PSYC2017 Lectures 18-22- Google Docs.pdf
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CARL ROGER’S THEORY ● ● ● T heory based on clinical experience Your individual experience is your reality, it's not what others think of you, it's what you think of yourself ○ Reality is private Client-centred Therapy ○ Therapist indirectly assesses private world ○ You...
CARL ROGER’S THEORY ● ● ● T heory based on clinical experience Your individual experience is your reality, it's not what others think of you, it's what you think of yourself ○ Reality is private Client-centred Therapy ○ Therapist indirectly assesses private world ○ You personally have resources to alter psychology ■ You do the change, psychologist facilitates that change ○ Psychologist needs: ■ Congruence (genuineness and honesty) ■ Empathy ■ Unconditional positive regard SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING ● Differences to Watson ○ Behaviours are voluntary ○ Environment provides occasion for behaviour ○ Considered role of thought ■ Thoughts are second to environment ○ Private events ■ Remembering ■ Emotional reactions REINFORCERS CONSTITUENTS OF SELF ● ● ● S elf-concept = perceived aspects of self Ideal-self = view of self one wishes to be Go to therapy when there is incongruence/disconnect between self-concept and ideal-self ○ Can lead to depression or low self-esteem, alcoholism ● ● Behaviour must occur before reinforcer ○ Reinforcer should be contingent and contiguous of the response Reinforcer questions: ○ How do we “know” if a stimulus is reinforcing ○ Reinforcer works backwards in time (impacting memory rather than behaviour?) ○ Where is the initial reason to act BEHAVIOURISM PERSONALITY ● ● ● ● E volutionary continuity: human and animal behaviour are different in complexity Reductionism: can reduce everything to the nervous system Determinism: everything is caused by the environment Empiricism: objective measures WATSON’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ● ● ● ● ● ersonality = learned habit systems P Emotions = acquired conditioned reflexes Environment —> behaviour Little Albert B Study: Watson and Rayner ○ Problems: ■ case study ■ subjective Evaluation: ○ People aren’t just a blank slate ■ Genetic component ○ Biological limitation to models (animals vs humans) PSYC2017 BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY ● ● ● Differences to skinner ○ Cognition, behaviour and environment interact ■ cognition is most important ○ Responses can be learned by observing ○ A self system acts on the environment and behaviour Previously social learning theory Integrates: ○ Psychoanalysis (1st force) ○ Behaviourism (2nd force) ○ Humanism (3rd force) 18 ● Importance of cognitive processes ○ Reinforcement cognitively mediated ■ Reinforcement is reinforcing because you decide that it is ○ Observational learning can’t be explain by behaviourism ○ Meta-cognition and agency ● ● RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM ● ● ● ● omplex makeup of personal, environmental and C behaviour factors (each weighing differently) ○ Environment (E): physical and social ○ Personality (P): cognitive emotional systems ○ Behaviour (B): individual behaviour Skinner had B and E, Bandura added P to mediate relationship Usually measured correlationally ○ Need to manipulate to do causational Factories are regulated by and regulate each other ○ Awareness of this interaction can change nature of interaction ● Bandura’s 4-step model of observational model (+1) 1. Attend 2. Remember 3. Reproduce 4. Motivation due to reinforcement of accurate reproduction 5. (something you haven't done before) Negative behaviours can be learnt socially ○ Aggression (Eg. Bobs doll experiment) High order behaviours can be socially learnt ○ Moral judgements (Eg. Moral judgement change persisted 2 weeks after adult model was no longer present) BANDURA’S SELF-EFFICACY ● ● Self-efficacy = perceived abilities in a particular area ○ Appraisal of capabilities ○ Level of confidence impacts behaviour ○ Domain/context specific ■ Scale must be specific to context ■ Eg. self-efficacy in tennis ○ Determinant and constitute of personality Personal factor in reciprocal determinism = self-efficacy SOURCES OF SELF-EFFICACY ● ● ● P E High self-efficacy Low self-efficacy esponsive R environment S uccessful behavioural outcomes bserving success O results in more underperformance nresponsive U environment Increase efforts to improve environment or seek another environment iscouraged to the D point to stopping ● ● OUTCOMES OF SELF-EFFICACY ● OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING ● ● Factors that determine if we learn from a model ○ Characteristics of the model ■ High status ■ Competent ■ Powerful ○ Characteristics of observer ■ Lack skill, power ○ Consequences of behaviour ■ Greater value that the observed places on behaviour → more likely to learn behaviour PSYC2017 eighting is different for different people W Mastery experiences/performance accomplishments ○ In obtainable steps (not too much too soon) ■ If you fail too soon you'll give up Vicarious experiences ○ Watching someone succeed Social/verbal persuasion Physiological and emotional states High perceived self-efficacy ○ Greater cognitive resourcefulness ○ Strategic flexibility ○ Less anxiety ○ Set more challenging goals ○ Recover quickly from setbacks ○ More venturesome ○ Effectiveness in managing environment Lower perceived self-efficacy ○ Avoid difficult tasks ○ Give up quickly ○ Slow to recover sense of efficacy after failures ○ Victim to stress and depression ACADEMIC SELF-EFFICACY ● ● ● anage work better M More persistent Less likely to reject correct solutions prematurely 19 ● ● ○ etter predictor of overall performance than cognitive B ability alone Practical experiences create strong sense of academic self-efficacy ● PERFORMANCE SELF-EFFICACY ● ● ● ost correlated to WAM/GPA M So is effort regulation and academic self-efficacy Hehancers: ○ Quality teachers ○ Feedback ○ Manage stress levels igh prejudice: Consciously do NOT inhibit H negative response ■ Beliefs and negative stereotypes are NOT in conflict Contradictingassociationview: Lenore and brown ○ High prejudice people show more automatic stereotyping than low ○ Conclusion: depends on what we are measuring and how we measure it COPING SELF-EFFICACY ● Posttraumatic stress recovery ○ Believing you can recover —> recovery RACIAL PREJUDICE ● ● ● ● ● S tereotypes= members of an out group possess certain characteristics or traits ○ Cognitive efficiency strategy ○ But oversimplifying —> problematic ○ Learnt over time ○ Prejudice and discrimination can result Prejudice= a (usually) negativeattitudetowardsmembers of a group based solely upon their membership in that group Discrimination= negativebehaviourdirected towardsan individual based on their membership in a group Theautomatic-controlled continuum(for stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination) ○ Potential moderators: ■ Motivation ■ Context ■ Age ■ Cognitive load Prejudice is intergroup: not unidirectional ○ Much of the current literature is unidirectional ○ Not focusing on reducing prejudice in one group, rather bringing groups together DEVINE’S DISSOCIATION MODEL ● ● ● DOVIDIO’S META-ANALYSIS ● ssociation between stereotypes, prejudice and A discrimination (meta-analysis) ○ Stereotype <—> prejudice = .25 ○ Stereotype <—> discrimination = .16 ○ Prejudice <—> discrimination = .32 TYPES OF RACISM ● ● ● Blatant (overt) racism ○ Strong negative feelings Subtle (covert) racism ○ Absence of positive feelings ○ “Socially acceptable” ○ Aim to appear not racist Aversive racism ○ Proposed by Dovidio ○ Consciously advocate egalitarian views ○ Unconscious and unintentional subtle racism ○ Will adhere to social norms to appear not racist to others or to themself MEASURING RACIAL PREJUDICE evelopmental stage 1: early learning of cultural D stereotypes ○ Automatic/unconscious processes Developmental stage 2: evaluation of stereotype validity in respect to own beliefs ○ Controlled/conscious processes High vs low prejudice people hold similar negative stereotypes ○ Low prejudice: Consciously inhibit negative response ■ Dissociation between beliefs and negative stereotypes PSYC2017 20 ● ● ● ● McConahay’s explicit measures (questionnaires) ○ Modern racism scale (MRS) ○ Old-fashioned racism scale (OFRS) ○ Limitations of the MRS ■ Blatant ■ Outdated ■ Confound between prejudice and political conservatism Cultural issues scale (CIS) ○ Recognition of seriousness of different forms of racism (via rating different events) Greenwald ○ Implicit = the individual is unaware of their negative attitude ○ How to measure unawareness? ■ Little evidence people are actually unaware Fazio and Olson ○ Time reaction ■ Slow due to people finding it difficult to consciously control their responses ■ Linked to task not attitude ○ Problem: Lack of control and unawareness are different ○ Solution: Implicit measure (not implicit prejudice) IMPLICIT MEASURES ● ● ● ● ● Sentence completion task ○ Eg. he got an A: ■ “Because the test was easy” black ■ “Because he studies” white RT latency task ○ Pair each race with positive/negative adjectives ○ Reaction time measured ■ Faster to pair positive word with white than black ■ No difference for blatantly negative words Eyeblink response ○ Physiological measure ○ Blink increase = negative response ○ Blink decrease = positive response Shooter bias paradigm ○ Reaction time and error rate measured ■ Faster to shoot armed targets when they are black ■ Not shoot unarmed targets when white Priming techniques ○ Reaction time measured ○ Priming with a face PSYC2017 ● Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures unconscious attitudes ○ Choose white/black race to go with pleasant/unpleasant and vise versa ○ Compatible (fast response) trials ■ white/pleasant, black/unpleasant ○ Incompatible (slow response) trials ■ white/unpleasant, black/pleasant ○ IAT difference score (ms) = mean latency for incompatible - mean latency for compatible ■ Higher = greater preference for whites ■ 40% of blacks have pro-white bias ○ Criticism ■ Might be measuring peoples learnt associations and stereotypes ■ People are generally aware of their attitudes, thus, no unconscious ■ Susceptible to deliberate faking and strategic processing ■ Poor behavioural predictability and test-retest reliability ■ Might be a measured of familiarity rather than prejudice ■ No real theory underpinning it SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS ● T endency to report answers they believe are more socially acceptable ○ More prevalent in explicit measures ○ Less for implicit as usually reaction time bases MODE MODEL ● otivation and opportunity as determinants (MODE) M model = motivation and opportunity to control prejudice moderate the attitude-behaviour and implicit-explicit measure relationship ○ Fazio and Olson ● issociation between implicit and explicit measures may D occur because ○ Explicit ■ Requires conscious judgement ■ Affected by motivation and opportunity to control prejudice ○ Implicit measures 21 ■ ● ependency + hatred of parents → D displacement of these unacceptable impulses into hostility towards minority groups Limitation ■ Correlational data ■ L ess affected by motivation and opportunity to control prejudice Implicit and explicit measureswill correlatewhen individual haslowmotivation and opportunity to control prejudice ○ Eg. when political correctness is not important ○ Prejudice is likely to predict behaviour ○ CAUSES AND CORRELATES OF RACISM THEORIES OF RACIAL PREJUDICE ORIGIN ● ● ● ● ● ● Evolutionary basis ○ Forming groups help with survival ○ Trust members in our group ○ Limitations ■ Lack of testability ■ May like some out groups Social identity theory ○ We have an individual and social (group) identity ○ Motivated to maintain positive group identify to protect identify self-esteem and protect ingroup ○ Most ingroup/outgroup categorisation occurs automatically ○ Limitations ■ Favouring the ingroup doesn’t mean you dislike the outgroup ■ Not good at explaining why low status group discriminated against high status Cognitive ability ○ Cognitive ability is linked with prejudice and strength of connection is underpinned by right-wing ideologies ○ Lower cognitive ability = right-wing ideologies ■ Less complexity, increased perceived control, resistance to social change and preservation of societal traditions ■ Avoiding uncertainty and threat ○ Limitations ■ Correlational data ■ How do manipulate cognitive ability and right-wing ideologies Social cognitive theory ○ Allport: children of authoritarian parents were more likely to develop prejudice attitudes ○ Bandura: they can learn these attitudes via observation learning ○ High prejudice in young children, then tends to decline due to social-cognitive development ○ The family socialisation model of racism (White and Gleizman) ■ Determined by level of cohesion (closeness) and type of attitude Social and physical segregation (inter group contact) The authoritarian personality ○ Right wing authoritarianism is strongly linked to prejudice PSYC2017 PREJUDICE REDUCTION STRATEGIES REDUCING AUTOMATIC EXPRESSION ● ● ● Repeated exposure to positive minority group exemplars ○ Exposed to counter stereotypical stimuli to alter associations (black = good rather than bad) and reduce automatic bias ■ IAT reduction in automatic bias was temporary (24 hours) Repeated exposure to unrelated minority group characteristics ○ Make race unhelpful for decision-making to encourage unbiased responding ■ Eg. blacks and whites equally likely to have a gun ■ Results: attending to race impaired performance but required more trials to get effect ■ IAT reduction in automatic bias was temporary (24 hours) Need continuous positive or unrelated characteristics exposure to sustain bias reduction LONG-TERM REDUCTION OF AUTOMATIC PREJUDICE ● L ong-term reduction in the automatic expression of racial bias (Devine et al., 2012) ○ Completed IAT 3 times and explicit measures ○ Training program ■ Stereotype replacement ■ Counter-stereotype imaging ■ Individuation ■ Perspective taking ■ Increasing opportunities for contact ○ Results: ■ Reductions in implicit bias which were sustained to week 8 22
