **Conclusion**: **Sensory memory has a larger capacity than previously thought**, but the information fades quickly (within about 500 milliseconds). Selective attention determines which information is transferred to short-term memory. - **[Item Identity and Item Position]** **Item Identity:** Refers to **what** the stimulus is (e.g., the specific letters or symbols presented in the grid). **Key Finding**: Participants could identify specific items (letters) when cued, suggesting that sensory memory retains detailed information about the identity of stimuli for a short duration. **Item Position:** Refers to **where** the stimulus is located (e.g., the position of letters in the grid). **Key Finding**: Participants were more accurate at recalling letters based on their positions in the grid when cued. This indicates that sensory memory stores positional information alongside the identity of the items. **Relation Between Item Identity and Item Position:** Sperling's findings showed that both item identity and position are briefly stored in sensory memory but degrade rapidly unless attended to. Selective attention plays a critical role in transferring these features into longer-term storage for further processing. **[Implications for Selective Attention]** 1\. **Sensory Memory Capacity**: Sensory memory has a high capacity but a short duration. Selective attention acts as a gatekeeper, determining which parts of the visual input are processed further. 2\. **Temporal Decay**: Information in sensory memory decays rapidly unless attention is directed toward it (e.g., through a cue in the partial report method). 3\. **Selective Attention as a Filter**: Sperling's work supports the idea that selective attention filters incoming sensory data to focus on relevant stimuli, allowing their transfer into short-term memory. **Significance of Sperling's Research** 1\. **Role of Attention**: Attention selects specific items (based on cues) from sensory memory for further processing. Demonstrates that we see more than we can process but need attention to focus on important elements. 2\. **Foundation for Modern Theories**: Sperling's findings provided a foundation for understanding how sensory memory interacts with attention and working memory. Highlighted the limitations of human processing capacity. **[Unattended Information: Corteen & Wood (1972)]** **Research Focus:** The study aimed to explore whether **unattended information** in a dichotic listening task (two different audio messages presented to each ear) could still be processed **unconsciously**. It tested the idea that even if a stimulus is ignored, it might still affect the listener at a physiological level. **Experimental Design:** 1\. **Phase 1: Conditioning**: Participants were conditioned to associate specific city names (e.g., "London," "Paris") with a mild electric shock. Over time, these city names began to evoke a **Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)**: GSR measures the electrical conductance of the skin, which increases with arousal or stress. This indicated that participants had learned an association between the city names and the shock. 2\. **Phase 2: Dichotic Listening Task**: Participants were then presented with two simultaneous messages in a dichotic listening task: **Attended Channel**: A meaningful narrative to which participants were instructed to listen. **Unattended Channel**: A series of unrelated words, including some of the previously conditioned city names. Participants were instructed to ignore the unattended channel completely. 3\. **Measurement**: While participants listened, their **GSR/EDA** was monitored. Researchers looked for physiological responses (skin conductance changes) when conditioned city names appeared in the unattended channel. **Key Findings:** 1\. **Physiological Responses**: When conditioned city names (e.g., "London," "Paris") were presented in the **unattended channel**, participants showed **GSR/EDA responses**. This indicated that the city names were recognized at an **unconscious level**, even though participants were not paying attention to them. 2\. **Generalization**: GSR responses were also triggered by other city names that had not been part of the original conditioning. Suggests that some level of semantic processing occurred for unattended information, allowing generalization based on meaning. **Implications for Attention and Unattended Information:** 1\. **Challenges to Early Selection Models**: Broadbent's **early selection theory** suggested that unattended information is filtered out at a physical level before semantic processing. Corteen & Wood's findings showed that **semantic processing of unattended information** could occur, even when the stimuli were not consciously attended to. 2\. **Support for Late Selection Models**: The results align with late selection theories (e.g., **Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963**), which propose that all stimuli are processed to the level of meaning before attention determines which stimuli reach awareness. 3\. **Unconscious Processing**: The experiment demonstrated that unattended information could influence physiological responses, suggesting that the brain processes more information than we are consciously aware of. This has implications for understanding subliminal perception and unconscious learning. **Significance of Galvanic Skin Response (EDA):** **Why Use GSR?** GSR provides an objective, physiological measure of arousal or stress, bypassing the need for conscious awareness or verbal reports. This made it ideal for detecting responses to unattended stimuli, which participants might not be able to report consciously. **Key Insights from EDA**: Unattended stimuli (e.g., city names) triggered autonomic nervous system responses, indicating that these stimuli were processed at a subconscious level. **[Selective Filtering and Selective Set - Eriksen & Eriksen (1974)]** **The Target and Flankers Task** **Goal**: To examine how irrelevant (flanker) stimuli affect selective attention and response selection. **Task Setup**: Participants were asked to identify a **target letter** (e.g., H, K, or S) in a string of letters. **Targets**: Targets "H" or "K" required a **Response A**. Target "S" required a **Response B**. **Flankers**: Letters surrounding the target could either: **Match the target response** (e.g., KKHKK). **Conflict with the target response** (e.g., SSHSS). **Findings**: Reaction times were slower and errors more frequent when flankers conflicted with the target. This interference demonstrates that even irrelevant stimuli (flankers) are processed to some extent, affecting selective attention. **Significance**: Attention requires filtering out irrelevant stimuli. Flanker interference shows that filtering isn't perfect, and surrounding stimuli can compete with the target for attention. **[Perceptual Load and Selective Attention]** **The Early and Late Selection Debate** **Early Selection (Sperling)**: Proposes that attention acts as a **filter** at the sensory level. Irrelevant stimuli are blocked **before reaching conscious awareness**. Example: Sperling's partial report method shows that sensory memory holds a large amount of information briefly, but selective attention determines what is transferred to working memory. **Late Selection (Eriksen & Eriksen)**: Suggests that all stimuli are processed to a **semantic level**, but attention determines which stimuli are acted upon. Example: The flanker task demonstrates that irrelevant stimuli (flankers) can still influence responses, indicating semantic processing of unattended information.  **Perceptual Load and Working Memory: Inverse Relationship** **Perceptual Load Theory** (Lavie, 1995): When a task has **low perceptual load** (less demanding), there is spare capacity to process irrelevant stimuli, leading to more distraction. When a task has **high perceptual load** (more demanding), fewer resources are available for processing irrelevant stimuli, reducing distraction. **Relationship to Working Memory**: Perceptual load and working memory are inversely related: High perceptual load reduces working memory resources available for other tasks. Low perceptual load leaves more resources for working memory tasks. **[Attention and Spatial Location: Posner Task and Global vs. Local Processing]** **Posner's Spatial Cueing Task (1980)** **Purpose:** To investigate how attention is directed to specific spatial locations. Focuses on **covert spatial attention**, where attention shifts without moving the eyes. **Procedure:** 1\. Participants respond as quickly as possible to a target (e.g., dot or shape) on a screen. 2\. A **cue** directs attention to a specific location before the target appears: **Valid Trials**: The cue correctly indicates the target's location. **Invalid Trials**: The cue directs attention to the wrong location. **Neutral Trials**: No cue is given, leaving attention unbiased. **Key Findings and Concepts** 1\. **Valid Trials vs. Invalid Trials**: **Valid Trials**: Faster responses as attention is already focused on the correct location. **Benefit of Attention**: Faster reaction times (RTvalid \< RTneutral). **Invalid Trials**: Slower responses as attention must shift to the correct location. **Cost of Attention**: Slower reaction times (RTinvalid \> RTneutral). 2\. **Cue Types**: **Central Cues**: Symbolic cues (e.g., an arrow pointing to a location). Engage **endogenous attention** (voluntary, goal-driven attention). Slower to deploy but more sustained. **Peripheral Cues**: Sudden flashes near the target location. Engage **exogenous attention** (involuntary, stimulus-driven attention). Rapidly deployed but fades quickly. 3\. **Validity Ratios**: **80%-20% Validity Ratio**: The cue is valid most of the time, leading to greater reliance and noticeable benefits in valid trials but costs in invalid trials. **50%-50% Validity Ratio**: Cues are equally likely to be valid or invalid, reducing reliance and the difference in reaction times. 4\. **Inhibition of Return (IOR)**: A delay between the cue and the target (\>300ms) makes attention less likely to return to the cued location. Encourages exploration of new locations rather than revisiting previously attended ones. **The Spotlight Model of Attention** Attention functions like a "spotlight," enhancing processing within a focused spatial area. **Key Implications**: Stimuli within the spotlight are processed faster and more accurately. Stimuli outside the spotlight are processed less efficiently. **[Global and Local Processing]** **Definitions:** **Global Processing**: Perceiving the overall structure or big picture. Example: Recognizing a forest rather than individual trees. **Local Processing**: Focusing on specific details or individual elements. Example: Identifying individual trees in a forest. **Research Findings:** **Navon Figures (1977)**: Participants were shown large letters made up of smaller letters (e.g., a large "H" composed of small "S"s). Tasks involved identifying the **global (large)** or **local (small)** features. **Findings**: Global information is generally processed faster. Local details can dominate when attention is specifically directed to them or under task demands. **Applications of the Posner Task** 1\. **Understanding Attention Mechanisms**: Demonstrates how spatial cues influence the allocation of attention and response times. 2\. **Research on Disorders**: Used to study attention deficits in conditions like ADHD or brain lesions. 3\. **Real-World Implications**: Explains how visual cues affect performance in tasks like driving, reading, or monitoring screens. **[Neural Bases of Visual Attention]** 1. **Posterior System** The posterior system in the brain is responsible for **overt and covert orienting of attention**. - **Overt Orienting** Involves moving the eyes or head to focus on a stimulus. Example: Looking directly at a flashing light to process it. - **Covert Orienting** Shifting attention without moving the eyes or head. Example: Paying attention to an object in your peripheral vision while keeping your gaze fixed elsewhere. Associated with Posner's **spotlight model**, where attention shifts spatially independent of eye movement. **Brain Structures Involved:** **Parietal Lobe**: Directs spatial attention by prioritizing areas of interest in the visual field. Damage to the parietal lobe can result in **visual neglect**, where a person ignores stimuli in one part of their visual field. **Superior Colliculus**: Helps control eye movements and integrates sensory information for spatial orienting. **2. Anterior System** The anterior system is involved in **executive control of attention** and is linked to goal-directed and sustained attention. **Functions:** Responsible for maintaining alertness and focusing attention on specific tasks or stimuli. Plays a role in selecting relevant information and inhibiting distractions. **Brain Structures Involved:** **Prefrontal Cortex**: Governs higher-order decision-making and controls voluntary attention shifts. **Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)**: Regulates conflict monitoring (e.g., resolving interference in selective attention tasks). **Alerting System**: The **locus coeruleus**, a structure in the brainstem, modulates arousal and vigilance via the release of norepinephrine. **[Hemispheric Specialization and Visual Neglect]** **1. Attention and Hemispheric Specialization** The two hemispheres of the brain have specialized roles in attention: **Right Hemisphere**: Dominates spatial attention and is responsible for attending to stimuli in both visual fields. Damage to the right parietal lobe often leads to **visual neglect** (ignoring stimuli on the left side). **Left Hemisphere**: Focuses more on language and detailed processing. **2. Visual Neglect** **Definition**: A condition where individuals fail to attend to stimuli on one side of their visual field (usually the left), despite normal vision. Caused by damage to the **right parietal lobe**. **Symptoms**: Patients ignore objects or people on the neglected side. Example: A patient may eat food only on the right side of their plate. **Mechanism**: Inability to disengage attention from one side to focus on stimuli on the neglected side. **3. Visual Extinction** **Definition**: A milder form of visual neglect where the patient can detect single stimuli in either visual field but **fails to detect stimuli on the neglected side** when presented simultaneously with stimuli on the intact side. **Example**: If a doctor wiggles one finger in the left field, the patient notices it. If both fingers are wiggled simultaneously, the patient perceives only the right-side stimulus. **[Engaging, Disengaging, and Shifting Visual Attention]** These three components are crucial for visual attention and are associated with distinct neural mechanisms: 1\. **Engage Visual Attention**: The process of focusing on a specific stimulus. Involves the **thalamus**, which acts as a relay station for sensory input. Example: Focusing on a moving object. 2\. **Disengage Visual Attention**: The process of releasing attention from a stimulus to shift to another target. Associated with the **parietal lobe**. Damage to the parietal lobe disrupts this ability, as seen in **visual neglect**. 3\. **Shift Visual Attention**: Moving attention from one stimulus to another. Controlled by the **superior colliculus**, which coordinates eye movements and attention shifts. **Clinical and Experimental Relevance** **Posner Task and Visual Neglect**: Studies using tasks like the Posner cueing paradigm demonstrate how parietal lobe damage affects attention disengagement. **Treatment of Visual Neglect**: Techniques like cueing or eye movement training are used to help patients with neglect or extinction regain spatial awareness. **Combining Attributes** **Overview** Visual perception requires integrating multiple attributes of an object (e.g., color, shape, motion) to form a coherent representation. This process is not automatic; attention plays a critical role in binding these features together. Problems in this integration process can lead to **attentional dyslexia** and other visual deficits. **[The Integration Problem]** **What is the Integration Problem?** When we see an object, its features (e.g., color, shape, location) are processed separately in the brain by different regions. The **integration problem** refers to how the brain combines these features to form a unified percept of the object. **Role of Attention**: Attention acts as the glue that binds features together into a coherent whole. Without attention, features from different objects may be **miscombined**, leading to errors in perception (e.g., perceiving the color of one object as belonging to another). **Frames of Predictable Objects**: Predictable patterns or known frames help reduce the integration problem by matching current sensory inputs to stored representations in memory. **Master Map of Features**: The brain uses a "master map" to recover and combine information about an object's attributes. This map ensures that features like color, size, and location correspond to the same object. **Illusory Conjunctions:** When attention is absent or divided, the brain may incorrectly combine features from different objects, leading to **illusory conjunctions** (e.g., perceiving a red square when a red circle and blue square are present). **Binding Problem**: Occurs when the brain fails to correctly bind multiple features of the same object due to lack of attention. **[Feature Integration Theory (Treisman, 1980)]** Feature Integration Theory explains the steps involved in combining visual features into a coherent object: 1\. **Object Presentation**: The object enters the visual field. 2\. **Pre-Attentive Stage**: At this stage, the brain **identifies primitive features** (e.g., edges, color, orientation) automatically and in parallel. No binding occurs; features exist independently of one another. 3\. **Focused Attention Stage**: Attention is applied to combine the primitives (features) into a cohesive perception of the object. Without attention, the features remain unbound, leading to illusory conjunctions. 4\. **Object Identification**: The combined features are recognized as a specific object. 5\. **Comparison with Memory**: The identified object is matched with stored knowledge in memory to assign meaning (e.g., recognizing the object as an apple). **Implications**: When attention is disrupted (e.g., by multitasking), feature integration errors occur, leading to perceptual confusion. **[What is Attentional Dyslexia?]** - A type of reading disorder where individuals struggle to correctly integrate letters and words during reading. - Unlike phonological or visual dyslexia, attentional dyslexia is specifically related to attention and integration issues. **Key Features:** 1\. **Misbindings**: Letters from one word may combine with letters from another word, leading to reading errors. Example: Reading "cat mat" as "cat hat." 2\. **Difficulty with Multiple Words**: Patients may accurately read a single word but struggle when multiple words are presented simultaneously. 3\. **Normal Visual and Language Processing**: Basic visual and linguistic abilities are intact; the deficit lies in attention and integration. **Neural Basis:** Linked to dysfunctions in the **parietal lobe**, which is crucial for spatial attention and feature integration. **Experimental Evidence:** Studies using visual arrays show that individuals with attentional dyslexia have difficulty filtering irrelevant information and focusing on the correct features of a word. **["Where" and "What" Pathways]** **Two Streams of Visual Processing:** The brain processes visual information through two distinct pathways: 1\. **Dorsal Stream ("Where" Pathway)**: Processes spatial information, including the location and motion of objects. Involves the **parietal lobe**. Example: Identifying where a car is moving on the road. 2\. **Ventral Stream ("What" Pathway)**: Processes object identity, including shape, color, and other features. Involves the **temporal lobe**. Example: Recognizing a car as a "sedan." **Integration of "Where" and "What":** Both streams must work together to fully perceive an object. Example: Recognizing a flying bird (ventral stream) and determining its trajectory (dorsal stream). **Impairments:** Damage to the dorsal stream can cause spatial deficits, while ventral stream damage affects object recognition. Attentional dyslexia involves a disruption in the coordination between these two streams, affecting the integration of object features (e.g., letters and their positions). **Clinical and Experimental Relevance** **Treatment for Attentional Dyslexia**: Training tasks that improve attentional control and feature integration may help. **Application of Integration Research**: Understanding the integration problem aids in designing interventions for attention-related disorders (e.g., neglect, ADHD). **Neural Basis**: The dorsal and ventral streams are crucial for resolving the integration problem, and damage to these areas can lead to deficits in spatial attention or object recognition. **[Kahneman's Central Capacity Theory (1973)]** **Overview** - Kahneman proposed a **resource model of attention**, which views attention as a limited pool of resources that must be allocated across tasks. - This model explains how humans perform **multiple tasks simultaneously (divided attention)** and why performance declines as task demands exceed available resources. **[Key Components of Kahneman's Model]** **1. Central Processor (Central Capacity)** A single, flexible **pool of resources** shared across all tasks. Resources are finite, meaning they cannot meet all demands simultaneously when tasks are too demanding. **2. Arousal Level** **Arousal** influences the total amount of attention resources available: Higher arousal (e.g., excitement or urgency) increases available capacity up to a point. Excessive arousal (e.g., stress) may reduce efficiency in allocating resources. **3. Enduring Dispositions** Automatic, involuntary factors that capture attention. Example: A loud sound or sudden movement might involuntarily draw attention even when focusing on another task. **4. Momentary Intentions** Voluntary, goal-directed factors that allocate attention based on current tasks or priorities. Example: Choosing to focus on studying for an exam instead of checking your phone. **5. Allocation Policy** A system that determines how resources are divided between tasks. The allocation policy depends on: **Task demands** (some tasks require more resources than others). **Task priority** (high-priority tasks receive more attention). **Automatic vs. controlled processes** (automatic processes require fewer resources than controlled processes). **6. Evaluation of Demands on Capacity** The brain continuously evaluates whether available resources can meet the demands of ongoing tasks. If demands exceed available capacity, performance declines (e.g., errors, slower responses). **[Key Concepts of Divided Attention in Kahneman's Model]** **1. Multiple Tasks and Filtering** Tasks compete for shared attentional resources: Low-demand tasks can be performed simultaneously (e.g., walking and talking). High-demand tasks may cause performance to deteriorate when done together (e.g., driving and texting). **2. From Bottleneck to Resources** Kahneman's model shifts from the **bottleneck theory** of attention (which posits strict sequential processing) to a **resource model**: Instead of blocking simultaneous tasks, attention divides limited resources across them. The success of multitasking depends on the total resource demand. **[Strengths of Kahneman's Model]** 1\. **Flexibility**: Unlike earlier bottleneck models, Kahneman's model explains why some tasks can be done simultaneously. 2\. **Task Priority**: Explains how we prioritize tasks when attention demands exceed capacity. 3\. **Dynamic Resource Allocation**: Accounts for variability in attention based on arousal and task complexity. **[Problems/Limitations]** 1\. **Independent Measure of Resources**: It is difficult to measure or quantify the exact amount of attention resources available or required by a task. 2\. **Task-Specific Models**: Critics argue that not all tasks draw from the same resource pool; some tasks (e.g., visual vs. auditory) may have separate resources. 3\. **Oversimplification**: The model may oversimplify attention, as it doesn't fully account for specialized processing systems (e.g., spatial vs. verbal tasks). **[Applications of Kahneman's Model]** **Multitasking:** Helps explain why multitasking often reduces performance. Example: Driving (high-demand visual-motor task) while texting (high-demand cognitive task) overwhelms the resource pool, leading to slower reaction times and errors. **Workload Management:** In real-world tasks like aviation, understanding the limits of attention resources is crucial for designing interfaces and workflows that minimize overload. **Cognitive Load:** Kahneman's model is foundational for understanding **cognitive load theory**, which informs instructional design by emphasizing the need to reduce unnecessary task demands during learning. Here's a detailed explanation of the **Multiple Resources Model (Navon & Gopher, 1979)** and its key components: **[Multiple Resources Model (Navon & Gopher, 1979)]** The **Multiple Resources Model** proposes that attention is not a single, shared resource (as Kahneman suggested) but rather a set of **multiple, task-specific resources**. Each resource pool is specialized for a particular type of task or cognitive process, such as visual or auditory tasks, spatial processing, or verbal tasks. **Key Insight**: Tasks that draw on **different resources** interfere less with each other, allowing for better multitasking. Tasks that share the **same resource pool** create interference, reducing performance. **Key Principles** **1. Task-Specific Resources** Attention consists of **multiple resource pools**, each dedicated to a particular type of task or information processing: **Sensory Resources**: Separate resources for processing visual, auditory, and tactile stimuli. **Cognitive Resources**: Specialized for spatial, verbal, or memory-based processing. **Motor Resources**: Dedicated to executing physical actions. **2. Performance Depends on Resource Allocation** Successful task performance depends on the **amount of resources allocated** to a task. When performing two tasks simultaneously: If tasks draw on **separate resources**, they can often be performed well without significant interference. If tasks compete for **shared resources**, interference occurs, and performance declines. **3. Classification of Resources When Performing Two Tasks** When performing two tasks simultaneously, resource usage can be classified into four categories: **Category** **Explanation** **Resources for Task 1** Resources allocated exclusively to the first task. **Resources for Task 2** Resources allocated exclusively to the second task. **Shared Resources** Resources used by both tasks simultaneously. Interference is most likely in this category. **Unused Resources** Resources that are not used by either task, which could be reallocated to improve performance. **4. Interference and Shared Resources** The **degree of interference** between two tasks depends on the extent to which they share the same resource pool: **High Overlap**: If two tasks rely on the same resources (e.g., both are visual-spatial tasks), performance on both tasks is likely to decline due to competition for resources. **Low Overlap**: If two tasks rely on different resources (e.g., one is auditory and the other is visual), they can be performed simultaneously with little interference. **Examples of Task Interference:** 1\. **Low Interference**: Listening to music (auditory processing) while writing (motor and visual processing). 2\. **High Interference**: Reading a text message (visual-verbal processing) while watching the road while driving (visual-spatial processing). **Applications of the Multiple Resources Model** **1. Multitasking** The model explains why some multitasking scenarios are more successful than others: Tasks that compete for the same resource pool are harder to perform simultaneously. For example, holding a phone conversation while typing a document may lead to fewer errors than typing while reading. **2. Task Design** In workplaces, understanding resource competition can improve task design to minimize interference. Example: Designing auditory alerts for pilots (auditory resources) instead of visual alerts (which may overload visual resources). Here's a detailed explanation of the **automaticity, skill, and expertise** concepts based on the content from the slide: **Automaticity, Skill, and Expertise** **Key Question: Can Two Activities Be Done at the Same Time?** The ability to perform two tasks simultaneously depends on whether the tasks are **automatic** or **controlled** processes. **Controlled Processes**: Require **conscious effort** and **attentional resources**. Learned through deliberate practice. Are **slow**, effortful, and difficult to execute alongside other tasks. **Automatic Processes**: Require little to no conscious effort or attention. Are typically acquired through **learning and repetition**. Are **fast**, efficient, and can be executed alongside other tasks with minimal interference. **[Automated Models: Criteria for Differentiating Automatic and Controlled Processes]** **1. Sensitivity Criterion: Number of Alternatives** Automaticity is influenced by how sensitive a process is to **learning and repetition**: **Controlled Processes**: Performance improves with **practice and learning**. Example: Learning to play a musical instrument requires deliberate practice. **Automatic Processes**: Performance is **independent of learning or repetition** once automaticity is achieved. Example: Typing on a keyboard becomes automatic with sufficient practice. **2. Criterion of Interference in New Learning** How easily the process integrates with new tasks or learning: **Controlled Processes**: Interfere significantly with new learning due to resource competition. Example: Learning to drive while processing new road signs. **Automatic Processes**: Minimal interference with new learning. Example: Walking while talking. **3. Criterion of Interference Between Two Concurrent Tasks** Degree of interference when two tasks are performed simultaneously: **Lack of Automaticity**: Tasks with low automaticity create **higher interference** during multitasking. Example: Reading a book while listening to a podcast. **Automatic Processes**: Minimized interference due to efficiency and resource independence. Example: Driving on a familiar route while listening to the radio. **Implications for Automaticity, Skill, and Expertise** **Automaticity in High-Skilled Tasks** Automaticity allows experts to perform complex tasks effortlessly and with minimal attention: Example: A professional pianist can play a challenging piece while focusing on interpreting its emotional expression rather than the mechanics of each note. **Cognitive Economy** Automaticity conserves cognitive resources, allowing individuals to: Focus on higher-level tasks. Perform multiple tasks simultaneously. **Interference in Dual-Task Situations** When two controlled processes compete for attentional resources, performance deteriorates due to interference. Tasks that become automatic through practice reduce this interference, enabling smoother multitasking. **[Selection and Control of Action Models]** **Overview** **Goal**: Mechanisms for controlling and guiding conscious activities to achieve goals. **Key Insight**: Attention is a **limited-capacity mechanism**, and its primary function is to prioritize and regulate actions by focusing on goal-relevant activities while inhibiting irrelevant ones. **[Attention for Action Model: Norman and Shallice (1986)]** **Key Concepts** This model describes how attention regulates and guides actions through different **levels of control**, depending on the complexity and automaticity of the task. **Levels of Organization** 1\. **Automatic Control**: Actions that are highly learned and require little to no conscious attention. Governed by well-established **schemas** (mental frameworks for action sequences). Example: Tying shoelaces or brushing teeth. 2\. **Almost Automatic but Without Awareness**: Actions are executed with minimal attention but may require basic adjustments or orientation. **Orientation Scheduling**: Helps adjust focus to relevant stimuli within the environment without fully engaging conscious control. Example: Walking while talking, where small environmental adjustments (e.g., stepping around an obstacle) occur automatically. 3\. **Intentional Control (SAS - Supervisory Attentional System)**: Engaged when: A novel or complex task requires focused attention. A conflict arises between competing schemas or responses. A non-automatic behavior needs to override an automatic response. Example: Driving on an unfamiliar route or resolving a moral dilemma. **The Supervisory Attentional System (SAS)** **Definition**: The SAS is a higher-order cognitive system that oversees, modulates, and resolves conflicts between competing action schemas. **Functions**: 1\. **Conflict Resolution**: SAS inhibits inappropriate schemas and activates goal-relevant schemas. 2\. **Novel Actions**: SAS is critical for handling new or complex situations that cannot rely on automatic processes. 3\. **Inhibition**: Adds a level of inhibition to prevent inappropriate actions or distractions. **Example**: Choosing to study instead of scrolling on your phone, where the SAS suppresses the habitual (automatic) tendency to pick up the phone. **Role of Automaticity** **Automatic Processes**: Decrease the burden on attentional resources by delegating routine tasks to automatic systems. **When Automaticity Fails**: SAS is required to step in when routine behaviors are insufficient (e.g., an emergency while driving on autopilot). **How Does the Model Work?** 1\. **Automatic Actions**: Governed by schemas that operate in familiar and predictable environments. Little to no attentional control is required. 2\. **Schema Control and Orientation Scheduling**: In almost automatic situations, minimal attention is allocated to monitor and adjust the process. 3\. **SAS Activation**: When a task demands conscious effort or a novel action, SAS is activated to guide behavior, resolve conflicts, and select appropriate responses. **Applications of the Model** **1. Everyday Behavior** **Routine Actions**: Governed by automatic schemas. **New or Complex Tasks**: SAS becomes active to plan, monitor, and execute actions. **2. Task Prioritization** Helps explain how attention is allocated between competing tasks, particularly in multitasking or conflict situations. **3. Clinical Applications** **Executive Function Disorders**: Deficits in the SAS can lead to difficulties in overriding automatic behaviors or planning novel actions. Example: Patients with frontal lobe damage may struggle with task-switching or impulse control.