Self-Regulation (Past Paper)

Self-regulation (Fenja) Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation theory and industrial/organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette and L. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Volume 1. Theory in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 124-170). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Ps...

Self-regulation (Fenja) Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation theory and industrial/organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette and L. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Volume 1. Theory in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 124-170). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. →https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232564768_Motivation_Theory_and_Industrial_a nd_Organizational_Psychology Self-regulation metacognition approaches (Summaries on p. 139, 151) • self-regulation and metacognition: higher level cognitive processes that mediate cognitive + affective functioning to attain goals by allocating time + effort across activities to attain the goal (about impact of goals on behavior) • goals play a big role e.g., enable cognitive control over thoughts + actions; are determinants of action; are intentions that gained control over behavior etc. • different self-regulation and metacognition theories in different sub-disciplines of psychology Goal-setting research 1. Goal-setting model (Locke): goals provide the mechanism by which motivational states are translated into actions (more influence than affect or cognitions) • goals affect behavior by directing attention, mobilizing on-task effort, encouraging task persistence + facilitating development strategies • intensity: strength of the goal (influenced e.g., by perceived goal importance, goal commitment) • goal content: difficulty, specificity, complexity, goal conflict 2. research focuses on the effects of goal difficulty + goal specificity on performance • goal difficulty manipulated by probability of attainment based on mean performance levels (easy vs. difficult) • goal specificity operationalized as extent to which the assignment is made explicit in terms of the target of action 3. Results • evidence supports Locke's thesis: persons with difficult + specific goals outperform people provided with “do your best” goal assignments • goal assignments + goal-relevant performance feedback have a greater effect than goal alone or knowledge of results 4. Limits • Locke´s approach doesn´t address how individuals select goals or which factors determine acceptance / commitment to goals (just the relation between goals + task behavior) • new approaches integrate different theories/aspects 5. Determinants + effects of goal commitment a. Major determinants of goal commitment to goals assigned by others (Locke): • external factors: o extent to which the person assigning the goal is perceived as making a legitimate request o employee´s trust in the authority figure o peer group influence o extrinsic rewards + incentives associated with goal attainment • interactive factors: o context in which goal setting occurs o participatory procedures o competition o cultural values • internal factors (variety of cognitive concepts) o expectation of task success, internal rewards • these 3 factors affect goal commitment + task performance through their influence on cognitive processes; goal commitment + goal content exert independent influence on task performance • goal commitment + taks performance are enhanced when persons have high self-efficacy expectations for task success + perceive the person who assigns the goal in a positive light b. Expectancy Theory Model of the antecedents + consequences of goal commitment (Hollenbeck & Klein) 2 determinants of goal commitment: expectancy of goal attainment + valence of goal attainment goal commitment moderates the goal assignment-performance relation both models (Locke + H&K): integrate distal + proximal motivation theories by cognitive processes; self-regulatory processes as determinants of goal commitment (comparison on p. 129f.) Social learning + social cognitive theories • stress the interaction between features of cognition, learning, behavior + the environment as influencing behavior • social learning theories originated by things behaviorists couldn't explain e.g. a. individuals´ ability to anticipate behavioral consequences + engage in symbolic representation of events → active cognitive control over behavior b. many new behaviors are often acquired, demonstrated + changed in the absence of direct experience → observational learning • 4 component model of behavior: cognitive, behavioral, organismic + environmental factors exert reciprocal influences on action • • • behavior modification programs in the workplace: functional analysis of problem assessment, implementation of response-contingent reinforcers to enhance behavior, performance feedback Does the implementation of behavior modification programs alone result in optimal behavioral change? Component processes in self-regulation (Bandura & Kanfer) 1. self-observation: selective attention given to specific aspects of one's own behavior self-monitoring: provides info of consequences of an individual's´actions by task-generated feedback or feedback by others → in e.g. organizations by incentives for quantity performance to influence performance speed → goals + positive performance feedback must be present to optimize performance motivation 2. self-evaluation: persons compare their desired goal state with performance (attention needed!) influences affective self-reactions: (dis)satisfaction + self-efficacy expectation 3. self-reactions: internal responses that occur in response to selfevaluation; typically affective → (dis)satisfaction 4. (additional self-evaluation mechanism:) self-efficacy expectations: perceived capabilities for attainment of specific goals or task outcomes → develop from different sources, are task-specific, beliefs about one´s capabilities → persons with high self-efficacy expectations engaged in more job search activities + were more likely to obtain reemployment Control theories of behavioral self-regulation • Theory of Self-regulation (Carver & Schleier) o self-regulation: negative (discrepancy-reducing) feedback loop in which the comparison between one´s standard + perceived performance results in cognitive + behavioral output directed toward the reduction of discrepancies between standard + perceived state o pre-conditions for self-regulation process 1. focus of attention on behavior to obtain input for the comparison 2. detecting a discrepancy between standard (goal) and current performance o responses to discrepancy (doesn´t explain mechanisms by which people choose the response) 1. adhere to the standard + exert greater task effort 2. lower the standard + continue to exert effort 3. terminate by withdrawing from the task o hierarchical goal structure explains how types of goals become salient: difficulties in carrying out higher-order goals shift attention to subgoal which is currently not achieved; when subgoal is achieved, attention shifts up the goal hierarchy Integrative research (goal-setting theory, social learning + control theory) • Social learning + goal setting o self-efficacy expectations influence goal choice, goal commitment + task performance o when provided with negative feedback, persons with low self-efficacy expectations exerted less effort on tasks compared to ones with high s-e e. o distal goals: cumulative consequence of unspecified sequences of behaviour; less advantageous because don´t provide guidance for strategy development or opportunities for developing high self-efficacy expectations or selfadministered rewards o proximal goals: discrete performance accomplishments; typically determined by the person making the goal assignment, offer immediate opportunities for self-reward + evoke more stable perceptions of self-efficacy o goal-performance relation is stronger in simple compared to complex tasks o effects of goal setting depend on whether the goal is proximal vs. distal and whether it is a behavior goal (social learning) vs. performance goal (goalsetting theory) • Control theory + goal setting o past-performance goal level and goal level-current performance relations were stronger among persons perceiving the goal as important + tendency of selffocus o cognitive scripts as organized goal structures that permit smooth transitions across goal levels → performance problems in simple tasks can be easily solved by cognitive scripts + routine whereas problems in complex tasks require greater attentional effort e.g. rational choice processes • Control theory + social learning o impact of different forms of feedback on control systems; monitoring strategy (e.g. passive observation) or direct inquiry strategy (asking) → more frequent feedback for longer tenured + more goal-confident employees Metacognitive approaches • emphasize the influence of knowledge + control of cognitive processes on behavior • how do people accumulate knowledge + use self-knowledge to regulate cognitive activities in goal-directed learning environments? • 2 types of meta-cognitive knowledge 1. knowledge about own cognitive capacities (major determinant of self-efficacy expectations) e.g. limits + strength in different types of tasks 2. executive cognitive processes by which persons regulate their cog. activities during learning + task performance Integrative approaches about work motivation theories 1. Amalgamation Approach: Integrative model of attitudes, motivation + performance (Kartzell & Thompson) bridges the translation of basic research findings into a broad + accurate conceptual framework applicable to organizational settings useful diagnostic or intervention tool for organizations that combines various theories + 14 constructs profile of the organization identifies its deficiencies in the human resource system 2. 3. The converging operations approach • doesn´t incorporate all motivational concepts but used when findings derived from one theory fall within the range of another theory but cannot be explained by this theory • example: attempt to align goal-setting and VIE predictions of behavior • can yield new research directions based on the integration of seemingly disparate theories The new paradigm approach • using different fields of psychology to develop a new approach to work motivation • examples on p. 142-151 Directions to future research • stressing the energizing role of affect and emotion influencing how individuals organize + interpret knowledge and search for info • self-assessment: persons' attempt to obtain a realistic assessment of their competencies • self-enhancement: persons' attempts to enhance self-esteem • a person's goals may center around self-assessment and -enhancement • aspects that work motivation researchers should address: volitional processes, dispositional influences (personality dimensions), organizational influences, task characteristics + action strategies • promising direction for synthesis between I&O and other psychology domains: reconsideration of the goal construct as it pervades daily + long-term functioning in work contexts • revival of motivational psychology indicates many opportunities for research + change of individual behavior in organizational settings Kanfer, R., Frese, M., & Johnson, R. E. (2017). Motivation related to work: A century of progress. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 338-355. →https://scihub.hkvisa.net/10.1037/apl0000133 Motivation Related to Work: A Century of Progress Integrative review that organizes work motivation literature (theories, findings, advances) by clusters, highlights major contributions and identifies future research directions Importance of work motivation (Introduction) • work motivation: a dynamic, goal-directed, resource allocation process that unfolds over the related variables of time, experience + place • new perspective highlights: primacy of goals, emphasis on goal pursuit + affective processes + conception of motivation as an active process • influences of nonability person attributes (e.g. motives, traits, goals), work ecologies, purposive actions • affects the skills that individuals develop, their job + career choice, how resources are allocated the direction, intensity + persistence of activities during work • influence on organizational success, policymakers + individual well-being Meta-framework of work motivation theories Content-based approaches - What desires, wants + needs elicit action? • • • psychological traits, motives, tendencies + orientations that elicit motivational and volitional processes are within people and form enduring preferences for particular goals, strategies + behaviors some as universal sources of motivation and others show individual variance in level + importance Universal motives • needs: internal forces essential for supporting life + growth; if unmet → physical + psychological tension that energize action; operate cyclically (not permanently satisfied), between-person variance in motivation dependent needs nourished / frustrated by the environment • Maslow's hierarchical theory of needs (1943): little support for prepotent nature of needs + utility (can't predict specific behaviors) • • • • • • • • Self-Determination Theory: how the universal needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) impact performance through intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation: when people complete tasks because they are interesting + enjoyable → believed to satisfy one/more of the universal needs offering incentives can reduce intrinsic motivation especially when they are contingent + tasks are highly interesting (mixed evidence!) SDT - driver of intrinsic motivation: whether/not task choice + behavior are perceived to be self-determined work environments that support self-determination enhance other outcomes: creativity, satisfaction, commitment, retention intrinsic motivation has a stronger impact on performance when it´s defined by quality + when extrinsic rewards are only indirectly tied to performance Justice motives (important contributors to work motivation) employees compare their inputs and outcomes and care about justice → influenced by procedures used to determine outcomes, respect conferred during interactions + candidness of explanations reasons: instrumental (reducing uncertainty + fears of exploitation), relational (positive social worth), moral Trait-based motives • achievement motive: the desire to accomplish something difficult by attaining high standards in excellence; high → setting more challenging goals + attaining higher performance • power motive: preferences for seeking + occupying positions of higher social power • affiliation motive: preferences for establishing + sustaining positive relations with others • Personality traits: o conscientiousness + neuroticism as reliable predictors for job performance o motivation mediates the relation between traits and performance o core self-evaluations predict many outcomes e.g. effort + persistence which then mediate work outcomes o approach motivation: guides behavior towards positive objects + outcomes; behavioral activation system o avoidance motivation: guides behavior away from negative objects + outcomes; behavioral inhibition system • Motivation orientations: inter-individual differences in the purpose of goal pursuit o promotion focus: pursue goals by maximizing gains to ensure success → better predictor for productivity, fosters greater well-being o prevention focus: pursue goals by minimizing losses to avoid failure → better predictor for safety o reasons for goal pursuit 1. develop competence (learning goal orientation) → derives from incremental beliefs + self-evaluations based on past performance progress 2. demonstrate competence to receive favorable appraisals from others (performance goal orientation)→ derives from entity beliefs + evaluations relative to others Context-based approaches - What role do environmental factors play in motivation? • • • • features of the environment that affect motivation + performance there´re broad contextual and work-specific contextual variables Task + job characteristics: Job characteristics model (for enhancing work motivation) 5 key features: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy + feedback • • • psy. pathways by which features operate: meaningfulness of work (most important mediator of job characteristics´ effect on work motivation), experienced responsibility, knowledge of results issues: measuring job characteristics, limited number of features doesn´t directly address social and work-level variables group- and team-level influences: influences of broader sociostructural context, social organization + group norms Process-based approaches - Through what psychological processes + mechanisms do person and environment factors affect direction, intensity + persistence of action? • • • • • • • • • • motivation consisting of 2 interdependent subsystems: governing goal selection and goal enactment goals: internal representations of desired states that direct attention, organize action + sustain effort aimed at achieving those states; arranged hierarchically where distal goals (end, be) at the top are liked to proximal goals (means, do) at lower levels Expectancy theory: VIE theory - goal choice is determined by subjective evaluations of… o valence: level of satisfaction expected from achieving work outcomes o instrumentality: likelihood of achieving those outcomes by attaining a particular level of performance o expectancy: likelihood that one (with effort) will reach a certain level of performance o evaluations about VIE interact to determine the motivational force of goals / actions → but: conceptual + methodological problems! Theory of planned behavior o extended VIE theory by taking interpersonal context in which goals are formed into account o motivation is influenced by control beliefs (expectancy of being able to perform the behavior) + attitudes (valence) o includes subjective norms: perceived social pressure to pursue a course of action o behavioral intention is determined by perceived control, attitudes + subjective norms → can predict many work-related behaviors (e.g. job search) Goal striving complex, protracted goals require modulation of direction + intensity of attentional effort, affect + behavior over time + across subgoal making decisions about persist, revise or abandon the goal Self-regulation involves three interrelated sets of activities o self-monitoring: attention individuals give to events, behaviors + feedback related to the goal o self-evaluation: comparative evaluation of goal state + current state or goal process o self-reactions: affective + motivational responses toward discrepancies between desired + goal states → have informal + motivational functions Integrative approaches: focus on intersection of goal choice + goal striving Goal-setting theory (Locke & Latham) links goal attributes + action o performance is highest when goals are specific, difficult, assigned using a “sell” (vs. “tell”) approach and when coupled with performance feedback + high goal commitment o goals help to perform because they direct attention to goal-relevant activities, mobilize + sustain effort + promote use of task-relevant knowledge o goals as a mixture of objectives by the organization + the employee; internalization process reflects the extent to which employees adopt the external goal as their own → depends on task characteristics + goal conflicts o o • • • • task complexity effects of difficult, specific goals on performance are weaker when complexity is high and/or individuals lack required skills → better to assign a learning goal or a nonspecific “do your best” goal Nonmechanistic vs. mechanistic theories of motivation try to conceptualize motivation o mechanistic concepts: based on an infinite regress of homunculi o nonmechanistic concepts: argue against the primacy of stimulus-response concepts (used in technical analogies) but rather for understanding action based on cognitive maps + the development of goal-oriented behaviors o need to provide a perspective on motivation + action that systematically accounts for agency + routine o positive influence of self-efficacy on task performance; high self-efficacy exerts feed-forward effects that bolster the adoption of higher goals + are associated with higher goal-directed effort o but high self-efficacy is also related to lower effort in a learning context o self-efficacy was negatively related to performance when task ambiguity was high but positively related to performance when task ambiguity was low Action regulation theory o integrates goal choice + goal striving o highlights the importance of plans as they bridge the gap between having a goal and activities toward achieving it o plans: mental simulations of actions that determine how goals can be achieved; mediator in the goal-setting performance relation o planning helps in thinking deeper about actions, developing alternative plans + in unstable situations Resource allocation theory o motivation: process by which personal resources are allocated across an array of possible actions/goals in response to task demands, affect, incentives + feedback o model that integrates cognitive abilities + motivational processes involved in goal choice + attentional resource allocation during complex skill acquisition Resource depletion o ego depletion theory: Do self-regulatory activities deplete cognitive resources over time? → individuals have a finite amount of resources at their disposal for regulating behavior which are drained by sustained acts of self-control o resource depleting activities at the workplace: vigilantly monitoring potential problems, suppressing + faking emotions, acting consistent with procedural fairness rules o once depleted → task, citizenship + voice behavior suffer while deviant + unethical behavior increase o counteracting by aiding resource recovery: positive social events, high autonomy, respites during workday, nonjob mastery experiences, powering off work-related technology, high quality sleep, vacations Research trends + future research directions • • • • • concerns about the correspondence between theory + research methodologies inappropriateness of testing a within-person theory with between-person designs → multilevel longitudinal studies permit examination of changes in motivational variables due to intra- and interindividual aspects development of measurement techniques lessens disconnect between theory + methods most theories of work motivation accord cognition primacy and view affect in a supporting role but there´s progress in the study of emotions + affect implicit motives are better to trace e.g. by inductive reasoning tasks or non interpretation-based techniques → evidence supports the existence of a • • • • • • • • • • • • nonconscious motivation system related to preconscious attentional processes in sensory systems, learning + performance future research will examine how explicit and implicit phenomena interact understanding motivation over time + time-linked variables → substantial variability in motivational variables over time individuals invest different levels of effort toward goal accomplishment over time as a function of goal progress + deadline proximity temporal footprint of work (Roe): motivation is likely to vary in part as a function of the tasks + cycle time associated with different occupations goal choice + striving also depends on anticipatory forethought about one´s future work situation + career (not only current conditions + motives) resources: attentional effort in terms of cognitive resources of limited availability; individual´s access to + possession of social-psychological + material assets that may be influenced by factors that may be beyond individual´s control not all self-regulation activities require resources (e.g. interpersonal justice rules) → need to find alternative explanations for reduced performance after activities requiring high attention + self-control increasing focus on the self → impact of personal, relational + collectives selfconstruals on motives + values that drive behavior depending on which self is salient → should be aligned with task + company goals proactive engagement: a dynamic, self-directed syndrome of cognitive, affective + motivational states characterized by high levels of vigor, dedication, and absorption that propel and sustain goal-directed activities → prepare for future changes, identify job resources + consequences of engagement for employee well-being + organizational success identifying age-related differences in work motivation and understand those variables + processes across a lifespan contextual influences on motivation e.g., effects of culture, sociobehavioral norms associated with occupations, organizations + work units and nonwork demands on behavior + job performance developments with practical implementations: findings in neuroscience + integration of technologies into the work experience Lord, R. G., Diefendorff, J. M., Schmidt, A. M., & Hall, R. J. (2010). Self-regulation at work. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 543–568. → https://sci-hub.hkvisa.net/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100314 Self-regulation at work Self-regulation - a general model → Summary on p. 550 • • self-regulation: processes involved in attaining and maintaining goals,(=internally represented desired states) individuals set goals, compare their progress against the goals and make behavioral + cognitive modifications if there's a discrepancy between a goal and a current state how one is currently performing reference value: image of desired state (goal) comparator: matches the input with a standard/goal to determine if there's a discrepancy negative feedback loop: if a difference is detected → output function is engaged to bring the input in line with the goal • • approach assumes hierarchical structure: short-term, concrete goals are low in the hierarchy (means to achieve the higher-level goal) and long-term, abstract goals are high in the hierarchy a general model of self-regulation must account for dynamic interrelations between affect + cognition at multiple levels of consciousness o unconscious processes: automatically activated goals by primes/cues arising from social sources or from the recognition of means useful to achieve goals o the affective system is fast, automatic and can interrupt to reorientate conscious processing which can help to elicit appropriate coping responses + manage goal conflict Level of abstraction, cycle time + self-regulation • self-regulation at different levels of abstraction: micro, low, intermediate + high • cycle level: the time required for info to cycle through the entire feedback loop • longer cycle times are associated with higher-level, more abstract constructs Aspects of self-regulatory + motivational theories by cycle level Dynamics of self-regulation • Phase theories explain how self-regulatory systems may be created • Four self-regulatory phases with associated mindsets (Gollwitzer) 1. goals are established - deliberative mindset 2. planning occurs - implemental mindset 3. goal striving takes place - actional mindset 4. goal evaluation / revision - evaluative mindset • importance of dynamic aspects of self-regulatory processing (instead of conscious processing) e.g. knowledge management, learning from feedback etc. helps experienced employees in automatically assessing long-term memory • goal-relevant info has an easier access to working memory • self-regulatory processes differ depending on the time remaining for goal-pursuit o shorter deadlines → increase motivation + work pace o overly imposing deadlines result in performance decrements + creativity might be impaired by time pressure o procrastination: immediately rewarding background temptations may possess greater utility than do organizationally important activities until their deadlines draw near Self-regulation at alternative hierarchical levels High-level regulation of the self • distant self-construals (vs. near self-construals): more abstract, less complex + more coherent, less tied to context, more closely tied to a stable set of personality traits • work settings build on existing selves + shape new identities by o culture + values of a work setting o developing a sense of self as an organizational member • provisional self: operates like the standard but may be quickly modified / discarded based on social feedback or fi on one´s active ideal self • possible selves are influenced by others → social justice binds individual identities to groups + our need to belong is so powerful that the self continually updates where we stand in the opinion of others • one´s organizational self-identity creates cognitive, motivational + affective constraints that guide more achievement-focused activities • Working self-concept (WSC): the momentarily active portion of the self concept that regulates motivational processes Intermediate-level self-regulation (around task or action goals) → SUmmary on p. 555 • these goals: usually of short duration + achievement-based • involve controlled + automatic processes (e.g. goal shielding) • self-regulation consumes attentional resources particularly for novel tasks • • • • • • • • • • • • Goal setting + goal selection difficult, specific goals, if accepted, lead to higher performance than do easy or doyour-best goals as long as the goals are attainable and commitment to the goal is maintained goal-selection process occurs at multiple levels within goal hierarchies (broad → middle level/working → lower-level subgoals → behavioral sequences) unconscious processes may influence goal-choice and self-regulation e.g. affect through effects on expectancy + valence judgements; direct effects; link between emotions and physical movement frequently performed behaviors → habits, occur under stable enabling conditions infrequent behaviors → explained by conscious intentions under unstable shifting conditions without set of supportive cues goal selection often reflects social processes by supervisors who communicate appropriate self-regulatory standards or activate alternative identities Goal striving established goal: standard to which feedback is continually compared with to regulate behavior goal-performance discrepancy (GPD): the distance from an internal standard; represented by subtracting performance from task goal levels o large negative GPDs can motivate large increases in performance if selfefficacy is maintained but can also reduce effort when leading to discouragement taks withdrawal o positive GPDs + high self-efficacy → reduced effort + performance o individuals are sensitive to the velocity of discrepancy reduction → high velocity → high goal commitment (influences task persistence) selective attention: activated goals increase accessibility of goal-relevant info and inhibit info related to competing goals selective attention processes: shield motivation + enhance performance by facilitating access to relevant knowledge attempts to increase performance by increasing goal difficulty will have limited success to the extent that performance also relies on access to knowledge that may not be readily available Feedback: periodic external feedback + self-generated feedback o high GPD → high goal revision late in performance cycles, when internal attributions are made or when learning / performance-avoidance goals are salient o affect mediates within-person goal revision o GPD-goal setting relation: stronger when self-efficacy + performance goal orientation were high + learning goal orientation was low o velocity is positively related to increases in goal levels in important goals o higher need for achievement + desire to maintain high performance → setting higher goals than past performance o satisfaction is greater the more performance exceeds prior goals (stronger effect when internal causal attributions are made) Lower-level self-regulation • achievement goals affect behavior indirectly through activating/inhibiting effects on shorter-term self-regulatory processes with simple objectives • require less attention + are more knowledge-dependent • often organized into scripts (=knowledge structures that specify the sequence of events needed to accomplish higher-level goals) o flexibly applied + sensitive to context o can substitute conscious goal selection in familiar, stable situations (habits) • • • • • different control structures for very short-term task activities (vs. higher-level system focusing on achievement tasks) faster self-regulation that more dependent on automatically accessing appropriate behaviors based on cues → implementation intentions: if-then statements that tie action to an environmental cue (lead to better performance when the goals are actively pursued) goal setting creates implicit bias in the accessibility + evaluation of the favorableness of goal-relevant stimuli, e.g. having a learning goal → focus on task factors vs. having a performance goal → focus on comparison to others Very fast, micro-level regulation (10 ms) determines info access + working memory content by e.g. goal shielding + working memory protection activation + inhibition of affective processes as an emotional gating mechanism by the prefrontal cortex, mediated by neurotransmitter dopamine o task success anticipated → high dopamine → positive affect + rewarding → bias (resistance to interference from new info), approach behavior + goal maintenance o decreased reward expectations + task difficulty → reduced dopamine → open gate to new info → attention disengages to protect the self from disappointment + negative feedback associated with failure Self-regulation + multiple cycle levels (how do they work together?) • person performs a work task guided by a conscious achievement goal, at the same time: • occurs in the context of an active WSC • lower-level actions: automatically cued by scripts activated by environment, task + achievement goal structures • co-occur with affective tone associated with success or failure + periodic assessment of goal progress • these factors activate info in working memory while protecting it from interference • processes at different levels + with different feedback cycles are loosely connected Complications in the workplace 1. Multiple goals • as jobs become increasingly multifaceted, one needs to divide time + energy across many tasks + sometimes there´s goal conflict • Which factors influence goal prioritization / resource allocation? o people divide their regulatory processes by need + allocate more time toward goals that are furthest away from attainment (particularly with highly dynamic tasks when external factors contribute unpredictably to the process) o discrepancy-driven allocation allows flexible relocation of attention to address changing circumstances → less prominent in stable task environment + small perceived likelihood of attaining both goals o tendency to allocate more resources toward the goal closest to attainment → goals with more immediate deadlines are more salient o more resources are devoted to more difficult goals resulting in higher task performance • Implication: concurrent assignment of difficult goals for multiple tasks may overburden individuals + necessitate trade offs resulting in weaker outcomes in one goal • positive affect: signals when goal is well maintained + effort can be relocated to other concerns; facilitates effort toward distant goals • negative affect: indicates necessity for greater effort + sustained attention; can increase effort toward a focal goal when it's close 2. Knowledge + expertise • 3. • • • • • • experts rely on automatic access to structured knowledge (e.g. scripts), need fewer cognitive resources + attention for basic tasks, experience less goal conflict + greater expectancy when faced with multiple tasks Multiperson processes difficult, specific team goals often foster better team effort, planning + strategy development, resulting in better team performance in comparison with easy or “do your best” goals feedback directs attention to specific aspects of a task which can influence tradeoffs that team members make between individual + team attainment → provision of both types of feedback encourages tradeoffs between individual + team orientations team efficacy: a shared belief that the team can effectively perform a specific task group potency: a more generalized belief in the team’s capabilities across a range of tasks or situations team efficacy + group potency are positively related to group performance action phases: task engagement; transition phases: task preparation + post-task reflection → both help promote adaptation to changing circumstances Methodological + analytic considerations • • • • • need for more sophisticated methodological approaches e.g.: repeated measures, longitudinal research designs that capture within-person data from multiple assessments Experimental designs using laboratory tasks in which multiple performance trials are performed experience-sampling methodology involving the intensive collection of measures of motivational processes in daily life and natural environment list of statistical models on p. 560ff. SUMMARY POINTS 1. Self-regulatory processes occur at different levels of abstraction with accompanying differences in cycle time and relevant variables and processes. 2. A mechanism common across levels is the negative feedback loop, which operates by comparing the current state with a desired standard. 3. Different levels of self-regulation can be linked both through supervisory control of lower-level processes by higher levels and by the imposition of constraints from one level to another (constraints may originate at either higher or lower levels). 4. Self-identities and the working self-concept (which may be influenced by organizational factors such as leadership) create cognitive, affective, and motivational constraints that direct lower-level task-focused activities. 5. Goals and goal-performance discrepancies drive self-regulation at the intermediate level, through both conscious and automatic processes, including biasing effects of affect, and are influenced by selective attention processes. 6. Lower-level self-regulation is often dependent on the relatively automatic application of scripts. 7. Important functions such as goal shielding occur at the very fast micro level of self regulation, which is more directly dependent on neurological and neurochemical processes than are higher-level cycles of self-regulation. 8. When expertise is high, work performance may depend as much on effective knowledge management, which reflects functions at lower hierarchical levels and thus frees more attentional resources, as it does on effort regulation, which is more dependent on higher level processes and may require greater allocation of attentional resources.