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RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS TABLE OF CONTENTS RESEARCH METHODS...................................................................................................... 14 Experiments...................................................................

RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS TABLE OF CONTENTS RESEARCH METHODS...................................................................................................... 14 Experiments............................................................................................................................ 14 Sprouting Showdown: Does Water Fuel Plant Growth?.................................................... 14 What is an experiment?...................................................................................................... 16 1. Laboratory experiments............................................................................................18 Evaluating laboratory experiments.........................................................................19 2. Field experiment.......................................................................................................20 m Evaluating field experiments..................................................................................22 iva Control groups and/or conditions....................................................................................... 23 Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................24 as Experimental Designs............................................................................................................ 27 1. Independent measures design.........................................................................................27 th a. Random allocation and participant variables............................................................28 Sa 2. Repeated measures......................................................................................................... 29 b. Demand characteristics............................................................................................ 29 na c. Order effects, including fatigue and practice effects................................................ 29 d. Counterbalancing..................................................................................................... 30 ha 3. Matched pairs design......................................................................................................31 us Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................32 Randomized controlled trials................................................................................................ 35 Th The placebo effect.............................................................................................................. 35 Double-blind design..................................................................................................... 36 Evaluating RCTs.................................................................................................................36 Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................38 Self Reports - Questionnaires................................................................................................40 Questionnaires.................................................................................................................... 40 Closed questions...........................................................................................................40 Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 1 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Rating scale: forced/fixed choice................................................................................. 41 Open questions............................................................................................................. 41 Evaluation of closed and open questions..................................................................... 42 What to avoid when creating questionnaires................................................................43 Evaluating questionnaires.................................................................................................. 44 Postal questionnaires.......................................................................................................... 45 Evaluation of postal questionnaires..............................................................................45 Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................45 m Self-reports: Interviews......................................................................................................... 48 Key features........................................................................................................................48 iva Evaluation of interviews.....................................................................................................49 Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................50 as Psychometric Tests............................................................................................................. 53 th Floor and ceiling effects............................................................................................... 53 Sa Evaluation of psychometric tests..................................................................................53 Test yourself................................................................................................................. 54 Case Studies............................................................................................................................ 57 na Evaluation of Case studies................................................................................................. 57 ha Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................58 Observation.............................................................................................................................61 us Overt and covert................................................................................................................. 61 Th Participant and non-participant.......................................................................................... 61 Structured and unstructured............................................................................................... 62 Naturalistic and controlled................................................................................................. 62 Evaluation of observations................................................................................................. 62 Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................65 Correlations............................................................................................................................ 68 Operational definitions for co-variables.............................................................................69 Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Positive, negative and no correlation................................................................................. 69 Evaluation of correlations.................................................................................................. 70 Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................71 Longitudinal Studies.............................................................................................................. 73 Evaluation of longitudinal studies......................................................................................73 Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................74 METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS................................................................................... 77 Aims, hypothesis and variables............................................................................................. 77 m Aims................................................................................................................................... 77 Hypotheses and operationalisation.....................................................................................77 iva Directional hypotheses................................................................................................. 78 Non-directional hypotheses..........................................................................................79 as Null hypothesis.............................................................................................................80 th Data analysis...................................................................................................................... 80 Sa Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................81 Controlling of variables......................................................................................................... 82 Standardisation of a procedure........................................................................................... 82 na Participant variables........................................................................................................... 82 ha Situational variables........................................................................................................... 83 Uncontrolled variables....................................................................................................... 84 us Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................84 Th Types of data........................................................................................................................... 86 Quantitative and qualitative data........................................................................................86 Subjective and objective data............................................................................................. 87 Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................88 Sampling of participants........................................................................................................90 Sample and population....................................................................................................... 90 Sampling techniques.......................................................................................................... 90 Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 3 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Opportunity sampling...................................................................................................90 Random sampling.........................................................................................................90 Volunteer (self-selecting) sampling..............................................................................91 Evaluation of sampling.......................................................................................................91 Test Yourself.......................................................................................................................93 Ethical guidelines in psychological research........................................................................95 Valid consent................................................................................................................ 95 Right to withdraw.........................................................................................................96 m Minimising harm and maximising benefit................................................................... 96 Lack of deception......................................................................................................... 96 iva Confidentiality..............................................................................................................97 Privacy..........................................................................................................................97 as Debriefing.....................................................................................................................97 th Test Yourself.................................................................................................................98 Sa Ethics and non human animals........................................................................................... 100 Ethical guidelines for non-human animals.......................................................................100 Minimise harm and maximise benefit........................................................................ 100 na Replacement............................................................................................................... 100 ha Species........................................................................................................................100 Numbers..................................................................................................................... 101 us Procedures: pain and distress..................................................................................... 101 Th Housing...................................................................................................................... 102 Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli.................................................................. 102 Test Yourself...............................................................................................................103 Validity...................................................................................................................................105 Ecological validity............................................................................................................105 Evaluating studies based on their validity........................................................................106 Subjectivity/objectivity.............................................................................................. 106 Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 4 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Demand characteristics.............................................................................................. 107 Generalisability.......................................................................................................... 107 Temporal validity....................................................................................................... 108 Test Yourself.....................................................................................................................108 Reliability and replicability................................................................................................. 110 Reliability......................................................................................................................... 110 Replicability..................................................................................................................... 110 Standardisation................................................................................................................. 110 m Test Yourself.....................................................................................................................113 Data analysis......................................................................................................................... 115 iva Measures of central tendency........................................................................................... 115 Measures of spread........................................................................................................... 116 as Bar charts, histograms and scatter graphs........................................................................ 119 th Bar charts....................................................................................................................119 Sa Histograms................................................................................................................. 121 Scatter graphs............................................................................................................. 121 Test Yourself.....................................................................................................................122 na PAPER 2 QUESTIONS - GENERAL................................................................................ 124 ha us Th Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 5 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Written paper, 1 hour 30 minutes, 60 marks Candidates answer all questions. This paper contains two sections: Section A: short answer questions based on general research methods and research methods relating directly to a core study and three short answer scenario-based questions. m Section B: a planning question where iva candidates plan a study and evaluate some aspects of this plan. as The paper will focus on knowledge and th application of research methods and Sa methodological concepts and how these relate to the core studies. na For the planning question, candidates will apply their knowledge of the research methods and practical issues and methodological concepts to ha plan an investigation. Some aspects of the investigation will be provided for candidates as part of the question and candidates will be required to plan the other aspects of the us investigation. Th Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 6 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Planning studies for Paper 2 Candidates should be able to: 1. plan studies to include general features: procedure of the study how the plan makes the study valid how the plan makes the study reliable types of data plan studies using specific research methods to include required features: experiments independent variable dependent variable m controls / standardisation choice of experimental design iva additionally for field experiments: location Self-reports question format (open and closed questions) as examples of questions th question scoring / interpretation additionally, for questionnaires: technique (paper and pencil, online) Sa additionally, for interviews: format (structured, unstructured, semi-structured) technique (face-to-face, telephone) na case studies details about the participant / unit content of information collected ha two or more techniques for data collection analysis / interpretation / triangulation us observational studies overt / covert participant / non-participant Th naturalistic / controlled structured (behavioural categories) / unstructured correlational studies two co-variables measure of variable 1 measure of variable 2 nature of the relationship / scatter graph Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 7 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS longitudinal studies including experiments tests / tasks with a longitudinal design scoring frequency / interval re-contacting of participants (for repeated testing) controls / standardisation evaluate the planned study in terms of: practical / methodological issues validity Reliability Candidates will not be expected to include aims or hypotheses in their plan. m Candidates will not be expected to evaluate issues relating to the sample/generalisability or iva ethics of their plan. as th Sa na ha us Th Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 8 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Research methods Experiments Candidates should be able to: describe the main features of each type of experiment: ○ laboratory ○ field evaluate each type of experiment, in terms of: ○ reliability ○ validity m ○ ethics describe and evaluate experimental designs as used in psychological research iva (independent measures, matched pairs and repeated measures) describe and evaluate concepts relating to experimental designs including as counterbalancing, random allocation, order effects (fatigue and practice) th evaluate the use of experiments in psychological research, including the use of experimental and control groups / control conditions Sa apply knowledge of experiments to a given novel research scenario. Self-reports na Candidates should be able to: describe the main features of each type of self-report: ha ○ questionnaire, including technique (paper and pencil / online) and question format (open and closed questions) us ○ interview, including format (structured / unstructured / semi-structured), technique (telephone / face-toface) and question format (open and closed Th questions) evaluate the use of self-reports in psychological research apply knowledge of self-reports to a given novel research scenario. Case studies Candidates should be able to: describe the case study method, including the main features: a single participant/unit; studied in detail evaluate the use of case studies in psychological research Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 9 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS apply knowledge of case studies to a given novel research scenario. Observations Candidates should be able to: describe the main features of an observation (e.g. overt / covert, participant / non-participant, structured / unstructured, naturalistic / controlled) evaluate the use of observations in psychological research apply knowledge of observations to a given novel research scenario. Correlations Candidates should be able to: describe correlations, positive and negative correlations and strength of correlations m identify and give operational definitions for co-variables (measured variables) iva evaluate the use of correlations in psychological research, including lack of causality apply knowledge of correlations to a given novel research scenario. as Longitudinal studies Candidates should be able to: th describe longitudinal studies, including experiments with longitudinal designs Sa evaluate the use of longitudinal studies, including experiments with longitudinal designs apply knowledge of longitudinal studies, including experiments with longitudinal na designs, to a given novel research scenario. ha Methodological concepts us Aims and hypotheses Candidates should be able to: Th describe and write aims describe and recognise null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses including directional (one-tailed) and non-directional (two-tailed) hypotheses. Variables Candidates should be able to: describe what is meant by an independent variable and a dependent variable describe how dependent variables can be measured identify independent variables and dependent variables in studies Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 10 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS understand what is meant by an ‘operational definition’ operationalise: ○ an independent variable ○ a dependent variable apply knowledge of variables to a novel research situation. Controlling of variables Candidates should be able to: describe how psychologists can control variables (use ‘controls’) in a study understand control of variables / standardisation of a procedure understand uncontrolled, participant and situational variables m apply knowledge of control of variables (‘controls’) to a novel research situation. iva Types of data Candidates should be able to: as describe what is meant by quantitative and qualitative data and subjective and objective data th evaluate the use of types of data as collected in psychological research Sa apply knowledge of types of data to a novel research situation. Sampling of participants Candidates should be able to: na describe what is meant by the sample and population, and the sampling techniques of opportunity sampling, random sampling and volunteer (self-selecting) sampling ha evaluate different sampling techniques as used in psychological research, including generalisations us apply knowledge of sampling techniques to a novel research situation. Th Ethics Candidates should be able to: describe ethical guidelines as used in psychological research, in relation to human participants: ○ minimising harm (and maximising benefit) ○ valid consent including informed consent ○ right to withdraw ○ lack of deception Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 11 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ○ confidentiality ○ privacy ○ debriefing describe ethical guidelines as used in psychological research, in relation to animals: ○ minimising harm (and maximising benefit) ○ replacement ○ species ○ numbers ○ procedures pain, suffering and distress m housing iva reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli evaluate studies based on ethical guidelines as apply knowledge of ethical guidelines to a novel research situation. Validity th Candidates should be able to: Sa describe validity, including ecological validity evaluate studies based on their validity: ○ subjectivity / objectivity na ○ demand characteristics ○ generalisability ha apply knowledge of validity to a novel research situation. Reliability and replicability us Candidates should be able to: Th describe different types of reliability, including inter-rater and inter-observer reliability, test-retest reliability evaluate studies based on their reliability apply knowledge of reliability to a given novel research situation understand replicability apply understanding of replicability to the planning of studies. Data analysis Candidates should be able to: Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 12 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS present and interpret data in tables understand the meaning of ‘measure of central tendency’ name, recognise and know how to find measures of central tendency: ○ mode ○ median (no calculation necessary) ○ mean (no calculation necessary) understand the meaning of ‘measure of spread’ ○ name, recognise and know how to find range ○ recognise, interpret and understand standard deviation name, recognise, draw, change and interpret data from a: m ○ bar chart iva ○ histogram ○ scatter graph. as Note: Candidates will not be required to carry out calculations. Note: Candidates will not be required to understand or interpret statistical tests or findings th other than as specified. Sa na ha us Th Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 13 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS RESEARCH METHODS Although it might be tempting to claim that a certain study proved a certain theory, it is important to avoid the words proof, 'prove and proved' in psychology. Philosopher Karl Popper noted that it is impossible to prove the claim that 'all swans are white' (Popper, 1959). You could go out searching for swans a hundred times, returning each time with a photo of a white swan, but this does not prove that all swans are white. Popper suggested that tracking down just one black swan would disprove (falsify) the claim - this is why psychologists test null hypotheses. This is rather complex, but it is generally better to be cautious when writing in psychology and use phrases like or ‘this supports the idea that researchers found evidence m to support their theory/hypothesis.’ iva Experiments as Sprouting Showdown: Does Water Fuel Plant Growth? th Sa na ha us Th Plants are like tiny factories, using sunlight, water, and air to create their own food. But what's the secret ingredient for a successful sprout? Let's design an experiment to see if water plays a role in seed germination (sprouting)! Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 14 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS The Plant Posse: Seeds: Our tiny green heroes, ready to burst into life (hopefully!). Choose seeds from the same plant variety for consistency. Water: The magic potion for thirsty seeds. Control Group: These seeds get the VIP treatment, with regular watering. Experimental Group: These brave seeds will face a temporary water shortage. Prediction: We expect the control group seeds (with regular water) to have a higher number of sprouts m compared to the experimental group (deprived of water). This suggests that water is crucial iva for seeds to germinate and sprout successfully. as Unveiling the Results: th By comparing the number of sprouts in each group, we can see the impact of water on seed germination. The group with more sprouts suggests better germination rates. Sa Remember: na Fairness is Key: Ensure both containers receive the same amount of sunlight and warmth. ha Multiple Trials: Repeating the experiment with different sets of seeds strengthens your results. us This experiment with control and experimental groups allows us to scientifically investigate Th the role of water in jumpstarting plant life! Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 15 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS What is an experiment? Psychologists design and conduct experiments to test hypotheses. They are interested in discovering cause-and-effect relationships between variables. To help reveal the causes of behaviour, thoughts and feelings, they compare how people behave in different situations (conditions), carefully changing one thing at a time (the independent variable) and observing how this affects another thing (the dependent variable). To be sure that changes in the dependent variable really were caused by the independent variable, it is important to think about any other variables that might affect the dependent m variable and make sure that they are controlled (kept the same) from one group/condition to the next. A final important feature of experiments is that there is always a carefully iva standardised procedure. The term procedure means what the experimenter must do in order to collect their data. Standardised means that each step is kept exactly the same for every as participant. This includes the use of standardised instructions, the exact same environment (in terms of lighting, room layout, temperature, noise, etc.) and the exact same task. th Sa The main features of experiments are as follows: Experimenters compare data collected from the experimental group or condition with na data collected in the control group or control condition in order to draw conclusions about cause and effect. ha They have independent variables that are manipulated (changed) and dependent variables that are measured. us Cause and effect can only be inferred if all other variables that could affect the dependent variable are controlled (kept the same for both groups/conditions). Th They have a standardised procedure and standardised instructions so that all participants have the exact same experience and so that the study can be replicated to test for reliability. Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 16 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Dr Rox’s experiment to investigate the effect of caffeine on reaction time. IV, independent variable, DV, dependent variable. Dr Rox noticed that her students always seemed more alert following a cup of coffee and decided to carry out an experiment to investigate caffeine's effect on reaction time. She gives one group of students a 300 ml cup of coffee containing 100 mg of caffeine and tests their reaction time immediately after they have drunk it. She compares their results with another group of students who are given a 300 ml m glass of water and no coffee). She predicts that the average reaction time for the caffeine group will be significantly faster than the average reaction time in the no-caffeine group. iva The independent variable is whether the participants are given caffeine or water (this as is what Dr Rox manipulated). The dependent variable is participants' reaction times measured in milliseconds on th the reaction time test. Sa When Dr Rox analyses the results, she finds her prediction was correct, but can you think of any reasons why Dr Rox should not conclude that it was the caffeine that caused the faster na reaction times? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ha ………………………………………………………………………………………………… us ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Th ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 17 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS 1. Laboratory experiments Location The term laboratory refers to the setting (location) in which the experiment takes place. A laboratory is any setting over which the experimenter has a high level of control - for example, they can control the temperature, lighting and noise level. In Dr Rox's caffeine study, the students would be brought to a specific room at the university where they are given the coffee or water. Next, they would complete a specially designed reaction-time test on a computer - for example, touching the screen as quickly as they can every time they see the m number 2 on screen. The time taken to press the button will be measured in milliseconds. iva Controls as Controlled variables are kept the same between all levels (groups or conditions) of the th independent variable, to ensure that only the independent variable is causing any effect on the dependent variable. Working in a laboratory setting allows researchers to control many Sa variables. This means the researcher can be much more confident that the independent variable really did cause the changes in the dependent variable. In Dr Rox's study, if the room na was rather hot on the day the coffee group took part but colder on the day the water group took part, the difference in temperature might affect reaction times. Therefore, Dr Rox should ha control the temperature of the room and the temperature of the water and the coffee. She would also need to control noise levels within the room, ensuring that both groups have the us same quiet environment and do not become distracted. Th Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 18 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Evaluating laboratory experiments Validity way to a calm, controlled setting. This means that the results of laboratory Another strength is that, because of the experiments should only be generalised to high levels of control, researchers are able everyday life with caution as when people to infer cause and effect because they have are in a real-life setting, they may behave isolated the variable to be manipulated and very differently. the variable that is being measured. For example, in an experiment on the effects of Another weakness is that validity can also m caffeine on reaction time, if the researchers be affected by demand characteristics, which are features of the environment that iva found a significant difference in the results between the caffeine and the control reveal the aim of the study. If participants group, they could say that caffeine had an are able to work out the aim of the study, as effect on reaction time. they may act in a way they feel the researchers want them to, rather than th A weakness of some laboratory behaving how they normally would. Sa experiments is that they can be low in ecological validity because the tasks Reliability participants are asked to perform na One strength of laboratory experiments is sometimes do not reflect what they would that the setting means the procedure can be do in real life. For example, in Pozzulo et ha highly standardised. This means that all al's (line-ups) experiment, participants participants within each group/condition us were asked to watch some videos, then have the exact same experience as each identify cartoon and (real) human Th other. This is important because it means characters from the videos in photo other researchers should be able to line-ups. This is not the same as replicate the study to test the findings for witnessing a crime in real life, where reliability (i.e. consistency). people are unlikely to be expecting the event, may feel more intense emotions and Ethics will be viewing the situation in real life not on a screen. These factors are likely to A strength is that laboratory experiments affect their recall for faces in a different should be more ethical than field Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 19 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS experiments (see below) because generally able to debrief their participants participants know they are taking part in following any deception. This is important research (even if they have not been told as upholding ethical guidelines helps to the exact hypothesis). They will have ensure that participants are treated with given their consent to take part and will be respect and that they leave the research made aware of their right to withdraw. setting in the same psychological state as Unlike field experiments, researchers are they were in when they arrived. 2. Field experiment m Location iva When psychologists talk about working in 'the field', they mean conducting research in real-world settings. Away from the controlled world of the laboratory, field experiments take as place in natural environments, where one might expect to see the behaviours of interest, such as the street, supermarket or workplace. One or more independent variables are still th manipulated by the experiment in order to observe the effect on the dependent variables). Sa However, the natural environment means that in comparison with laboratory experiments, there may be uncontrolled variables both within and between groups/conditions. These are na factors that are not being measured or controlled by the researcher and can have an unwanted effect on the dependent variable. These could be things such as the temperature of the room ha or noise levels. us How could Dr Rox redesign her study as a field experiment? Where would it take place and how could she measure reaction times in a more naturalistic way? Th ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 20 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Controls m When researchers conduct field experiments, they try to maintain control over variables that could affect the dependent variable to allow cause-and-effect conclusions to be drawn, but iva this is much more difficult than in a laboratory environment. In natural environments, like public places (e.g. Piliavin et al., subway Samaritans), it is not possible to control how many as people board the train or how close people are standing to each other, for example. These uncontrolled, situational variables make it hard to draw firm conclusions. th Sa Can you think of any variables that would be difficult to control if Dr Rox decided to conduct her study in a coffee shop? Imagine she has ten students in each group. Would it be possible to ensure that they all have the exact same experience as each other? na ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ha …………………….…………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………….………………………………………………………………… us ………………………………………….……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………….…………………………………………… Th ……………………………………………………………….………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….………………………. ………………………………………………………………………….………………………. ………………………………………………………………………….………………………. ………………………………………………………………………….………………………. ………………………………………………………………………….………………………. ………………………………………………………………………….………………………. Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 21 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Evaluating field experiments Validity passengers had already seen the confederate collapse in a previous trial, A strength of field experiments is that they leading them to become suspicious and generally have higher ecological validity potentially affecting their response. Field th a laboratory experiment, meaning that experiments tend to be more difficult to participants' behaviour is more likely to be replicate due to the limited ability to natur as they are not in an unfamiliar standardise the procedure. This makes it laboratory setting and often unaware that difficult to test the reliability of the m they are ever taking part in the research. findings. iva This means their results should be generalisable to other sir. situations. Ethics Another strength of field experiments is as that participants are also much les. likely A weakness of field experiments is that participants often do not know that they th to show demand characteristics if they do are taking part in research, so consent not know they are taking part in researn. Sa cannot be sought, which also removes the This means that they are untikely to try to right to withdraw. work out what the aim of the research is na When the deception is revealed, it may and art in the way that they think the lead participants to doubt psychologists in researchers want them to. ha the future. Reliability us Deception should only be used when the A weakness is that researchers have much research aims cannot be met without it Th less control in a field experiment. For taking place and only if the participants are example, in the Piliavin et al. experiment, unlikely to feel discomfort on finding out researchers could not control who was about the deception. sitting in the train carriage or how crowded The research design should protect the it was when the experiment took place. dignity of the participants. Neither could they control whether the Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 22 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Field experiments take place in real-world settings. The behaviours of interest are observed/measured in everyday situations. For this reason, they tend to have higher ecological validity. Also, participants are less likely to be affected by demand characteristics, especially if they do not even know they are in a study. The researcher still manipulates an aspect of the situation (e.g. Piliavin et al. staged an emergency on the subway) and so the setting is not completely natural. Do you think it is possible for a laboratory experiment to have ecological validity? Do you think it is possible for a field experiment to lack ecological validity? m ………………………………………………………………………………………………… iva ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. as Control groups and/or conditions th Experiments involve making comparisons between data obtained in two or more groups or Sa conditions. A strength of control groups/conditions is that the data provided in this part. of the experiment provides a baseline to which the data from the experimental group or condition can be compared. Control groups/conditions allow the researchers to confirm that na the results of their study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable. Im Dr Rox'S study, the water group provides the reaction speed baseline to which the coffee groups ha average speed can be compared. us Can you think of a different control group that Dr Rox could have used to provide the baseline in her study? Th ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 23 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS STUDY TIP Sometimes it can be difficult to work out which variable is the independent variable (IV) and which is the dependent variable (DV). There are several ways to think about this. Experimenters generally want to know whether one thing causes an effect on another; they want to know whether the independent variable (I) causes (C) an effect (E) on the dependent variable (D). This spells ICED; you could ask ‘Do sales of iced coffee (the DV) depend on the weather, e.g. hot or cold (the IV)? m iva Test Yourself 1. Outline two features of a laboratory experiment. as 2. Explain one similarity and one difference between a laboratory experiment and a field th experiment. 3. Sanija is conducting a study to investigate whether there is a difference in students Sa attention spans in school depending on whether they eat a hot or cold breakfast. a. Suggest an appropriate research method that Sanija could use to test her na theory. b. Suggest how Sanija could operationalise her dependent variables. ha 4. Arthur is conducting an experiment into memory for instructions with a group of us children with autism spectrum disorder. He thinks the children will remember the instructions better if they are presented as a written story with pictures compared with Th reading the instructions aloud. a. Identify one variable that Arthur should control in his experiment. b. Outline why Arthur should use a standardised procedure in his experiment. ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 24 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… m ………………………………………………………………………………………………… iva ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… as ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… th ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Sa ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… na ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ha ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… us ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Th ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 25 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… m ………………………………………………………………………………………………… iva ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… as ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… th ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Sa ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… na ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ha ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… us ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Th ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 26 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Experimental Designs In Dr Rox’s caffeine experiment, the students in the experimental group consumed caffeine and their average reaction time was compared with the average reaction time of the participants in the control group, who did not consume caffeine (the water group). Which experimental design was used in this study? What were the problems of using this design? How could Dr Rox have improved her experiment? m ………………………………………………………………………………………………… iva ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… as ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ….……………………………………………………………………………………………… th ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Sa 1. Independent measures design na In an independent measures design, participants are put into two or more different groups, relating to the levels of the independent variable. These groups are sometimes called the ha experimental group and the control group. Data from the control group provides a baseline to which the researcher can compare the data collected in the experimental group. us For example, in the study by Andrade (doodling), participants in the experimental group were Th asked to shade circles and squares on an A4 piece of paper, while participants in the control group were not allowed to shade or doodle. The average number of words recalled by the two different groups of participants was then compared to see if there was a difference between them. Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 27 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS An independent measures design uses different participants for each condition of the experiment. In what way might using different participants for different conditions affect the validity of the results, and how might this be avoided? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. a. Random allocation and participant variables Another key feature of laboratory experiments is that the researchers are able to randomly m allocate participants into either the experimental or the control group. This is often done by iva assigning each participant a number and then using a random number generator to select participants for the two or more groups. as Without random allocation, it is possible that members of one group all share some common th characteristic that makes them different from the people in the other group. These chineteristics are called participant variables, and may be things like gender, age or level of Sa intelligence or empathy. When this happens, it is impossible to know whether differences in the dependent variable result from the manipulation of the independent variable or the na participant variables. The purpose of random allocation, therefore, is to increase validity (see below). ha Dr Rox realises that there might be some important participant variables affecting the students' results in her study on the effects of caffeine on reaction times. An important us participant variable in her study might be how much coffee (and other caffeinated drinks/ Th snacks) the students usually consume. If all the heavy-caffeine users end up in the coffee group and all the light-caffeine users, by chance, end up in the water group, it would be unclear whether any difference in average reaction times results from the drink consumed before the test or differences in the students’ regular caffeine consumption. How could Dr Rox reduce the effect of participant variables in her study? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………..……………………………………………………… Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 28 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS 2. Repeated measures In a repeated measures design, the same group of participants provide data relating to both levels of the independent variable; they act as their own control group. This means participant variables cannot affect the validity of the data as every participant takes part in both the experimental and the control conditions. The control condition provides a baseline for comparison and allows the researcher to see whether the independent variable has caused the dependent variable to increase or decrease. Unfortunately, the repeated measures design has problems of its own regarding validity: demand characteristics and order effects. m b. Demand characteristics iva Demand characteristics are cues in the set-up of the experiment, including how the researcher speaks and behaves, that provide clues about the aims and/or hypotheses of the study. as Participants sometimes, consciously or unconsciously, change their behaviour in response to these cues and this reduces the spontaneity of their behaviour, meaning they may not behave th as they usually would. This may be because they want to please the experimenter or behave Sa in ways that they think are expected of them. Demand characteristics are, therefore, a threat to the validity of the study's findings and action should be taken to minimise them where possible. na c. Order effects, including fatigue and practice effects ha When participants have to perform a task twice under different conditions, behaviour in the us second condition may be different to the first, not because of the changes in the independent variable, but due to the fact they have performed the task once already. For example, they Th may perform better the second time due to the experience gained in the first condition (a practice effect) or increased motivation, or worse due to boredom, tiredness or the strain of concentrating in the first condition (a fatigue effect). Therefore, order effects are a threat to validity as it becomes unclear whether the independent variable is affecting the dependent variable or whether the order of the conditions has brought about any changes observed. One way researchers can reduce the impact of order effects is to leave a significant time period between first and second conditions. When this is not possible, they can be addressed using a technique like counterbalancing Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 29 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS In Dr Rox’s experiment on the effects of caffeine on reaction time, the participants might perform better the second time they do the reaction time test because they have already done it once and had the chance to practise. Similarly, participants may perform worse in the second condition as they have are cy been concentrating on the screen in the first condition (fatigue effect. The might also need the toilet if they have consumed both a cup of coffee and a glass of water! How could you set up the experiment to avoid order effects? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………..…………………………………………………………… m …………………………………..……………………………………………………………… iva ………………………………..………………………………………………………………… ……………………………..…………………………………………………………………… as …………………………..……………………………………………………………………… ………………………..………………………………………………………………………… th ……………………..…………………………………………………………………………… Sa …………………..……………………………………………………………………………… ………………..………………………………………………………………………………… ……………..…………………………………………………………………………………… na …………..……………………………………………………………………………………… ………..………………………………………………………………………………………… ha ……..…………………………………………………………………………………………… …..……………………………………………………………………………………………… us d. Counterbalancing Th Counterbalancing is a technique that can be used in a repeated measure design so that order effects do not compromise the validity of the findings. Participants are put into one of two groups: group one does the experimental condition first and then the control condition, and group two does the control condition first and then the experimental condition. This way, although practice effects will still occur, their impact on the findings is reduced. Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 30 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS 3. Matched pairs design In a matched pairs design, each participant in the experimental group will be matched with a participant in the control group on a number of relevant factors. This means for every participant in the experimental group, the control group will contain a person who is very similar to them on key variables that might have otherwise affected the dependent variable of the study. For example, participants could be matched on handedness (preference for using the right or left hand); gender, socioeconomic status or age. A matched pairs design overcomes the problem of participants' variables and order effects, but in practice, they can be difficult to set up as careful screening of the participants is necessary in order to match the m groups. It can also be difficult to recruit people who have the necessary characteristics. iva Dr Rox is still concerned that participant variables might affect the validity of her conclusions about the effect of caffeine on reaction as times. She decides to use a matched pairs design where she will match the participants th Sa in each condition on age, sex, handedness and experience in playing video games, all variables which may affect the validity of her conclusions. na What would she need to do to set up her matched groups of ha participants? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… us ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Th ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 31 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Study Tip Once you are confident in being able to explain the strengths and weaknesses of the different experimental designs, ensure that you are able to apply this knowledge and understanding to any new psychology experiments that you learn about in class or read about online. Working with a partner, if you can, why not design a set of experiments for each other on topics like sleep, memory, aggression and helpfulness? Write out the independent and dependent variables you would like to investigate. Roll a dice to see whether the design will be independent measures (odd numbers) or repeated measures (even numbers). Write a sentence on how you would set your study up and then swap with your partner and identify the m problems in each study le.g. specific participant variables, how order effects might alter the iva results) and re-design the studies to overcome the problems. Being able to evaluate the experimental design, using key features from the study, is an essential skill. Test Yourself as th 1. Outline what is meant by 'counterbalancing using any example. Sa 2. Outline one strength and one weakness of a matched pairs design. 3. Javine thinks ink colour (red or black) might affect the speed at which people are able to solve anagrams. She decides to conduct a laboratory experiment with a repeated na measures design to test this idea. ha a. Explain how practice effects could affect the validity of Javine's findings. b. Explain how Javine could use counterbalancing to improve her study. us 4. Fabian shows his participants a painting. He tells one group that it took the artist six Th months to complete and another group was told it took six years to complete. He asks the participants to rate how much they liked it on a scale from 1-10. a. Identify the experimental design used in Fabian's experiment. b. Explain one disadvantage of using this experimental design in this study. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..… ……………………………………………………………………………………………..…… Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 32 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS …………………………………………………………………………………………..……… ………………………………………………………………………………………..………… ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………… …………………………………………………………………………………..……………… ………………………………………………………………………………..………………… ……………………………………………………………………………..…………………… …………………………………………………………………………..……………………… ………………………………………………………………………..………………………… ……………………………………………………………………..…………………………… …………………………………………………………………..……………………………… m ………………………………………………………………..………………………………… iva ……………………………………………………………..…………………………………… …………………………………………………………..……………………………………… as ………………………………………………………..………………………………………… ……………………………………………………..…………………………………………… th …………………………………………………..……………………………………………… Sa ………………………………………………..………………………………………………… ……………………………………………..…………………………………………………… …………………………………………..……………………………………………………… na ………………………………………..………………………………………………………… ……………………………………..…………………………………………………………… ha …………………………………..……………………………………………………………… ………………………………..………………………………………………………………… us ……………………………..…………………………………………………………………… Th …………………………..……………………………………………………………………… ………………………..………………………………………………………………………… ……………………..…………………………………………………………………………… …………………..……………………………………………………………………………… ………………..………………………………………………………………………………… ……………..…………………………………………………………………………………… …………..……………………………………………………………………………………… ………..………………………………………………………………………………………… Thushana Sathasivam (MSc Applied Psychology & Behaviour Change (reading), BSc Psychology (Hons) - 1st class, Dip. H. E. Psych. & Counseling, Dip. Psych. Counseling, Dip. Child & Adolescent Psych., Adv. Dip. Drug & Alcohol Addiction Counseling, Cert. CSD & SRH, CGP, CCP, MITBCCT (UK). 33 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ……..…………………………………………………………………………………………… …..………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..… ……………………………………………………………………………………………..…… …………………………………………………………………………………………..……… ………………………………………………………………………………………..………… ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………… …………………………………………………………………………………..……………… ………………………………………………………………………………..………………… m ……………………………………………………………………………..…………………… iva …………………………………………………………………………..……………………… ………………………………………………………………………..………………………… as ……………………………………………………………………..…………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………… th …………………………………………………………………………………..……………… Sa ………………………………………………………………………………..………………… ……………………………………………………………………………..…………………… …………………………………………………………………………..……………………… na ………………………………………………………………………..………………………… ……………………………………………………………………..…………………………… ha ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………… …………………………………………………………………………………..……………… us ………………………………………………………………………………..………………… Th ……………………………………………………………………………..………?