Parts of Speech in English Grammar PDF

**Parts of Speech in English Grammar** **Chapter.1** **Parts of Speech** Every language consists on its basic elements that are called words. As a building is made by bricks; language is made by words. First we will know about a word. A word is a speech sound or a combination of sound having a p...

**Parts of Speech in English Grammar** **Chapter.1** **Parts of Speech** Every language consists on its basic elements that are called words. As a building is made by bricks; language is made by words. First we will know about a word. A word is a speech sound or a combination of sound having a particular meaning for an idea, object or thought and has a spoken or written form. In English language word is composed by an individual letter (e.g., \'I\'), I am a boy, or by combination of letters (e.g., Jam, name of a person) Jam is a boy. Morphology, a branch of linguistics, deals with the structure of words where we learn under which rules new words are formed, how we assigned a meaning to a word? How a word functions in a proper context? How to spell a word? Etc. Some different examples are: **Boy, kite, fox, mobile phone, nature, etc.** There are nine parts of speech in the English grammar: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, preposition, conjunction, interjection and determiners. Some writes and websites count only eight parts of speech and place determiner under the category of adjectives. However, advance studies count determiner as a separate parts of speech. These nine parts of speech indicate how the words function within the sentence. An individual word may function as more than one part of speech when used in various sentences. Here are the nine parts of speech in English grammar: 1\. Noun 2\. Pronoun 3\. Verb 4\. Adverb 5\. Adjective 6\. Preposition 7\. Conjunction 8\. Interjection 9\. Determines **Chapter.2** **Noun** A noun is a word used for a place, person, or thing. Everything which has a name and we talk about it is a noun. Everything is donated by a name and that naming word is called a \"noun\". Often a noun will be the name for something we can touch (**e.g., lamb, pen, table**), but sometimes a noun will be the name for something we cannot touch (**e.g., happiness, determinism, truth**). Some examples of noun: Everything is represented by a word that is called a noun. Some of the examples of noun are written below: - **People:** Ali, boy, singer. - **Animals:** Cat, cow, elephant. - **Places:** Karachi, city, street. - **Objects:** Cup, pencil, book. - **Qualities:** Boldness, sorrow. - **Actions:** Writing, listening, running. **Types of Noun** There are many types of noun depending upon some aspects. One noun may fall in multiple categories. A common noun may be a countable noun and at a same time that noun may be a concrete e.g., pencil is a common noun it is countable, concrete and as well it is singular noun. Some main types of noun are tabulated below. 1. **Proper Noun** A proper noun is the given name of a person, or a specific place or thing, i.e. its own name (**e.g., Imran, Karachi, and Rover**). A proper noun always starts with a capital letter. All days and months are proper noun and start with capital letters (**e.g. Sunday, March, and December**). Name of all Person, name of countries, name of oceans are counted in category of proper nouns (**e.g., Mashal, Pakistan, Atlantic**). 2. **Common Noun** A common noun is the word used for a class of person, place, or thing (**e.g., person, city, and dog**). Common nouns are not capitalized unless used in start of a sentence. There are some exceptions like in poetry where every word of new line is capitalized. Something that is personified in poetry is also capitalized e.g., \"So Nature incites them in their hearts\" (Prologue- Geoffrey Chaucer) 3. **Concrete Noun** Concrete nouns are the things which we can see or touch physically. This noun contrast with abstract category of noun. For example: **tree, hammer, and pen**. We can see them feel them or touch them. Some time we name it material noun. 4. **Abstract Noun** Abstract nouns are things you cannot see or touch. Abstract nouns do not have physical existence. These nouns are difficult to guess. Sometime learners get confused with abstract noun and adjectives. Abilities and emotions are abstract noun **e.g. bravery, joy, determination etc.** 5. **Collective Noun** Collective nouns are words that denote groups\' collection or multitude of something. These noun are used as singular **e.g. team, army, concert.** 6. **Compound Noun** Compound nouns are nouns made up of more than one word. For example: court-martial, pickpocket, water bottle. Some compound nouns are two words (**e.g., peace pipe**), some are hyphenated (**e.g., play-off**), and some have become single words (**e.g., eye-opener**). And, many of them are currently transitioning through those stages. Therefore, spelling compound nouns can be a nightmare. Some compound nouns form their plural by adding an s to the principal word, not necessarily to the end (**e.g., brothers-in-law**). 7. **Countable Noun** A countable noun is a noun that can be counted in numbers like one pen, two cars with both a singular and a plural form. (**E.g. dog/dogs, pie/pies**). 8. **Uncountable Noun** An uncountable noun is a noun without a plural form For example: oxygen, patience. Such nouns do not include counting. All abstract noun falls under the uncountable category of nouns. 9. **Gerund Noun** Gerunds are nouns that end -ing and that represent actions. Gerunds have verb-like properties. But these are used differently in a sentence unlike verbs. Gerund noun are modified with adverbs. How to differentiate gerund noun and verb? Look at two examples. \(a) Ali is singing a song. \(b) Ali is fond of singing. In sentence (a) singing is verb as its show action that Ali is performing. Verb with -ing are used followed by helping verbs is, am, was, were, etc. But in sentence (b) singing is not an action being performed by Ali and not followed by a helping verb. 10. **Gender-specific Nouns** Gender-specific nouns are nouns that are definitely male or female. For example: **king, vixen, and actress**. A blonde is a woman. A blond is a man. 11. **Verbal Noun** Verbal nouns are nouns derived from verbs and do not have verb-like properties (**e.g., building, drawing, attack**). **How to Differentiate Gerund Noun and Verbal Noun?** To understand difference between gerund noun and verbal noun look at given example. - The ceremonial raising of the flag has started. - Raising the flag carefully is much difficult. Like gerunds nouns, verbal nouns are also derived from verbs, but, unlike gerunds, they have no verb-like properties. In above given example, the verbal noun raising is not showing any verb-like qualities. It is not modified by a determiner and an adjective (the and ceremonial) and it requires a preposition (of) to link it to the flag. In contrast, in the sentence \"raising the flag carefully is much difficult,\" the word raising (which, despite being spelled the same, is now a gerund) is showing verb- like qualities. More specifically, it is modified with an adverb (carefully). Verbal nouns are usually preceded by a, or, an, or the, and followed by a preposition (e.g., of, in, for). This makes them pretty inefficient from a word count perspective. Also, a sentence with verbal nouns can often sound stuffy. However, verbal nouns can give an air of formality or provide emphasis. So, we should all care about verbal nouns for two reasons: i. Replacing verbal nouns with verbs and gerunds will reduce your word count and improve sentence flow. ii. Sentences featuring pure verbal nouns could portray you as stuffy (bad) or authoritative (good). Employ them smartly to tune to your needs. **Chapter.3** **Pronoun** Pronoun is defined as a word that replaces a noun in a sentence. It takes place of a noun. Read the paragraph written below. (Jam is a boy of sixteen. Jam is studying in 9th class. Jam has two brothers. Jam loves playing football. Jam is captain of his team.) Look at above paragraph. The name Jam looks strange in every sentence due to repetition of noun Jam. We replace it with pronoun to make a sentence beautiful and easy to avoid word redundancy. We will replace it with appropriate pronoun and read it again. Jam is a boy of sixteen. He is studying in 9th class and has two brothers. He loves playing football and he is captain of his team. **Types of Pronoun** Pronouns are categorized into many types. Main types include personal pronoun, possessive pronoun, indefinite pronoun, reflective pronoun, intensive pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, and reflexive pronoun. i. **Personal Pronouns** Personal pronouns refer to a person\'s name. We use personal pronouns as a substitute for a person\'s name. There are two kinds of personal pronoun: Subjective and objective pronouns. \(a) Subjective pronoun: Subjective pronouns replace the subject in a sentence. Common subjective pronouns are I, we, you, he, she, it, and they **Example:** I love watching TV. \(b) Objective pronouns: Objective pronouns replace the object in a sentence. Common objective pronouns are me, us, you, him, her, it, and them **Examples:** She gave him a present on his birthday. ii. **Possessive Pronouns** Possessive pronouns are the pronouns that show ownership and possession in a sentence. We categorize possessive pronoun into two types: - Strong possessive pronoun - Weak possessive pronoun The strong possessive pronouns include yours mine, his, hers, its, theirs, yours, and ours. They refer back to a noun or noun phrase already used, replacing it to avoid repetition: \"I said that pen was mine.\" Strong possessive pronouns are sometime called absolute possessive pronoun. The weak possessive pronouns include your, my, her, his, its, their, our, and, your. Their function is as a determiner in front of a noun to express whom something belongs to: \"I said that\'s my pen.\" Sometime we call them possessive adjectives. iii. **Indefinite Pronouns** Indefinite pronouns refer to something that in not definite in a sentence, they do not refer to particular thing or person. We use them when an object does not need to be specifically identified. There are two main types of indefinite pronoun: Singular indefinite pronoun and plural indefinite pronoun. - Singular Indefinite Pronoun: We use singular indefinite pronouns for the singular objects and not for plural. Singular indefinite pronouns include: someone, somebody, something, no one, nobody, nothing, everyone, everybody, everything, anybody, another, anyone, each, anything, either, other, one, neither, and much. - Plural Indefinite Pronoun: Plural indefinite pronouns are used for the plural objects and not for singular. Plural indefinite pronouns include many, several, few, others, and both. iv. **Relative Pronouns** A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates the relative clause to another clause within a sentence. In addition, introduces the relative clause or an adjective clause. In mostly cases it acts as a subject of the relative clause. The most commonly used relative pronouns are mentioned below. **Examples:** Whom, whoever, whomever, who, that, which and whose **Example in a sentence:** - She does not know which pack of pencil you want. - \"Which pack of pencil you want\" is a relative clause, and the relative pronoun \"which\" has linked it to the main clause. v. **Intensive Pronouns** Intensive pronouns emphasize, or intensify nouns and pronouns and we define it as a pronoun that ends in self or selves. Intensive pronouns place emphasis on its antecedent by referring back to another noun or pronoun used earlier in the sentence. An intensive pronoun is approximately identical to a reflexive pronoun. Intensive pronouns are also sometimes called emphatic pronouns. Intensive pronouns are himself, myself, themselves, itself, herself, yourselves, ourselves, and yourself, **Example in a sentence:** - I myself like to sing. - Jerry herself is her worst critic. vi. **Demonstrative Pronouns** Demonstrative pronouns are the nouns that take place of a noun that\'s already been mentioned in a sentence. Demonstrative pronouns can be singular or plural. Five main demonstrative pronouns are: **these, those, such, this, that,** **Example in a sentence:** - These are beautiful. Do not eat that. vii. **Interrogative Pronouns** An interrogative pronoun often stands for something that we are not aware of yet, because we are asking about it. We use these pronouns specifically to ask questions. These pronouns are special because they all start with \"Wh\", which is quite easy to remember. Most commonly used interrogative pronouns are: **whose, what, whom, which, and who.** The other words like \"whichever\" and \"whatsoever\" are the words that we use as interrogative pronouns. Words with \'wh\' that are not interrogative pronouns. There are many other words that start with Wh but they are not interrogative pronouns. Because they are just words that start with \'wh\' and are in questions! When t an interrogative pronoun is neither is \"where\" nor \"why\". Moreover, unlike other pronouns, sometime interrogative pronouns do not have antecedents because you are not yet sure what they really are! **Example in a sentence:** - What is your nickname? - Whose pen is this? - Whatsoever do you suggest by that? Whom were you talking with last night? Which of these three do you like? - Sentence in which \'wh\' words are not interrogative pronoun: - When do you have to go to gymnasium? - He doesn\'t know where Ali was living last week. viii. **Reflexive Pronouns** Reflexive pronouns and intensive pronouns are similar, but the difference between them is that intensive pronouns are not essential to a sentence\'s meaning. Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns are. In addition, they are used when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to the same person or thing. Reflexive pronouns end in -selves or -self. Reflexive pronouns are: - Yourself, himself, ourselves, itself, themselves, herself, myself, yourselves. **Example in a sentence:** - She told herself to spend all vacations at home. - He bought himself a new phone. **Reciprocal Pronouns** A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that we use to identify a feeling or any kind of action that is reciprocated among two or more than two. That is why; it always refers to two or more than two persons. **For example**, Jane is laughing at Lizzy and Lizzy is laughing at Jane. So we say: - Jane and Lizzy are laughing at each other. Each other and One another are the two reciprocal pronouns are not individual words but they are phrases. While using them, there must be two or more things, persons, or groups involved. Moreover, they all must be acting the same action. **Some more examples are:** - Paul and Jam help each other. - Both teams fought hard against each other. - Why do you laugh at each other? - All the students gave presents to one another. ix. **Distributive Pronouns** Distributive pronoun is a pronoun that describes a member of a group separately from the group and not collectively or including in that group. It refers to a thing or a person in a group. We use this pronoun to describe all the individual members of a particular group. Distributive pronoun are commonly used with plural noun and singular verb Distributive pronouns that are commonly used are each, either, every, neither, none, everyone, and any. **Example in a sentence:** - Each of the boys writes a poem. - Neither of the pens is black. **Chapter.4** **Verb** A verb shows the happening or state of something. It is an action word. It can show: - If somebody does something; like: This cat sleeps all day. - If something has done onto someone; like: A stranger patted the stray cat. - The state of someone or something; like: The cat is alive fortunately. Verb is the most important part of any sentence. A sentence does not make sense without a verb in it. There are some instants where a one-word answer can make up for a whole sentence; like, yes or indeed, etc, without the use of verb, but these responses are not used in formal writing. Verbs can also consist of more than one word, such as: - The children were playing in the backyard. **Types of Verbs** These are the main kinds of verbs: - Linking Verbs - Transitive Verbs - Intransitive Verbs - Reflexive Verbs, - Auxiliary Verbs - Modal Verbs. 1. **Linking Verbs** Linking verb is a verb that connects a sentence together. It does not mean anything on its own but makes sense when used in a sentence. Common Linking Verbs that are used are: Is, am, are, was, were **Examples in sentences:** - The birds are flying high up in the sky. She is always looking fabulous. In the above examples, we can see that the linking verbs are connecting the subject with the rest of the sentence. Without Linking Verbs, the sentences do not have a complete structure. 2. **Action Verbs** Action verbs show action. They create an image of the happening in your head. There are two kinds of action verbs: a. Transitive Verbs b. Intransitive Verbs **(a) Transitive Verbs:** The verb in a sentence that has a direct object is known as Transitive verb. The verb should have something on which it is performed. The sentences containing Transitive Verbs can also be converted from Active Voice to Passive Voice. Look at the examples below: - The batsman hit the ball hard. She walked the streets alone. In the first example, we can see that the verb hit has a direct object ball. The sentence can also be converted into passive voice: the batsman hit the ball. The same case is with the second sentence. The verb walked has direct object streets and the sentence can be converted into passive voice: The streets were walked by her, alone. **(b) Intransitive Verbs:** The verb in a sentence that does not have a direct object is known as Intransitive verb. The sentences containing Intransitive Verbs cannot be converted from Active Voice to Passive Voice. Let us see the examples below: - The lion cub sleeps. The house is flawed. In both of the above examples, there is no direct object. Both cannot be converted into passive voice too. So, the verbs; sleeps and flawed are intransitive. - Most verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively. For example: - The child rings the bell. Here the verb \'rings\' has a direct object and is used transitively. - The bell rings loudly. Here the verb \'rings\' does not have a direct object and is used intransitively. **More Examples:** I stopped the car. (Transitively) The car stopped suddenly. (Intransitively) There are some verbs such as: go, sleep, die, fall, etc, which show an action that cannot be done to anything or anyone. Hence, these verbs can never be used transitively. 3. **Reflexive Verbs** Reflexive verbs are those who's subject and direct object are the same. They refer back to the same thing or person. Let us see the examples below. - She stays home herself. The cat cleans itself. - In both the above examples, the verbs are referring back to the same person. Their subject and object are the same, hence they are Reflexive Verbs. The reference back is done in form of Reflexive Pronouns by which they are being called reflexive verbs. 4. **Auxiliary Verbs** Auxiliary Verbs help the main verb in a sentence and are called Helping Verbs. Auxiliary Verbs, when used with ordinary verbs help in changing the tenses, mood or voice of a sentence. They also help in making negatives and interrogatives of sentences. Auxiliary Verbs are also simply called Auxiliaries. Common words that come under this category are as follows: - Is, am, are, was, were, have, do, etc **Examples in sentences:** - I was going to the shop. Here the Auxiliary is used to form a continuous tense. - The car door was opened. Here it is used in formation of a sentence in passive voice. - I have to reach the airport at 5:00 am. To form questions, to emphasize on something, or to make a request, the Auxiliary Do is used. - Do you know where the parking lot is? - You do look great. - Do visit! 5. **Modal Verbs** Modal verbs are the verbs that are used before the ordinary verbs to show meanings such as: possibilities, permission, certainty etc. They can just simply be called Modals. Common Modal Verbs that are used are as follows: - Can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought Never and dare are also used as modal verbs sometimes. **Examples in sentences:** - You dare not do such a thing. You must be Sara\'s sister. - You could have stopped them. Modals are mostly put in the category of Auxiliaries. Then they are sometimes called Modal Auxiliaries. **Chapter.5** **Adverb** An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It provides us with further information about a verb, adjective or another adverb. It tells us in which manner, at what place or time, something happened, or is/was done. **Look at the examples below.** - Ali walks swiftly. - She took the grocery out of the shopping bags very - That is a really sweet child. In the first example, the adverb swiftly is modifying the verb walks and is telling us the manner in which Ali walks. In the second example, the adverb very is modifying another adverb, carefully. In the third one, the adverb really is modifying the word sweet, which is an adjective. **Kinds of Adverbs** Adverbs are categorized into many kinds, such as: - Adverbs of Time - Adverbs of Place - Adverbs of Frequency - Adverbs of Degree - Adverbs of Manner - Adverbs of Reason - Relative Adverbs - Interrogative Adverbs - Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation. I. **Adverbs of Time** Adverbs of time tell us about which time an action was performed. These answer the question: When? Common words which come under the category of adverbs of time are: - Ago, before, after, later, already, now, never, formerly, soon, since, etc **Examples in sentences:** - I called my friend a few days ago. - I formerly worked at the pizza shop. II. **Adverbs of Place** Adverbs of Place tell us about at what place an action took place. These answer the question: Where? Common words which come under the category of adverbs of place are: - Here, there, up, out, in, within, away, etc **Examples in sentences:** - Mr. Saud was visiting here an hour ago. I\'m going out with my family. III. **Adverbs of Frequency** Adverbs of frequency show us about how often or how many times a thing took place. These answer the question: How often? Common words used as adverbs of frequency are: - Once, twice, again, often, seldom, rarely, always, frequently, etc **Examples in sentences:** - I often go to visit my grandparents. It rarely rains around here. IV. **Adverbs of Degree** Adverbs of Degree inform us about to what degree or an extent something happens. These answer the question: How much? Adverbs of Degree are also known as Adverbs of Quantity. Common words used as Adverbs of Degree or Quantity are: - Too, any, almost, so, pretty, rather, quite, partly, altogether, enough, etc **Examples in sentences:** - I was pretty busy yesterday. - The sauce I bought today was good enough for making my pizza. In the above examples, we can see that the words pretty and enough both answer the question of how much. V. **Adverbs of Manner** Adverbs of Manner give us information about how or in which manner some action is preceded. These answer the question: How? Adverbs of manner usually are derived from adjectives and mostly end in -**ly**. Following are some common words that come under the adverbs of manner category: - Swiftly, clearly, foolishly, well, so, slowly, **Examples in sentences:** - Hassan caught the loose snake bravely. - Her hair is always well combed. - She should do so. VI. **Adverbs of Reason** Adverbs of Reason are the words that are used to state the reason or cause of some happening. These are also known as Adverb of Cause and answer the question: Why? The common words that come under this category are: - Because, hence, therefore, so, etc **Example in sentences:** - I therefore went to the market by myself. - He was hungry, so he went to the restaurant. VII. **Adverbs of Affirmation Negation** Adverbs of Affirmation are the words that are used to affirm or declare something as true. These validate things. These are the words that are commonly used as adverbs of affirmation: - Surely, certainly, definitely, very, obviously, yes, indeed, etc. **Examples:** - Surely it rained yesterday. - I am obviously going to get an A+ on my test. VIII. **Adverbs of Negation** Adverbs of negation are the words which denote a statement, action or an idea as false. It is used to negate something. Words commonly used to falsify something are: - No, never, invalidly, etc **Examples in sentences:** - He never went to Italy. - I no longer like to play table tennis. IX. **Relative Adverbs** Relative Adverbs are the words which come before an adjective clause. These are: - When, where and why. **Examples in sentences:** - That was the reason why Harris came. - The place where I parked my car is very deserted. - She forgot the time when we went to the States. X. **Interrogative Adverbs** Interrogative Adverbs are the verbs used to ask questions. These are placed in the beginning of the sentence which contains the question. These words are commonly used as interrogative adverbs: - Why, where, how, when **Examples in sentences:** - When will you come to visit? - How was the roast cooked? **Degrees of Adverbs** Like adjectives, adverbs also have Degrees of Comparison. But, only Adverbs of time, degree and manner admit to the comparison. Adverbs like now, then, there, once, etc cannot be compared because of their nature. **Degrees of Comparison** Adverbs of Manner, Degree and Time are changed in form very often to denote comparison. The degree to which these adverbs change, determines their degree. These degrees are called Degrees of Comparison. There are three degrees of comparison: - Positive Degree - Comparative Degree - Superlative Degree. - **Positive Degree** An adverb with a positive degree is an adverb in its simple and original form. There is no comparison going on with anything. It just lets it known that some quality exists in something or someone. Look at the examples below. - She walked slowly. - The car is parked at a near location. - **Comparative Degree** The comparative degree of an adverb shows that the presence of a quality in one thing is more or higher than its presence in the Positive. This degree is used when the comparison of two things is happening. Look at the examples below to get a more clear idea. - She walked more slowly than her friends. - The car is park at a nearer location. - **Superlative Degree** The Superlative Degree of Comparison is used when the some quality in one thing or person is highest than anything or anyone else. Superlative degree is used when a thing or person is in comparison against more than one thing or person. **Examples:** - Of all the people, she walked the most slowly. - The car is parked at the next location. In the above examples, we have compared the thing we were talking about with all the other things of the like. This is the highest form of comparison and hence is the Superlative Degree. **Chapter.6** **Adjective** An adjective is defined a word which gives information about a noun, pronoun, or a noun phrase. It gives additional information about a noun or pronoun. It shows the quality, kind, or degree of a noun. Look at the examples below. - Sana gave me eight apples - The mouse is little. In the first example, the word eight is telling about the quantity of apples. It is giving additional information about the apples, hence is an adjective. In the second example, the word little is telling us about the quality of the mouse, that it is little, so it is an adjective too. **Kinds of Adjective** Adjectives are categorized into many kinds, such as: - Adjectives of quality - Adjectives of Quantity - Numeral Adjectives - Demonstrative Adjectives - Possessive Adjectives - Interrogative adjectives. 1. **Adjectives of Quality** Adjectives of quality describe the kind, quality, or degree, of a noun or pronoun. They are also called Descriptive Adjectives. **Examples:** - He ate a big mango. Hassan is an honest man. - The child is foolish. - Arabic language is not hard to learn. In the last example, the word Arabic is a Proper Noun. Such Adjectives which are formed from Proper Nouns are called sometimes as Proper Adjectives. They generally come under the category of Adjectives of Quality. 2. **Adjectives of Quantity** These adjectives tell us about the quantity of a noun. They answer the question: How much? Common Adjectives of Quantity are: - Some, much, no, any, little, enough, great, half, sufficient **Examples:** - Take great care of your grandma\'s health. - The pay is enough for my expenses. - Half of the papers were checked. 3. **Adjectives of Number** Adjectives of Number tell us about how many things or people are meant or the order of standing of people or things. These are also called Numeral Adjectives. There are of three kinds of Numeral Adjectives: - Definite Numeral Adjectives - Indefinite Numeral Adjectives - Distributive Numeral Adjectives - **Definite Numeral Adjectives:** These represent an accurate number. Definite Numeral Adjectives are of further two types: - Cardinals and Ordinals: Cardinals indicate how many. Such as: One, two, three, etc. **Example:** - I have three pairs of scissors. - Ordinals indicate in which order. Such as: First, second, third, etc. **Example:** - She was the first one to arrive at the airport. - **Indefinite Numeral Adjectives:** Indefinite Numeral Adjectives do not represent an accurate number. Some of the common indefinite numeral adjectives are: - No, all, few, many, some, several, any, etc. **Examples in sentences:** - All the cats are sleeping. - I have taken several different baking lessons. - There are no pedestrians on the street. - **Distributive Numeral Adjectives:** These adjectives refer to a specific or all things or people of a bunch. Some common Distributive Numeral Adjectives are: - Every, each, either, neither **Examples in sentences:** - Each student must take its turn. - Neither proposal is acceptable. 4. **Demonstrative Adjectives** Demonstrative Adjectives point to a specific person or thing. They answer the question: Which? Some common demonstrative adjectives are: - This, that, these, those, such **Examples:** - This is my assignment. - Those are spicy dishes. - Such an attitude will cause him failure. 5. **Interrogative Adjectives** Interrogative adjectives are used to ask questions. When what, whose and which are used with a noun to ask questions, they become interrogative adjectives. Interrogative adjectives are only three and are very easy to remember. **Examples in sentences:** - Which way goes to the mall? What time is it? - Whose duty time is it? 6. **Possessive Adjectives** Possessive adjectives denote the ownership of something. Common possessive adjectives are: - My, your, our, its, his, her, their **Examples in sentences:** - My daily routine is pretty simple. - Your shoelaces are loose. - Cat is licking its paws. - They are doing their work. 7. **Emphasizing Adjectives** Emphasizing adjectives are used to put emphasis in sentences. Look at the example below. - This is the very book I want. - Sarah saw the robbery with her own eyes. In the examples above, very and own are added to put additional emphasis. 8. **Exclamatory Adjective** Exclamatory adjective is used to exclaim excitement, fear and other extreme feelings. There is only one word which is usually used to exclaim i.e. what. **Examples in sentences:** - What crap! - What a spectacular view! - What foolishness! **Chapter.7** **Preposition** Prepositions are the words that we put before nouns or pronouns. These denote in what relation the person or thing indicated by it exists, in relation to something else. Look at the examples below. - The child jumped off the bed. - There is a bee in the jar. - Hani is fond of cheesecakes. In the first example, the word \'off \'is showing the relation between the action denoted by the verb jumped, and the noun chair. In the second example, the word \'in\' is showing the relation between bee and the jar. In the third example, the word \'of\' is showing the relation between the quality denoted by the adjective fond and the noun cheesecake. - Hence the words off, in and of are Prepositions. **Kinds of Prepositions** Prepositions are classified into following categories: - Simple Prepositions - Double Prepositions - Compound Prepositions - Phrasal prepositions - Participle Prepositions - Detached Prepositions 1. **Simple Prepositions** Simple prepositions are used to denote a relation between nouns or pronouns. These can even be used to join different parts of sentences and clauses. Simple prepositions are one word prepositions. These are also called Single Prepositions. Common words used that come under the category of Simple Prepositions are as follows: - In, out, on, up, at, for, from, by, of, off, through, till, etc **Examples in sentences:** - Keep your phones in your pockets. - Staring at people is not considered a good gesture. In the above two examples, both prepositions consist of one simple word and hence are Single or Simple Prepositions. 2. **Double Prepositions** Double Prepositions are made by putting together two Single Prepositions. That is why they are called Double Prepositions. Common words used as Double Prepositions are as follows: - Onto, into, throughout, up till, up to, within, without, upon, etc **Examples in sentences:** - Complete this essay within two hours. - I am going to turn this scrap into a masterpiece. In the first example, the Preposition within is made by combining two Single Prepositions with and in. In the second example, the Preposition into is formed by putting together two Simple Prepositions in and two. These are hence Double Prepositions. 3. **Compound Prepositions** Compound Prepositions are usually formed by prefixing a Preposition to Nouns, Adjectives or Adverbs. They are different from Double Prepositions because they are not formed by two single prepositions. Common words, which come under the category of Compound Prepositions, are stated below: - Above, about, across, along, before, behind, beside, inside, outside, etc **Examples in sentences:** - He was going about his business. - The person beside Ali is my brother. In the first example, the prefix \'a\' is added to a root word \'bout\' to make a preposition. In the second example, the prefix be is added to the root word side to make a preposition. Thus, these words are Compound Prepositions. 4. **Phrasal Prepositions** Phrasal Prepositions are groups of words or phrases that join the noun or pronoun in a sentence, to the remainder of the sentence. These groups of words express a single idea by coming together as a unit. Words that come under the category of Phrasal Prepositions are as follows: - In addition to, by means of, in spite of, according to, owing to, in favor of, etc **Examples in sentences:** - He couldn\'t pass the test, owing to his lack of knowledge of English Grammar. - She made it to the other side of the world, in spite of all the difficulties. In the first example, the group of words \'owing to\' is joining the two sentences with each other and is a phrase. Likewise, the group of words \'in spite of\' is also a phrase and is working as a preposition. Hence, these are Phrasal Prepositions. 5. **Participle Prepositions** Participle Prepositions, indicating from their name, are the Present Participle forms of Verbs. These are used without any noun or pronoun attached with them. The words that are distinguished as Participle Prepositions are as follows: - Concerning, considering, barring, notwithstanding, touching, pending, during, etc **Examples in sentences:** - Notwithstanding his efforts, he was still fired from the job. - Touching this matter, I do not have much information. In above examples, both the verbs notwithstanding and touching are in Present Participle which is apparent from the \'ing\' at the end of both words. These words are therefore Participle Prepositions. 6. **Disguised Prepositions** Disguised Prepositions are those prepositions which are not used in the sentences directly, but are disguised. Their shorter forms are used. The examples of Disguised Prepositions are \'a\' and \'o\'. \'a\' is shortened form of the preposition \'on\' and \'o\' is the shortened form of the preposition \'of\'. **Examples in sentences:** - The ceremony will be held at 5 o\' clock. - We all went to a party. In the first example, instead of saying \'5 of the clock\', we have used disguised form of the preposition of. In the second example, instead of saying \'went on partying\', we have used abbreviation of the preposition on and disguised the preposition as \'a\'. Hence these are Disguised Prepositions. 7. **Detached Prepositions** A preposition is called a Detached Preposition when it does not come before its object. It is detached from its object. When the object of a preposition is an interrogative pronoun or a relative pronoun, the preposition comes at the end of the sentence. Look at the following examples for further understanding. - She is the woman whom I was talking about. - Here are the books that you asked for. - Which of the houses were you working in? In the first two of the above examples, we can see that because of relative pronouns whom and that, the prepositions about and for are being detached from their objects. In the third example, the interrogative pronoun 'which' is detaching the preposition \'in\' from its object. - Hence these are all Detached Prepositions. **Chapter.8** **Conjunction** Conjunctions are simply words that join sentences, clauses and sometimes words. These join together sentences are to make them more compact. Unlike Relative Adverbs and Relative Pronouns, Conjunctions just simply join and perform no other job. Look at the examples below to get a clear understanding. - The teacher is young, but - Sara and Hania are sisters. In the first example, the conjunction \'but\' is joining two sentences and is also making them smaller. So instead of saying \'but she is talented\' we have shortened the sentence and made it compact. In the second example, the conjunction and is only joining two words. **Kinds of Conjunctions** There are two types of Conjunctions: - Correlative Conjunctions - Compound Conjunctions. 1. **Correlative Conjunctions** There are some Conjunctions which are used as pairs. These types of conjunctions are called Correlative Conjunctions or just Correlatives. Common Correlative Conjunctions are as follows: - Either -or, neither -nor, both -and, though-yet, whether -or, not only -but also **Examples in sentences:** - Either do this or do that. - Though it was raining heavily, yet she still managed to come. Take note that correlative conjunctions should be placed right before the words to be joined. We cannot write: - She not only speaks English, but also Arabic. The correct way is: - She speaks not only English, but also Arabic. 2. **Compound Conjunctions** Many compound expressions are also used as conjunctions. These compound expressions are called Compound Conjunctions. Common words that come under the category of Compound Conjunctions are as follows. - In order that, as if, as soon as, as well as, inasmuch as, provided that, even if, etc **Examples in sentences:** - The house looks as if it was made hundreds of years ago. - You can have the sweets provided that you brush your teeth afterwards. - I accept your invitation, inasmuch as spending time with you is great. **Classes of Conjunctions** Conjunctions are divided into two classes: - Coordinating Conjunctions - Subordinating Conjunctions. - **Coordinating Conjunctions** The word Co-coordinating means \'of equal rank\'. The conjunctions which join together two sentences or clauses or equal rank or significance are known as Co-coordinating Conjunctions. They connect two independent clauses together. The main coordinating conjunctions are as follows: - And, but, for, nor, or, also, neither -nor, either -or **Examples in sentences:** - Dos bark and cats mew. - I went to work but my sister stayed at home. **Kinds of Co-coordinating Conjunctions** These are the four kinds of Coordinating Conjunctions: - Cumulative Conjunctions - Adversative Conjunctions - Disjunctive Conjunctions - Illative Conjunctions i. **Cumulative Conjunctions** These conjunctions simply add one clause to another. Cumulative Conjunctions are also called Copulative Conjunctions. **Examples in sentences:** - The cat got up and ran very fast. - He plays guitar as well as he paints pictures. ii. **Adversative Conjunctions** These conjunctions are used to indicate opposition or contrast between two statements or clauses. **Examples in sentences:** - He is ill, but he is getting better. - She was all right; only she had a headache. iii. **Disjunctive Conjunctions** Distinctive Conjunctions are used to present two sentences which provide two alternatives. These conjunctions are also known as Alternative Conjunctions. **Examples in sentences:** - You must quit smoking, or you will get seriously ill. - Revise your lesson; else you will fail the test. iv. **Illative Conjunctions** Illative conjunctions denote inferences. They make an assumption in one statement based on the condition in the other statement. **Examples in sentences:** - Someone is at the door, for the bell rang. - I have been applying for Colleges everywhere, so I will definitely get in one. v. **Subordinating Conjunctions** The conjunctions which join together an independent clause to a dependent clause are called Subordinating Conjunctions. The main Subordinating Conjunctions are: - After, before, because, if, till, as, that, though, although, unless, etc **Examples in sentences:** - After the rain was over the sun came out again. - I will wait here till you come back. **Kinds of Subordinating Conjunctions** According to their meanings, subordinating conjunctions are classified as: - Subordinating Conjunctions of Time - Subordinating Conjunctions of Cause - Subordinating Conjunctions of Purpose - Subordinating Conjunctions of Consequence - Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition - Subordinating Conjunctions of Concession - Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison i. **Subordinating Conjunctions of Time** These conjunctions are used to indicate time of happening of something. **Examples in sentences:** - I went home after the sunset. - Hani reached the ceremony before it was over. ii. **Subordinating Conjunctions of Cause** Subordinating Conjunctions of Cause are used to show the cause and effect of something. They give the reason behind the happening of something. These are also called Conjunctions of Reason. **Examples in sentences:** - She baked a cake because it was her birthday. - Since you have been gone, I am doing the dishes. iii. **Subordinating Conjunctions of Purpose** These are the conjunctions which denote the purpose of things that: why something was done or why something happened. **Examples in sentences:** - He ate, so that he won\'t be hungry. - I went to the doctor lest my wound should be infected. iv. **Subordinating Conjunctions of Consequence** These conjunctions show the result of some happening. For this reason they are also Conjunctions of Result. **Examples in sentences:** - She worked so many hours that she could barely sit. - The seminar was boring so people started yawning. v. **Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition:** Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition are used to express that something will happen if some other thing is done. Or what will happen if the condition of one clause is fulfilled. **Examples in sentences:** - She will work if she gets paid handsomely. - People will not succeed unless they work efficiently. vi. **Subordinating Conjunctions of Concession:** These conjunctions concede or state a fact or idea regardless of what claim is made in the main clause. Look at the following examples to get clear on this one. - Though my cat is ill, yet it plays all day. - Even though he was rich, he never looked down upon anyone. We can see that in example one, regardless of illness of the cat, it still plays. So in spite of whatever is said in the clause, a fact is still presented by using a conjunction of concession. vii. **Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison:** Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison are used to show comparison between two things, in two statements. **Examples in sentences:** - She is stronger than her friend. - Our team wore white whereas their team. **Chapter.9** **Interjections** Interjections are the words or group of words that are used to express and exclaim extreme emotions. These words are always used with an exclamation mark. Interjections do not have any grammatical function in a sentence. The words that are commonly used as Interjections are as follows: - Hurrah! , Alas! , Oh no! , Oh my God! , What! , etc **Different types of Interjections** Interjections can be used to express various types of emotions such as happiness, surprise, sadness, anger and greetings. On such various types of emotions we classified them into different types. **1. Interjections for Greeting** Such interjections are used in sentences to show the emotions of warmness to the person meeting with. **Examples:** - Good morning! It\'s great to see you. - Hey! When you came here? - Hello! I am Sadaf. **2. Interjections for Happiness** Such interjections are used in sentences to show happiness or joy on any happy occasion. **Examples:** - Yeah! We won! - Hurrah! I\'ve won! - Wow! What a pleasant weather! **3. Interjections for Attention** Such interjections are used in sentences to draw the attention of someone. **Examples:** - Hey! Let\'s go on a picnic! - Yo! What is going on? - Look! Jam is so happy. - Listen! I am starving. **4. Interjections for Approval** Such interjections are used in sentences to show the sense of agreement or approval for something. **Examples:** - Well done! You got first position. - Brilliant! You arrived here in time. **5. Interjections for Surprise** Such interjections are used in sentences to indicate the sense of surprise about something that has happened. **Examples:** - Oh! What a lovely scene! - Ah! It sounds good. - What! She passed away. **6. Interjections for Sorrow** Such interjections are used in sentences to express the emotion of sadness about something unfortunate has happened. **Examples:** - Alas! He could not recover from his illness. - Ouch! That hurts. - Oops, I\'m sorry. It was hot. - Alas! His friend died. **7. Interjections for Shock** Such interjections are used in sentences to express the shock about something happened. **Examples:** - What! What have you done? **8. Interjections for Anger** Such interjections are used in sentences to express the anger about something unfortunate has happened by someone\'s mistake or carelessness. **Examples:** - Excuse me! I am not a beggar. - Interjections in form of phrases Some of the interjections are used in common phrases. Few of them are stated as follows: - What hell! , Goodness gracious! , Good Lord! , Oh my God! , Oh no! , What the heck! , What Goodness! etc. **Chapter.10** **Determiners** Determiners are the words that are placed before nouns or adjectives to introduce them. These are different from adjectives because they are just used for introduction of nouns while adjectives give additional information about nouns. Determiners are also called Determinatives. Common words used as Determiners are as follows: - A, the, every, any, that, my, your, which, etc **Examples in sentences:** - This is a Chandelier. - I did not check any papers. **Types of Determiners** Determiners are classified into following types: - Articles - Demonstrative Determiners - Possessive Determiners - Quantifiers - Interrogative Determiners - Distributive Determiner - Cardinal Numbers - Ordinal Numbers **1. Articles** The adjectives \'a\', \'an\' and \'the\' are usually called Articles. Articles are function words. There are two kinds of articles: - Definite Article - Indefinite Article - **Definite Article:** An article that used to point some specific person or thing is called a definite article. \'The\' is the only definite article. **Examples in sentences:** - The clothes that I bought yesterday were perfect. - This is the best place I have ever been in. - **Indefinite Article** The articles \'a\' and an \'are\' called Indefinite Articles because the place or thing talked about is not particular and is left indefinite. **Examples in sentences:** - One morning a woody woodpecker came to our house. - It could be any woody woodpecker, not a particular one. - Nobody said a word. - An ostrich is a big bird. **2. Demonstrative Determiners** These determiners are used to demonstrate a specific thing or identity of that thing. The words that come under the category of Demonstrative Determiners are as follows: - This, that, these, those **Examples in sentences:** - I like to paint these pictures. - She patted that dog yesterday. **3. Possessive determiners** Possessive determiners are functions words that are used before a noun to show possession or ownership of something. The words that come under the category of Possessive Determiners are as follows: - My, your, our, her, his, their, its **Examples in sentences:** - My apartment keys were lost. - His shop has all kinds of crafts in it. **4. Distributive Determiners** Distributive Determiners are the type of function words that refer to things or people of a group or the whole group. The words that come under the category of Distributive Determiners are as follows: - Every, each, all, both, either, neither, half, etc **Examples in sentences:** - Each employee was given a raise in salary. - All drinks were spilled. **5. Interrogative Determiners** Interrogative determiners are the function words which are used to pose questions. They are also called Wh-Determiners because they all have \'wh\' at the start. The words that come under the category of Interrogative Determiners are as follows: - What, which, whatever, whichever, whoever, whose etc **Examples in sentences:** - Whose papers were not signed? - Which college are you going to apply for this summer? **6. Quantifiers** Quantifiers are the function words that are used before nouns to tell about the quantity of something. The words that come under the category of Quantifiers are as follows: - All, no, any, many, some, few, a little, a lot, etc **Examples in sentences:** - I only have some papers left. - There is a little sausage on the pizza. **7. Cardinal Numbers** Cardinal Numbers are also used to indicate quantity. However, they show it using numbers and counting. Cardinal Numbers are mostly considered a type of Quantifiers and are used as Determiners. The words that come under the category Cardinal Numbers are as follows: - One, two, three, twelve, a hundred, two thousand, etc **Examples in sentences:** - There are six people in the car. - The airplane is containing two hundred and seventy passengers. **8. Ordinal Numbers** Ordinal Numbers are the function words that are used to indicate order or position of people, things or events. Words that come under the category of Ordinal Numbers are as follows: - First, second, third, etc **Examples in sentences:** - Ali tried and tried until he finally got the equation right the fifth time. - The third person on the front row is his brother.