Revision Class Lecture Notes PDF

Revision Class By Natasha Joksimovic  Introduction to Psychology Goals of Psychology Science of Key Theoretical Perspectives on Behaviour psychology Primer of well-known psychology studies Application of Psychology Science of psychology Psychology is...

Revision Class By Natasha Joksimovic  Introduction to Psychology Goals of Psychology Science of Key Theoretical Perspectives on Behaviour psychology Primer of well-known psychology studies Application of Psychology Science of psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes Behaviour - any activity that is directly observable Mental processes - not directly observable (e.g. thoughts, feelings) It uses the scientific method - use of objective procedures to understand how people think, act and feel 1) Observation, 2) Hypothesis, 3) Experimentation, 4) Data Analysis, 5)Conclusion It’s aim is to describe, understand, explain, predict, control and change behaviour Science of psychology Psychology as a science involves 2 types of research: Basic research – quest for knowledge purely for its own sake What factors influence exercise behaviour? Applied research – designed to solve specific practical problems Use basic scientific knowledge to design intervention programmes It uses a levels of analysis framework: Nature, nurture and psychological factors must all be taken into account to gain the fullest understanding of behaviour.  Foundations of psychology Psychology emerged as a science in 1879 Founder of modern psychology: Wilhelm Wundt, established the first psychology lab in Leipzig, developed the method of Science of Introspection Structuralism: proposed that conscious experience can be studied when broken psychology down into its basic underlying elements (Edward Titchener) Functionalism: Approach concerned with the function of consciousness (William James) Gestalt Perspective: “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts” (Max Wertheimer) Science of psychology Psychology perspectives Sociocultural (Individualism vs collectivism) Psychodynamic (Freud) Humanistic (Carl Rogers) Biological (Twin studies) Behavioural (Watson & Skinner) Cognitive (Jean Piaget) Explain cognitive biases- Know an experiment Types of Psychologists E.g. Therapist, educational psychology, Industrial and Organizational psychology, Sport Psychology Health Psychology  Structure of the Nervous System Structure of the Brain Brain and Functions of the Brain Behaviour Neural Connections Plasticity of the brain  The Nervous system The nervous system is the body’s control centre, consists of: Neurons – send a combination of electrical and chemical signals throughout the body, underly psychological processes Brain and Glial cells – support neurons The power of our mental processes is determined by Behaviour the number of these neurons and the number of connections (synapses) that can be made between neurons There are 3 major types of neurons in the nervous system Sensory neurons Motor neurons Interneurons Brain and Behaviour Two nervous systems The Central Nervous System (CNS) Made up of the brain and the spinal cord Brain responsible for all sensorimotor and cognitive functions Spinal cord is the main ‘cable’ that carries information to and from the brain The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Somatic nervous System: Sensory and motor functions Autonomic nervous system: Directs activity of body’s internal organs and glands Sympathetic nervous system (Fight or Flight) Parasympathetic nervous system (Rest and digest)  The Brain: Three major subdivisions: Hindbrain Connects brain to spinal cord Controls basic functions: breathing, alertness, motor skills Made up of the brainstem, Medulla, Pons and cerebellum Midbrain Helps integrate motor and sensory information Made up of the Tectum and tegmentum Brain and Forebrain Consists of: 1) Subcortical structures: Behaviour Thalamus Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Hippocampus Amygdala Basal ganglia 2.)Cerebral cortex (outer layer) The reticular formation (The brains gatekeeper) Runs though the midbrain and hindbrain Alerts higher centres of the brain that messages are coming: blocks/allows forward. Central role in consciousness and attention Brain and Behaviour Lobes of the Brain Know this diagram! Know the functions of each lobe and the effects of damage to it! E.g. Frontal Lobe: essential for planning, initiative, personality, self-awareness and movement Frontal Lobe damage: Inability to plan and carry out a sequence of actions Parietal Lobe: receives and processes sensory information Parietal Lobe damage: Create numbness or impair sensation Occipital Lobe: Sense of Vision Occipital Lobe damage: Blindness Temporal Lobe: Memory and Primary auditory cortex Temporal Lobe damage: Aphasia (trouble speaking, reading, writing, understanding language) or Impaired memory skills Brain and Behaviour Be able to label a neuron and the function of the parts Cell body: coordinates information processing tasks and keeps the cell alive Nucleus: brain of neuron – contains DNA Dendrites: receive information from other cells Axon: transmits information to other neurons Myelin sheath: fatty layer – helps transmit information faster. Neural communication Understand how messages are sent from one neuron to another In short: Electrical signal runs through the neuron as an action potential till it reaches the synapse, becomes a chemical signal as it releases neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft, reaches the dendrite of the second neuron, becomes an electrical signal again, repeats  Case studies: Phineas Gage Brain fully developed at 25 Neural plasticity: the ability of neurons Brain and and brain areas and networks to change in structure and function Behaviour Effects of early experience on brain development Recovery from brain damage Brain decline: Ageing Learning What is learning? Behavioural Learning Theory Learning processes Habituation Sensitization Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Applications of classical and operant conditioning in real life Social Learning Theory Learning Learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience Associations develop through conditioning, a process in which environmental stimuli and behavioral responses become connected Types of Learning Nonassociative learning: responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus, or event Associative learning: linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together Observational learning: acquiring or changing a behavior after exposure to another individual performing that behavior Learning Behavioural Learning theory Focuses on observations of actual measurable behaviours rather than unconscious or unobservable cognitive processes (e.g. thoughts, feelings) Behaviour is controlled directly by stimuli in the environment Learning is a process through which relatively permanent changes in behaviour or knowledge occur as a result of experience with the environment Learning processes Habituation is a decrease in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus Sensitization is an increase in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus Learning Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a unconditioned stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response Know Pavlovs experiment Know acquisition behaviours and extinction Acquisition - refers to the period during which a response is being learned Know factors that influence acquisition and persistence of behaviours Extinction: When the conditioned response no longer occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented Behavioural Learning approach: Development occurs because of continuous exposure to specific factors in the environment (Watson)  Know applications of classical conditioning Phobias (generalisation) Counterconditioning Learning VR exposure therapy Aversion therapy Advertising Sickness and Health Learning Operant conditioning Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow it (Skinner, 1938 , 1953) Thorndike’s Law of Effect Skinners Box Reinforcement Positive reinforcement (adding something pleasant) Premack Principle Negative reinforcement (removal of an aversive event) Operant extinction Operant extinction is the weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced. Learning Reinforcement schedules, learning and extinction Continuous reinforcement VS Partial reinforcement Punishment Punishers are consequences that decrease the likelihood that a behaviour will occur Positive punishers- adding something unpleasant Negative punishers- removing something pleasant Costs and benefits of punishment Applications of Operant Conditioning Social Learning Theory Bandura proposed that observational learning involves cognitive processes Observational learning - learn by observing and imitating others (Bandura, 1989) Bobo Doll experiement Applications Memory What is memory? Psychological Theories of how memory works Three-Stage Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin) Working memory Levels of processing Mnemonic devices that facilitate deeper encoding Identify and describe the different long term memory stores  Memory: the processes that allow us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information Case study: Patient H.M. Ebbinghaus (1885): 3 processes involved in memory: Encoding – receive information by translating into code that brain processes Storage – retaining information over time Memory Retrieval – processes that access stored information Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon = failure of retrieval Memory Construction Schema Scripts Suggestibility and Intrusion of Errors Eyewitness testimonies Implanting memories Memory The multi-store model of memory (three-stage Working memory model proposed as an alternative to STM model)- Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968 Know the parts Know the different parts Memory Long term memory Our vast library of more durable stored memories Unlimited storage capacity Memories can endure for a lifetime Serial positioning effect: The ability to recall an item is influenced by the item’s position in a series Encoding: entering information Effortful Processing: encoding that is initiated intentionally and requires conscious attention Automatic Processing: encoding that occurs without intention and requires minimal attention Levels of processing theory: The more deeply we process information, the better we will remember it Structural encoding: remembering how the stimulus looks; shallow processing Phonological encoding: remembering how the stimulus sounds; intermediate processing Semantic encoding: remembering what the stimulus means; deep processing Memory Encoding continued Rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal involves simply repeating the information (passive technique) Elaborative rehearsal involves encoding the information in more meaningful ways (deeper understanding) Organisation of information Clustering: tendency to remember similar items in groups Meaning of information Mnemonic device: a memory aid that reorganises information into more meaningful units Acronym Acrostic Verbal mnemonics Visual mnemonics  Storage: Long term memory Different ways of distinguishing between different forms of long-term memory: Explicit vs Implicit Memory (Refers to processes of memory) Memory Declarative vs Procedural Memory (Refers to content of memory) Forgetting Know the factors that influence forgetting Dementia  Thinking and Intelligence Thinking Cognition & Logical reasoning Limits of logical reasoning: Cognitive biases Intuitive decision making Emotion based decision making Dual processing theory  Thinking and Intelligence Intelligence Debates around intelligence History of Intelligence Conceptualising intelligence Measuring intelligence Genetic factors influencing intelligence Environmental factors influencing intelligence Thinking and Intelligence Thinking is the mental processes we’re fully aware of. Requires working memory Thinking makes up only a fraction of our thought processes Cognition: all of the mental processes a person is currently engaging in, both conscious and unconscious, that contribute to how we perceive, recall, evaluate and act upon information Reasoning: The ability to apply logical, statistical and other basic principles in order to draw solid conclusions from the available information Predictably irrational Heuristics Cognitive biases Confirmation bias Salience bias Availability bias Representativity bias Unrealistic optimism Inaccurate perceptions Thinking and Intelligence Decision Making Intuitive decision making “Gut feeling decisions”/Emotion based decision making Often decisions can be driven by emotion-based ‘gut feeling’ rather than logical thought This ‘gut feeling’ emerges as a result of fast operating but highly complex cognitive processes that allow us to recall the feelings and sensations associated with similar situations in the past. This type of ‘thinking’ relies on an entirely different area of the brain to that used in more conventional reasoning and problem- solving tasks (Damasio, 1994; 2016) Called the Somatic Marker Hypothesis Dual Processing theory Dual process theory says that humans have two systems for thinking. System 1 is unconscious, quick, makes use of shortcuts, is a bit sloppy but is relied upon most of the time. System 2 is intentional, calculated and often more accurate, but it takes effort and is slow. Thinking and Intelligence Intelligence One of the most hotly debated psychological constructs 1. Debates over the construct (no agreed upon construct) 2. Debates over its measurement ( are we measuring it properly) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) = one of the most popular intelligence tests History of intelligence testing Sir Francis Galton: Believed intelligence was an inherited trait (biological basis) Alfred Binet: Believed: 1. Intelligence is a collection of high level mental processes (e.g., mathematical, verbal, analytical abilities) 2. Mental abilities develop with age 3. The rate at which people gain mental competence is a characteristic of the person and is fairly constant over time (e.g. if child is falling behind at age 5, they will also be falling behind at age 10) Thinking and Intelligence Conceptualising intelligence Spearman (1904): General “G” intelligence factor Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Gardiner’s Multiple Intelligence Thinking and Intelligence Measuring intelligence Intelligence quotient (IQ) is a standardized measure of human intellectual capacity that takes into account a wide range of cognitive skills Intelligence differences approx. follow a normal distribution: males have a slight but consistently wider distribution than females at both ends of the range Intelligence and life outcomes Better educational, occupational and health outcomes Nature vs nurture debate Genetic contributions Twin studies Environmental contributions Family, environment The Flynn effect: Improved worldwide IQ test performance over time Health and Illness What do we mean by ‘Health’? Contemporary Models of Health and Illness Biomedical Model Biopsychosocial Model Biological, psychological and social factors influences on health  Health and Illness What is health? Health is multi-sided, subjective, adapting to change, a satisfying life, wellbeing… WHO definition of health: “Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO, 1946) However, this definition of health is also limited The use of the word ‘complete’ is problematic Health and Illness Biomedical Model Health is defined as the absence of illness Health and illness are qualitatively different Diseases and symptoms have an underlying pathology Reductionist - Illness is understood through the study of cellular and physiological processes Strengths: Produced incredible advances in healthcare Weaknesses: Medically Unexplained Physical Symptoms Placebos Know about placebo effects Fails to take into account the contribution of broader psychological and social factors that influence health and illness Health and Illness Biopsychosocial model provides a broader interpretation of health and illness Biological, psychological and social influences constantly interact and influence causes, treatment choices and outcomes of illness Focuses on the interaction between mind and body Individual not seen as passive victim The biopsychosocial model is employed in health psychology and several allied and several allied health professions The way we explain a problem will guide our approach to solving it  Conceptualising & measuring personality Personality Personality and health and State vs Trait debate Emotions Emotions Emotions & health Personality and Emotions Personality is our relatively enduring patterns of behaviour ways of thinking ways of responding emotionally. Personality reflects human variation, including both genetic and environmental influences Each of us is in certain respects like all other people, like some other people and like no other person who has lived in the past or will exist in the future (Kluckhohn & Murray, 1953) Personality and Emotions Psychodynamic perspective According to Freud: Personality involves a never-ending struggle between instincts and drives in the id striving for release and counterforces generated by the ego and superego to contain them Id: instinctual drives, totally unconscious, pleasure principle, ‘want & take’ Ego: Direct contact with reality, conscious, reality principle, sanity Superego: moral, internalised societal values Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual development Oral stage (birth to 1 year) Anal stage (1 to 3 years) Phallic stage (3 to 6 years) Latent Stage (6 to Puberty) Genital Stage (Puberty to Death)  Biological Perspective Genetic factors account for as much as half of the group variance in personality test Personality scores Genetic factors influence not only what people say about their personality, but also and how they adjust their behaviour to different situations Emotions Evolutionary theories of personality attribute some personality dispositions to genetically controlled mechanisms based on natural selection. Eysenck’s extraversion-stability model  Humanistic Perspective Carl Rodgers Self-concept: an organised, consistent set of perceptions of and beliefs about oneself Personality and that direct behaviour (Rogers, 1959). Needs for self-consistency: between self- Emotions perceptions and experience. Perceive inconsistencies as threats Self-confirmation bias, interpret situations in self-congruent ways; behave in ways that others respond to them in a self-confirming way)  Trait theory Perspective Try to identify and measure the basic dimensions of personality, Personality often employing factor analysis (a statistical technique) to find and dimensions of personality. Personality traits are relatively Emotions stable cognitive, emotional and behavioural characteristics of people that help establish their individual identities and distinguish them from others  Measuring Personality 1) Projection (Rorschach inkblot test) 2) Self-reported traits Cattell= 16 traits Costa & McCrae= 5 traits Gold standard Personality Big 5 personality traits (OCEAN) (1995) Openness: curiosity, accepting other points of and view, imagination, ideas, flexibility Conscientiousness: self-discipline, awareness, organised, goal driven, competent Emotions Extraversion: sociability, assertiveness, emotional expression, outgoing, Agreeableness: co-operative, reliable, easy going, Neuroticism: anxious, worries, self-conscious, hostility Are self-reports trustworthy? Personality and Emotions Relating trait theory to Health Mixed findings regarding relationship between personality and health (It does vs it doesn’t) Know how each of the big 5 personality traits link to health Personality Types in Health A number of specific personality types were devised in health research to explain certain illnesses Type A, B, C & D Know them and how they link to health Personality and Emotions Limitation of trait theories: Trait vs Situation Some believe that trait approach is not good/totally accurate Mischel’s Situationalist View: the correlation between personality and behavior, or behavior across situations, rarely exceeded. They believe behaviours driven more by the situation than by traits (E.g. School swot vs party animal) Sometimes situation can trump personality Known as the trait vs situation debate Patient blaming Personality Emotions Emotional health is an important part of overall health. People who are emotionally healthy are aware and in control of their thoughts, feelings, and and Emotions behaviours and able to deal with them Certain emotions associated with personality types But argued that we have more control over emotions than personality (although debated)  Personality and Emotions Emotions and health Happiness: lowers cholesterol (expressing affection to partner lowered cholesterol levels) Anger: impairs immune function (30 minute argument impaired skin repair up to 40%) Negative affect (sadness/anxiety): Increased CHD risk (Hemmingway and marmot 1999) Suppression, is a tendency to inhibit the expression of anger and negative emotion Can be detrimental to health to bottle up emotions  What is a disorder? Classification Mental Mood disorders Unipolar (Major Depressive disorder) Bipolar (Bipolar disorder) Health Anxiety disorders Phobias Panic disorder Social anxiety disorder Generalised anxiety disorder Disorders Obsessive Compulsive disorder Schizophrenia Anorexia nervosa Eating Disorders Bulimia nervosa Binge eating disorder Mental Health Disorders Mental health issues are common: 1 in 4 suffer from a mental health condition Mental health issues are distressing, isolating and not a choice. More than 60% of people with mental health problems won’t seek out the help they need. Reasons include: Mental health stigma (2 types) social stigma = prejudiced attitudes that others have around mental illness self-perceived stigma = internalized stigma that the person with the mental illness experiences Words matter- be careful of the language you use! Mental Health Disorders Modern Perspectives on Deviant Behaviour In 1900s, Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis proposed the role of psychological factors underpinning abnormal behaviour Behavioural, cognitive and humanistic models focus on different causal factors The vulnerability-stress model states that each of us have some degree of vulnerability for developing a psychological disorder, given sufficient stress Mental Health Disorders What is abnormal? Three criteria – distress, dysfunction and deviance – underlie judgements that behaviour is abnormal What are psychological disorders? Thoughts, feelings and emotions that are persistent, harmful and uncontrollable. Each disorder is a combination of different thoughts, emotions, behaviours and relationships with people Varying degrees of severity Causes: Many factors, including biological, psychological and social/environmental (Biopsychosocial model) Mental Health Disorders Classifying psychological disorders Assessments by clinical psychologist (or psychiatrist) Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM) The DSM provides categorical diagnoses based on descriptive criteria DSM 5 is the most used diagnostic manual [Also the ICD-11 (European)] Limitations of the DSM Too many diagnoses (over 315 disorders)? Unnecessary diagnoses (e.g., caffeine intoxication?) Categorical diagnoses versus diagnoses on a continuum. Engenders stigma (focus on limitations, not capabilities)  Mood disorders Mood disorders reflect extreme emotions depression mania Most frequently experienced psychological disorder, alongside anxiety disorders Mental High co-morbidity: mood and anxiety disorders Health Unipolar Mood disorders Negative mood state is the core feature of depression Three additional symptoms Cognitive symptoms: Difficulty concentrating and making decisions. Disorders Motivational symptoms: Inability to get started and perform behaviours that might produce pleasure and accomplishment Somatic (body) symptoms: Loss of appetite, sleep disturbances Cultural differences in symptoms exhibited Major depressive disorder Know causes, Symptoms and treatment recommendations Prevalence of depression is about twice as high in women than men Dysthymia is a less intense form of depression that has less dramatic effects on personal and occupational functioning  Mental Health Disorders Bipolar Mood Disorders Bipolar Disorder: Depression (which is usually the dominant state) alternate with periods of mania Mania: A state of highly excited mood, heightened levels of activity and behaviour Know causes, symptoms and treatment options Anxiety Disorders The most common type of mental illness. “Characterised by excessive fear and anxiety which interfere with normal functioning or cause marked distress” Anxiety responses have 4 components: Cognitive symptoms – worry, thoughts about inability to cope Emotional symptoms – feelings of tensions, apprehension Physiological responses – increased HR, muscle tension, nausea, dry mouth, diarrohea Behavioural responses – avoidance of feared situation, restlessness Anxiety disorders occur more frequently in females Mental Health Disorders Types of Anxiety Disorders: Phobias: Intense fear triggered by a particular object or situation Know common types and treatment Panic Disorder: Persistent uncued panic attacks I Know symptoms and treatments Social Anxiety Disorder: Excessive and unreasonable fear of social situations Know symptoms and treatments Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD): is a chronic state of anxiety occurring most days for at least 6 months that is not attached to specific situations or objects Know symptoms and treatments Mental Health Disorders Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder An obsessive-compulsive disorder consists of 2 components: Cognitive: obsessions are repetitive unwelcome thoughts, images or impulses that invade consciousness, are abhorrent and difficult to control Behavioural: compulsions are repetitive behavioural responses such as rituals or repetitive behaviours (e.g. repetitive checking of door locks) that function to reduce the anxiety associated with the intrusive thoughts Compulsions are strengthened through a process of negative reinforcement Mental Health Disorders Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder characterised by alterations in thoughts, perceptions, speech, emotion, behaviour or consciousness ‘Split mind’ Is the most serious of psychological disorders. Has both positive and negative symptoms Know them: Positive (Hallucinations, delusions, disorganised speech, disorganised behaviour), Negative symptoms … Know causes and treatment options Mental Health Disorders Eating Disorders The highest morbidity and mortality rate of any psychological disorder “Disordered thoughts, feelings and behaviours relating to eating, exercise and body image” Know general causes Be able to describe: Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Binge Eating Disorder Know treatment options Time for a Sample Exam!