NU BACOLOD PSYCH01X Introduction to Psychology PDF

PSYCH01X Introduction to Psychology Module 1 AY 2024 - 2025 Prepared by: John Dave A. Abaño Psychology Faculty  MODULE 1 TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Insert Title LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1. Reflect on how to exemplify the mission, vision, and core values of the institution. 2. Discuss the int...

PSYCH01X Introduction to Psychology Module 1 AY 2024 - 2025 Prepared by: John Dave A. Abaño Psychology Faculty  MODULE 1 TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Insert Title LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1. Reflect on how to exemplify the mission, vision, and core values of the institution. 2. Discuss the interactions between S&T and society throughout history 3. Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and environment 4. Creatively present the importance and contributions of science and technology to society. LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY This lesson is designed to introduce you to the scientific study of behavior and mental processes and relevant topics that surround it from the nervous system to social behavior in groups and organizations. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of psychology as a science, including its history, major perspectives, and research methods. DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Topics include the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, intelligence, language, thought, growth and development, personality, stress and health, psychological disorders, treatment methods, sexual behavior, and social behavior in groups and organizations. Goals of psychology: Describe Explain Predict Control behavior and mental processes Theories in psychology propose reasons for relationships among events and allow predictions and explanations. For example, a threat perception can arouse anxiety. Psychological theories combine statements about behavior, mental processes, and biological processes. A satisfactory theory allows prediction of behavior. If observations don't fit the theory, it should be revised or replaced. WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO Psychologists are interested in behavior and engage in research, practice, and teaching. PSYCH01X INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – Module 1 Page 1 of 2  1. Basic (pure) research: Conducted out of interest in the topic with no immediate application. Pure research can lead to applications in the future, such as understanding learning and motivation. 2. Applied research: Designed to find solutions to specific problems. 3. Practice: Applying psychological knowledge to help individuals change behavior to meet goals. 4. Teaching: Sharing psychological knowledge in classrooms, seminars, and workshops. FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists specialize in various fields: 1. Clinical psychologists: Help people with psychological disorders through interviews and tests. They address anxiety, depression, and self-defeating behavior. 2. Counseling psychologists: Use interviews and tests to help clients with adjustment problems. 3. School psychologists: Identify and assist students with learning problems. 4. Educational psychologists: Focus on course planning and instructional methods for schools. 5. Developmental psychologists: Study changes throughout the life span and the influences of heredity and environment. 6. Personality psychologists: Identify and measure human traits and influences on thoughts, feelings, and behavior. 7. Social psychologists: Study individual thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations. 8. Environmental psychologists: Study interactions between people and their environments. 9. Experimental psychologists: Specialize in basic processes like the nervous system, sensation, perception, learning, memory, thought, motivation, and emotion. 10. Industrial psychologists: Focus on relationships between people and work. 11. Organizational psychologists: Study behavior in organizations. 12. Human factors psychologists: Make technical systems more user-friendly. 13. Consumer psychologists: Study shopper behavior to influence buying patterns. PSYCH01X INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – Module 1 Page 2 of 2  14. Health psychologists: Study the effects of stress on health and guide clients towards healthier behaviors. 15. Forensic psychologists: Apply psychology to the criminal justice system and address legal matters. 16. Sport psychologists: Help athletes improve performance and manage pressure. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology involves understanding ourselves, as old as history and modern as today. Knowledge of its history helps appreciate its theoretical conflicts, place among sciences, evolution of methods, and its social and political roles. Ancient Contributions: Socrates: Proposed "Know thyself", relying on rational thought and introspection. Aristotle: Suggested human behavior follows rules and laws, covering topics like personality, sensation, perception, thought, intelligence, needs, motives, feelings, emotion, and memory. Democritus: Discussed body and mind, external stimulation, and the idea of free will. Modern Psychology: Gustav Theodor Fechner: Published "Elements of Psychophysics" (1860), linking physical events to psychological sensations. Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychological laboratory (1879), used introspection to study experience. I. STRUCTURALISM Wilhelm Wundt founded structuralism, focusing on breaking down conscious experience into objective sensations (sight, taste) and subjective feelings (emotions, memories). II. FUNCTIONALISM William James developed functionalism, focusing on the relationship between conscious experience and behavior. He emphasized the fluid and continuous nature of consciousness and how experience helps adapt to the environment. Influenced by Charles Darwin, he proposed that adaptive behaviors are learned and maintained. III. BEHAVIORISM John B. Watson founded behaviorism, emphasizing observable behavior over mental processes. B.F. Skinner contributed by showing that behavior can be shaped through reinforcement. IV. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Gestalt psychologists (Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler) focused on perception and argued that perceptions are wholes that give meaning to parts. They demonstrated that learning can be active and purposeful, accomplished by insight. PSYCH01X INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – Module 1 Page 3 of 2  V. PSYCHOANALYSIS Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy. It posits that much of our lives are governed by unconscious ideas and impulses originating in childhood conflicts. Psychoanalysis aims to help patients gain insight into their conflicts and find socially acceptable ways to express wishes and needs. To further the discussion on the traditional schools in psychology, scan the qr code below and watch these videos. CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY Today, psychologists no longer identify as structuralists or functionalists. Although Gestalt psychology influenced research in perception and problem solving, few identify strictly as Gestalt psychologists. Instead, many are Gestalt therapists helping clients integrate conflicting parts of their personality. Numbers of orthodox behaviorists and psychoanalysts are declining, with many contemporary psychologists identifying as social-cognitive theorists who see human learning as intentional rather than mechanical. I. THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Biological psychologists study relationships between the brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution on one hand, and behavior and mental processes on the other. They examine how thoughts, fantasies, and dreams, as well as instinctive behavior patterns, are made possible by the nervous system and especially the brain. They also explore the role of heredity in behaviors and mental processes like psychological disorders and criminal behavior, emphasizing the interaction between environmental and inherited factors. II. THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Cognitive psychologists focus on mental processes to understand human nature. They study how we perceive and mentally represent the world, learn, remember, plan, solve problems, make PSYCH01X INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – Module 1 Page 4 of 2 decisions, and use language. The roots of cognitive psychology are in Socrates’ advice to "Know thyself", as well as in structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology. III. THE HUMANISTIC–EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE The humanistic-existential perspective emphasizes subjective experience. Humanism stresses self-fulfillment, consciousness, self-awareness, and decision-making. Existentialism focuses on free choice and ethical responsibility. This perspective is influenced by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. IV. THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE Psychodynamic theory, derived from Freud, dominated mid-20th century psychotherapy. Contemporary neoanalysts like Karen Horney and Erik Erikson focus on conscious choice and self-direction rather than just unconscious processes. PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING Learning psychologists study the effects of experience on behavior. Behaviorists like John B. Watson focus on environmental influences and habit formation through repetition and reinforcement. Social-cognitive theorists believe people can modify environments and engage in intentional learning by observing others. THE SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE The sociocultural perspective examines the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes. Ethnicity: Ethnic groups share cultural heritage, race, language, or history. Research by Kenneth and Mamie Clark highlighted the negative effects of school segregation on African American children. Jorge Sanchez showed intelligence tests are culturally biased against Mexican American children. Lillian Comas-Diaz and Richard M. Suinn have contributed to multicultural mental health research. Gender: Gender refers to culturally defined masculinity and femininity. Women have faced prejudice but have made significant contributions to psychology. Mary Whiton Calkins introduced the method of paired associates to study memory. Mary Ainsworth revolutionized our understanding of attachment between parents and children. The contributions of diverse ethnic groups and women have broadened our understanding of the influences of ethnicity and gender on behavior and mental processes. HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL PROCESSES Psychologists use the scientific method to observe and measure behavior and its influences. They choose a population to study, such as U.S. teenagers or older adults, and aim to get a representative sample. PSYCH01X INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – Module 1 Page 5 of 2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD The scientific method is a systematic way to use experience and test ideas to expand and refine knowledge. The steps are: 1. Formulate a research question: Can come from daily experiences, psychological theory, or common knowledge. 2. Develop a hypothesis: A testable statement about behavior or mental processes. 3. Test the hypothesis: Use controlled methods like experiments. 4. Draw conclusions: Based on observations and findings. Modify theories if needed. SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS A sample is a segment of a population. It must accurately represent the population to generalize findings. For example, using phone surveys during the Great Depression led to biased results because only wealthier people had phones. PROBLEMS IN GENERALIZING FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Consider the research sample's nature. College men who are social drinkers do not represent college women or the general adult male population. Question whether findings from one group can be extended to another. RANDOM AND STRATIFIED SAMPLING Random sampling: Each population member has an equal chance of being selected. Stratified sampling: Identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately. VOLUNTEER BIAS Volunteer bias occurs when research participants differ systematically from non-participants. For instance, volunteers in sexual behavior studies may be more liberal and willing to disclose intimate information. METHODS OF RESEARCH Many people consider themselves experts on behavior and mental processes, but personal observations are often fleeting and unsystematic. Scientists use controlled methods to study others. METHODS OF OBSERVATION Case Study: Collects detailed information about individuals or small groups. Often used to investigate rare occurrences, but subject to inaccuracies like memory gaps and distorted pasts. Survey: Collects data from large groups using questionnaires and interviews. Useful for studying behaviors that can't be observed directly. However, can be inaccurate due to false reporting and social desirability bias. Naturalistic Observation: Observes behavior in natural settings without interference. Example: Jane Goodall's studies of chimpanzees. CORRELATION Correlation: Investigates relationships between variables. For example, the relationship between intelligence and academic performance. Correlation coefficients range from +1.00 to -1.00. PSYCH01X INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – Module 1 Page 6 of 2 Positive correlation means both variables increase together, negative means one increases while the other decreases. Correlation does not prove causation. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Experiment: Preferred method for determining cause and effect. Participants are given a treatment and observed for changes in behavior. Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated (e.g., amount of alcohol). Dependent Variable: The measured outcome (e.g., aggressive behavior). Experimental Group: Receives the treatment. Control Group: Does not receive the treatment. Blinds and Double Blinds: To control for expectations, participants might be given a placebo. In double-blind studies, neither participants nor experimenters know who receives the treatment. This reduces experimenter bias. Example Study: Alcohol and Aggression Alan Lang's study: Participants drank either vodka and tonic or just tonic. Half were misled about what they drank. Results showed that beliefs about alcohol affected aggression more than the actual alcohol content. ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Psychologists adhere to ethical standards to promote individual dignity, human welfare, and scientific integrity. These standards ensure that psychologists avoid harmful research methods or treatments. ETHICS OF RESEARCH WITH HUMANS Informed Consent: Participants must provide informed consent before participating in research. They should have a general overview of the research and the opportunity to choose not to participate. This gives them a sense of control and decreases stress. Confidentiality: Psychologists keep the records of research participants and clients confidential to respect privacy and encourage true expressions of thoughts and feelings. Deception: Psychologists may use deception only when: The benefits of the research outweigh potential harm. Participants might have been willing to participate if they understood the benefits. Participants are debriefed afterward, meaning the purposes and methods are explained. Ethics Review Committees: These committees review proposed studies to ensure they are ethical, considering the potential harm and benefits. They may withhold approval until proposals are modified if necessary. Example: The Lang Study Participants in the Lang study on alcohol and aggression were deceived about what they were drinking and the nature of their actions (believing they were administering shocks). The study could not have been conducted without deception, but the ethics of such practices remain debated. ETHICS OF RESEARCH WITH ANIMALS PSYCH01X INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – Module 1 Page 7 of 2 Animal Research: Used when experiments cannot be conducted with humans. For example, experiments on early separation from the mother have been done with monkeys to study parent– child attachment bonds. Ethical Issues: Psychologists may destroy sections of the brains of laboratory animals to study the influence on behavior, hoping to find solutions to human problems like eating disorders. Justification: According to the APA's ethical guidelines, animals may be harmed only when: There is no alternative. The benefits of the research justify the harm. Proponents argue that major advances in medicine and psychology could not have taken place without animal research. For example, understanding how experimental drugs affect cancerous growths and the brain. CRITICAL THINKING Critical thinking is a hallmark of science. It involves thoughtfully analyzing and probing the questions, statements, and arguments of others. Psychologists apply critical thinking to evaluate the validity of their own research. PRINCIPLES OF CRITICAL THINKING 1. Be Skeptical: Keep an open mind. Question attitudes and beliefs, and accept nothing as true without examining the evidence. 2. Insist on Evidence: Don't accept opinions just because they are traditional, printed, or stated by authority figures. Always ask for evidence. 3. Examine Definitions of Terms: Understand that some statements are true based on one definition of a term but not on another. 4. Examine Assumptions: Identify and scrutinize the premises behind statements and arguments. 5. Be Cautious in Drawing Conclusions: Be wary of making broad assumptions from evidence. Compare benefits of treatment methods against each other or no treatment. 6. Be Skeptical of Anecdotes: Question whether personal experiences or stories are sufficient as evidence. 7. Consider Alternative Interpretations: Look for other factors that might explain research findings. 8. Do Not Oversimplify: Recognize the complexity of human behavior, which involves interactions REFERENCES Rathus, S. (2019). Psychology (5th ed.). Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd. PSYCH01X INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – Module 1 Page 8 of 2