Notes for PSYU3332 Final Exam PDF

lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Notes for PSYU3332 final exam Principles of Psychological Assessment (Macquarie University) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Final exam Notes PSYU3332 Week 8: Intel...

lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Notes for PSYU3332 final exam Principles of Psychological Assessment (Macquarie University) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Final exam Notes PSYU3332 Week 8: Intelligent Testing What is Intelligence? 1921 • Power of good responses from the POV of truth or fact • The ability to carry on abstract thinking • The ability to adjust oneself to the environment (flexible) • The ability to adapt oneself to new situations in life • The capacity for knowledge and knowledge possessed • A biological mechanism by which the effects of a complicity of stimuli are brought together and given a sort of unified behaviour. • The capacity to redefine the inhibited adjustment in the light of mentally experienced trial and error... to the advantage of the individual as a social animal • The capacity to acquire capacity • The capacity to profit by experience. 1981 Verbal Intelligence • General learning and comprehension • Good vocabulary • Reads with high comprehension • Is intellectually curious Problem Solving Ability • Abstract thinking or reasoning • Can apply knowledge to tasks at hand • Plans ahead • Solves problems well Practical Intelligence • Real-world adaptive behaviours • Sizes-up situations well • Determines how to achieve goals • Displays awareness of the world. Men in white shirts, dark ties and suits Models of intelligence need to explain - Positive manifold • Positive correlation between all the tasks that was conducted in the study - Factors • Tasks form sub groups, correlations between sub groups are even stronger. E.g. if looking at spelling, algebra, reading and geometry – spelling and reading will have a strong correlation, algebra and geometry will have a correlation. Therefore 2 factors (literacy and numeracy) Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Lumper → Charles Spearman • Intelligence can be measured by one test → A “G” test • All cognitive tests positively correlated with each other → Named it positive manifold aka “G” • People with higher IQ have more “G” available to them Splitters → Guilford • Model of intelligence (says there are 120 independent factors of intelligence) • Independent factors can be broken down by content, type of operation and product/outcome. • Described as a “cube” • Measuring intelligence would include having an individual task for each 120 blocks in the cube. E.g. Cognition task → Semantic operations → outcome of Relations (FOR EACH TASK) Thurstone’s Primary Abilities (Splitter) • Broke intelligence down to 7 factors V: Verbal comprehension and meaning - e.g. what does the word delineate mean? W: Word fluency - how many words can be made from the letters G-E-N-E-R-A-T-I-O-N N: Number facility - simple maths e.g. what is 7 x 12 S: Space - are there 2 items the same or mirror images? M: Memory - e.g. repeat these numbers forward and backwards P: Perceptual speed - quickly grasp similarities and differences I: Induction - finding a rule or principal Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Veron’s (1950) Model of Intelligence - Hierarchical model - Study done on army recruits - 13 cognitive tests and found “G” as well as 2 major clumps of factors which were → V: ED and K:M 1. V: ED → Verbal educational factors: mathematics, reading, spelling dictations 2. K:M → Practical, mechanical, spatial and physical activities e.g. knowing letters of alphabets, sound the made. - Underneath each of these factors were specific factors (subsets) These were the individual tasks that fit into the 2 factors. The Current, Most Popular Model → John Carroll • 3 Tier Model known as CHC model • Meta-analysis on every research study that looked at intelligence • Fits every age group, nationality, culture group, time frame (universal model) • Appears to be hierarchical structure to cognitive functions. • There are 8 broad abilities to be measures for intelligence, beyond that tasks are measured individually. • Clinicians job to look at what the child has been tested on and what they haven’t. Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Fluid Intelligence → Gf • Fluid because it’s an ability to be applied easily in another circumstance • Measured by Ravens Matrices Crystallised Intelligence → Gc • Depends on learning and knowledge that can be applied to certain scenarios • Knowing what words mean, using words ins sentences, reading, numerical reasoning. • Gf and Gc are correlated to one another to some extent (0.4-0.5) Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Factors that affect scores on IQ tests a. Nature vs Nurture • Research shows that intelligence does have a genetic component • Correlations between monozygotic and dizygotic twins. b. Environmental Factors 111 twin studies, median of IQs Correlation shows evidence on inheritability of intelligence. MZ share more genes, but as well as environment as they are mistaken as each other. And most of the time same gender as well. Environmental influences can differ between both groups greatly. DZ twins share more of an identical environment than normal siblings. So test between DZ and normal siblings showed that environment is a factor. Results show that a fair bit of evidence shows that intelligence can be attributed to genes, but environment does have a high effect on intelligence as well. Most genetically bound pairs have a higher correlation than least genetically bound pairs. Environmental Influences on IQ • Prenatal and early developmental influences (e.g. complications during labour, birth weight, anoxia) • Malnutrition and Famine • Family Background (e.g. income, education, occupation of parents, family atmosphere) • Psychosocial factors (e.g. quality of language, opportunities for enlarging vocabulary, appreciation of achievement) • Amount of schooling Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Advantages of Individual Tests Individual tests give extra clinical information: 1. How does the person answer 2. Test behaviour (do they give up easily on tasks) • Maximise motivation • Make allowances for fatigue and handicaps • Diagnostic decisions always made with individual tests Essential for: • Young children (esp preschoolers) • Brain damaged patients • Psychologically disturbed • Intellectually disabled • ANY clinical assessment • Individual tests give extra Advantages of Group Tests • The ease and efficiency of scoring and administration • Less skill and training is required on the examiners part • Quite reliable and standardisation samples usually large • Economical as the test booklets are reusable. Disadvantages of Group Tests • Hard to maintain motivation and rapport and assess and allow for factors such as anxiety which are important moderators in test situation • Limited response choice e.g. multiple choice items. Lose the richness obtained in individual tests • The assumption is that the tests are equally applicable to all subjects. Some subjects get bored because the test is too easy, or frustrated because it is too hard. Individual differences are not catered for. Group IQ Tests Formats • Verbal vs Non-Verbal • Power vs Speed (total capacity vs timed period) • MC vs Free re call • Multilevel testing (if they fail, do down a level, if pass go higher) • Adaptive computer testing Computerised Testing • Computerised test tends to lag well behind recent research findings about certain tests so it takes longer for the benefits of research findings to hit the clinical world • Ethical concerns have not yet caught up to the technology • 20% of the population dislike computers…computer testing would be disadvantageous for them • It still misses non-verbal and emotional behaviours such as anxiety that can moderate test performance. Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Week 9: The Assessment of Intelligence Group IQ tests Multidimensional Aptitude Battery • Take individual tests into paper and pencil test to a group. • Two parts → 5 verbal items and 5 performance items, timed test (7 minutes) • Performance scale are harder to do • Verbal items had some good correlations ACER WQ – Qualitative Reasoning Test • 20 minutes for 40 questions WL- Linguistic Reasoning Test • 15 minutes • Verbal reasoning Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Ravens Progressive Matrices 2 • Find a way of reducing need for verbal instructions, requirement for acculturated response for a group administered test. • Gf has the strongest correlation • 4 versions: Colour progressed (pre-school) Standard Matrices (10-89 average IQ) Advanced/progressed Matrices (Adults High IQ 11-40) Plus, matrices Culture loaded vs Culture Reduced Tests Culture Loaded “Gc” (Crystallised Intelligence) • • • • • • Pen and paper tests Reading required Written responses Speeded tests Verbal content Recall of past learned information Culture Reduced “Gf” (Fluid Intelligence) • • • • • • Performance tests Purely pictorial Oral responses Power tests Non-verbal content Solving novel problems. Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Wechsler Intelligence Scales • Most common used individual IQ tests • Doesn’t measure visual perception and auditory perception • Every student starts on the same level (e.g. 10-year-old regardless of intellectual ability will be administered the same test, and will have to work their way up) 1. Wechsler scale for preschool and primary Intelligence - WPPSI- IV (OLDEST) - 4-7.7 year olds 2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - WISC- V - 6.5 – 16.5 year olds 3. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Adults - WAIS – IV (NEWEST) - 16 – 89 years • If the child is average or above average always issue the test above. • If child is referred for being worrying child, then issue test below. • If child has taken a test in the last 2 years, can’t be issued the same test again Subtests of the WAIS-IV Verbal comprehension (Gc → Crystallised ability) • Vocabulary: what does ship mean? • Similarities: how are a pear and pomegranate alike? Information: who is ghengis khan • Comprehension: why do we wash clothes? Perceptual Organisation (Gf → Fluid ability) Matrix reasoning • Visual puzzles • Black design • (picture completion) Working Memory • Arithmetic: if you have 3 books and I give away 1, how many are left? • Digit span: repeating lists of numbers forward and backwards (how much information they can store) • Letter-number sequencing: remembering sequences of letters and numbers in alphabetical and numerical order. (hardest) Processing Speed • Symbol search • Digit symbol • (Cancellation) supplementary and does not need to be administered. Factorial Models of the WAIS IV • 2 factorial models of the WAIS – IV have been proposed so far: A traditional 4 factor model and a 5factor model based on the Carrol Model of IQ (CHC) Four factor model 1. Verbal comprehension 2. Perceptual reasoning 3. Working memory 4. Processing speed Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Five Factor Model 1. Fluid Reasoning (Gf) 2. Crystallised Intelligence (Gc) 3. Visual Processing (Gv) 4. Processing Speed (Gs) 5. Short term Memory (Gsm) • Normative data was reanalysed with respect to the CHC model and Five factors extracted. Perceptual reasoning split into 2 factors (Gf and Gv). • Otherwise the other factors are the same as the traditional model. Matrix Reasoning: Perceptual Organisation • Version of the Raven matrices • Strongest of the Gf tasks. Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 What do IQ test scores mean? • Most scores fall in 2 S.D. Stanford Binet V • The alternative IQ test to the Weschler scales • This test is used if Weschler test was tested in the last 2 years, as tests cannot be repeated. • One test covers 2-89 year olds. • Students are administered tests depending on ability level, not age level. Produces an adaptive test formats. The Stanford Binet V assesses 5 factors which can be related to Carrols model in the following way: • Fluid reasoning: Gf → Fluid intelligence • Knowledge: Gc → Crystallised Intelligence (verbal) • Quantitative Reasoning: Gc → Crystallised Intelligence (numerical) • Visuo-Spatial Reasoning: Gv → Visual Perception • Working memory: Gsm → Short Term Memory - None of the tests measure more than 4/8 broad abilities in tier 2 of Carrolls model. Only the Woodcock Johnston III measures all 8 but is not used in Australia. Subtests of the Stanford Binet V • Not every test is administered to every client – subtests are age appropriate • Level 1 is for pre-schoolers and level 6 are the tasks differentiating the gifted from the very gifted Level 5: (average adult) NON-VERBAL • Object series/matrices • Picture absurdities • Quantitative reasoning • Form patterns • Working memory VERBAL • Knowledge/vocabulary • Verbal analogies • Quantitative reasoning • Position and direction • Last word (remember the last words in the sentences) Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 • Ice doesn’t sink Week 10: Ethical Issues in Psychological Assessment Why is Code of Conduct necessary? • To safeguard: - The welfare of those who use psychological services. - The integrity of the profession. Code of Conduct for Psychologists in Australia • Psychology Board of Australia • Australian Psychological Society - Code of ethics - Guidelines for psychological assessment and the use of psychological tests. APS Code of Ethics • • • • Three general ethical principles Respect for the rights and dignity of people and peoples Propriety Integrity Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 - Respect for the rights and dignity of people and peoples 1. Psychologists regard people as intrinsically valuable and respect their rights, including the right to autonomy and justice. 2. Psychologists engage in conduct which promotes equity and the protection of people’s human rights, legal rights, and moral rights. 3. They respect the dignity of all people and peoples. Respect → Ethical standards - Justice - Respect - Informed Consent - Privacy - Confidentiality - Release of information to clients - Collection of client information from associated parties. Justice: - Psychologists are aware of the limitations of using English language assessment tools for the psychological assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse clients. - When psychologists are obtaining informed consent for a psychological assessment and explaining the limits to confidentiality, psychologists are aware that some clients from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds may not be familiar with these concepts. Where necessary, psychologists seek the advice of a relevant cultural consultant. - When assessing clients who are immigrants or former refugees, psychologists take responsibility for overcoming any language or cultural bias in the assessment instruments used. Psychologists are also mindful of the possibility that these clients’ previous experiences may affect their readiness to be assessed. - When psychologists conduct assessments of cognitive functioning for culturally and linguistically diverse clients, psychologists review the suitability of available assessment tools, and adapt their assessment processes to reflect accurately each client’s capabilities. Informed Consent: • When receiving a request for a psychological assessment, psychologists clarify the purpose of the request and select appropriate methods that are consistent with the purpose of the psychological assessment. Psychologists explain clearly to their client: • The purpose of the psychological assessment; • What is involved in the assessment process; • To whom any client information will be disclosed, particularly the distribution of any reports; and • How reports will be stored and the duration of storage. Confidentiality 1. Psychological assessment information is used only for the purposes for which it was first collected, and for which consent was obtained from the client being assessed. If assessment results are to be used for a secondary purpose, psychologists obtain consent from the client prior to commencing the assessment. - Propriety a) Psychologists ensure that they are competent to deliver the psychological services they provide. Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 b) They provide psychological services to benefit, and not to harm. c) Psychologists seek to protect the interests of the people and peoples with whom they work. d) The welfare of clients and the public, and the standing of the profession, take precedence over a psychologist’s self-interest Propriety → Ethical Standards • Competence • Record Keeping • Professional Responsibility • Provision of psychological services at the request of a third party • Provision of psychological services to multiple clients • Delegation of professional tasks • Use of interpreters • Collaborating with others for the benefit of clients • Accepting clients of other professionals • Suspension of psychological services • Termination of psychological services • Conflicting demands • Psychological Assessments • Research Competence: Competent conducting of psychological assessments includes, but is not limited to, the following steps: - Determining the need to undertake a psychological assessment; - Clarifying whether previous assessment data exist, and if so, whether the existing assessment data can be considered current, or a new assessment is required; - Choosing appropriate and psychometrically sound assessment procedures and, where necessary, making adaptations to allow for cultural differences; - Accurately scoring and interpreting the results; - Considering the assessment data in the context of all available information about the client, rather than interpreting assessment data in isolation; - Drawing conclusions from the assessment of the client that are based on data obtained from a range of sources; - Effectively communicating the results by oral or written feedback to the individual client, and/or by a written report to the commissioning party (e.g., to the medical practitioner, insurance company, or human resources agency); and - Making sound recommendations and decisions on the basis of the results, ensuring each component of the assessment is appropriately weighted. Psychological Assessments: B.13.1. Psychologists use established scientific procedures and observe relevant psychometric standards when they develop and standardise psychological tests and other assessment techniques. B.13.2. Psychologists specify the purposes and uses of their assessment techniques and clearly indicate the limits of the assessment techniques’ applicability. B.13.3. Psychologists ensure that they choose, administer and interpret assessment procedures appropriately and accurately. B.13.4. Psychologists use valid procedures and research findings when scoring and interpreting Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 psychological assessment data. B.13.5. Psychologists report assessment results appropriately and accurately in language that the recipient can understand. B.13.6. Psychologists do not compromise the effective use of psychological assessment methods or techniques, nor render them open to misuse, by publishing or otherwise disclosing their contents to persons unauthorised or unqualified to receive such information. • • • • Integrity Psychologists recognise that their knowledge of the discipline of psychology, their professional standing, and the information they gather place them in a position of power and trust. They exercise their power appropriately and honour this position of trust. Psychologists keep faith with the nature and intentions of their professional relationships. Psychologists act with probity and honesty in their conduct. Integrity → Ethical Standards - Reputable behaviour - Communication - Conflict of interest - Non-exploitation - Authorship - Financial arrangements - Ethics investigation and concerns APS Ethical Guidelines: Summary • Psychologists bring ethical commitment, knowledge and skills to the practice of psychological assessment and are aware of their duty of care to their clients. • They keep assessment materials and records confidential, and they seek to have current knowledge about the procedures they employ. • They are aware of the necessity of continuing education, for example, in relevant test theory and research. • They are ethical and skilled in their selection of assessment procedures, and their application to individuals and groups, the preparation of reports, and communication of results. Week 11: Self-Report Inventories What is Personality? • Personality – a complex construct that integrates all domains of psychological study - Characteristic way of feeling, thinking, perceiving, and acting What is included in the construct? • Defined by the theory underlying the measurement tool Two Major Theoretical Approaches General Process Theories • Focus is on the general process through which personality develops • e.g., Freud, Bandura, Maslow • Little on measurement or differences between individuals Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Structural/descriptive theories • Emphasise individual differences • e.g., Cattell, Eysenck, Guilford, Five Factor Model • Trait theories • Measurement plays a large role What is a trait? A trait: • is a predisposition to respond to situations in a consistent way • is not directly observable inferred from behaviour • can be used to predict behaviour - Descriptive rather than explanatory - Not necessarily stable over time - Hampson & Goldberg (2006): examined stability over a 40-year interval 1. Higher stability for Extraversion and Conscientiousness - Harris et al. (2016): examined stability over a 63-year interval 2. Higher stability for Stability of Moods (Neuroticism) and Conscientiousness Nomothetic vs Idiographic View • The Nomothetic view: - Trait theories assume there is a set of dimensions of personality on which all people can be placed 3. Responses from the individual are understood in the context of responses from a large group of people 4. The uniqueness of individuals is captured by scores on a set of traits – a Profile (e.g., 16PF) • The Idiographic view: - A standard set of traits cannot describe the richness of an individual’s personality 5. An individual’s behaviour may not be organised according to a particular trait 6. A single set of traits cannot be relevant to all individuals 7. A different set of traits may be required to describe each person Ways to Measure Personality Standard measures ➢ Ask the person – Self Report ➢ Observe the Person • Rely on the observations of others who are close to the person • Observe person under standard conditions - Projective techniques Self-Report Inventories (or questionnaires) • Possess psychometric properties - Measure (assign a number) - Standardised norms - Reliability and validity of test scores is assessed - Manual provides this information • A set of items are selected and marked by the individual so as to be descriptive of self • Include items about the individual's thoughts, feelings, attitudes and/or behaviours • Items can be trait names, adjectives, questions, statements • Usually measure several variables but can also measure single variables • Are used to assess both normal and abnormal personality Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 SRI- Response Formats How questions on SRIs are answered by the person taking the test Response format can be • Absolute (each item judged independently) - My success in life has been determined by good fortune. • No/Yes • False/True • Disagree/Agree • Disagree, Unsure, Agree • Strongly Disagree, Somewhat Disagree, Neutral, Somewhat Agree, Strongly Agree • Comparative / forced choice (choose from 2 or more items) → removing social desirability - I become homicidal when people try to reason with me - The sight of blood no longer excites me Advantages of SRI (over observational methods) • • • • • SRIs are easy to construct (relatively) and to establish norms Can be administered to groups as well as individuals Require little training for administration and scoring Time (and therefore cost) effective Can be used in variety of applied settings Main Disadvantages of SRIS • Self-report assumes that the respondent: - Can be accurate (self-deception) - Will be accurate (fake good/bad) Response Tendencies • Response tendency (or response set or response style) - The way in which a test-taker answers items on the test, regardless of the content of the items • Acquiescence – agree with what's presented (I am anxious/ I am relaxed) • Non-acquiescence – disagree with what's presented • Socially desirable responding – tendency to see oneself in a favourable light (forced choice questions would help) • Overcautious approach – choosing middle options on response scales • Extremes in responding – endorse items in an unusual/uncommon way • Attention, concentration, comprehension • SRI assume well and of average intelligence Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - 567 items phrased as self-statements and rated true/false - I really like most people I see - I believe I am being plotted against - My sleep is fitful and disturbed. Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 MMPI – Hathaway & McKinley (1943) • Initially designed as an aid to psychiatric diagnosis • Developed using an empirical method - Items were devised that were identified with the factor of interest - Administered items to 2 groups, psychiatric patients with a particular diagnosis (criterion group) and patients without that particular diagnosis (reference group) - Kept the items that discriminated between the two groups MMPI-2 – Butcher et al. (1989) - Revision (MMPI-2) is described as a measure of major patterns of personality and emotional disorders MMPI-2 Restructured Form – Ben-Porath & Tellegen (2008) - MMPI-2 RF developed Restructured Clinical Scales MMPI Clinical and Validity Scales 10 clinical scales • Hypochondriasis • Depression • Hysteria • Psychopathic deviate • Masculine/Feminine • Paranoia • Psychasthenia • Schizophrenia • Hypomania • Social Introversion 3 validity scales • Lie Score → measure of social desirability, e.g. “I don’t like everyone I know”. Normal answer would be true so if someone scores false, it’s a “lie” • Frequency Score (F) → E.g “evil spirits possess me, is usually answered false but if they have a high frequency score of true can tell they are faking. • Correction Score (K) → E.g. “I feel like smashing things sometimes”, if false you are being guarded, and if true you are faking bad. MMPI Content Scales • Anxiety • Fears • Obsessiveness • Depression • Health Concerns • Bizarre Mentation • Anger • Cynicism • • • • • • • Antisocial Practices Type A Behaviour Low Self Esteem Social Discomfort Family Problems Work Interference Negative Treatment Indicators MMPI – 2 Validity Scales (additional validity measures were included) • Cannot say or ? score - Total number of unanswered items Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 • • • • Infrequency or F Scale and Back F Scale - Deviant or atypical ways of responding. Superlative Self-Presentation Scale - Willingness to disclose personal information Variable Response Inconsistency Scale - 49 item pairs of similar or opposite content - High score may indicate indiscriminate responding True Response Inconsistency Scale - 20 item pairs opposite in content - Tendency to answer ‘True’ indiscriminately MMPI – 2 Comments • Test of normal or abnormal personality? • Large normative sample (n = 2900) - But is it a representative sample? • 47.8% 20-39 years old (what about 60-70 year olds?) • Excess representation of higher education • Reliability of some scales is low (< .7) • Validity of some of the supplementary scales has not been adequately tested Sixteen (16) Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) Cattell et al. (1993) • Designed as a measure of normal personality traits • Factor analysis of responses to thousands of trait descriptors yielded 16 factors • Cattell called the factors the “primary source traits of personality” • 185 items; 170 phrased as self-statements and rated true/false or forced choice • People are lazy on the job if they can get away with it • I don’t usually mind if my room is messy • When one small thing after another goes wrong, I: feel as though I can’t cope OR just go on as usual 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) • A: Warmth • B: Reasoning • C: Emotional Stability • E: Dominance • F: Liveliness • G: Rule-consciousness • H: Social boldness • I: Sensitivity • • • • • • • • L: Vigilance M: Abstractedness N: Privateness O: Apprehension Q1: Openness to change Q2: Self-reliance Q3: Perfectionism Q4: Tension Global Factors • AX: Anxiety • TM: Tough-Mindedness • IN: Independence • SC: Self-control • EX: Extraversion Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Response Indices • IM: Impression Management • INF: Infrequency • ACQ: Acquiescence NEO PI – 3 NEO PI- R Costa & McCrae (1992) NEOPI-3 Costa & McCrae (2010) • Based on the Five Factor Model of personality traits • • • • Items derived from previous questionnaires and rationally derived items from domain description Factor analysis yielded 5 factors each made up of 6facets Revision allows use in adolescents as young as 12 240 items phrased as self-statements rated on a 5pointscale: - I really like most people I meet. NEO PI Comments: • Self-report and observer-rating versions available • Designed as a test of normal personality but increasing evidence for its usefulness in clinical settings. • Separate norms for adults and college- aged people • No validity (response style) indices. Million Clinical Multiaxial Inventory – IV • Millonetal. (1994)–MCMI-III(DSM-IV) • Millonetal. (2015)–MCMI-IV(DSM-5) • Designed as a test of personality disorders and symptoms associated with them • Constructed by a deductive approach based on Millon’s theory of personality functioning and psychopathology • Scales reflect the classificatory system of DSM Personality Disorders • 175 items phrased as self-statements and rated as true/false • I’m too unsure of myself to risk trying something new • I guess I’m a fearful and inhibited person Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Myer Briggs Type Indicator • Myers (1962) and Myers & McCauley (1985) • Assesses personality using Jung’s classification • People have definite preferences in how they approach the world, receive information about the world and make conclusions about the world • Four bipolar dimensions - Extraverted – Introverted (attitude) - Sensation – Intuition (way of perceiving) - Thinking – Feeling (judgement) - Judgement – Perception (orientation to world) • Scores on four dimensions give 16 possible types - Ipsative (vs normative) approach • Forced choice format - Which of these words appeals to you more: scheduled OR unplanned - When you go somewhere for the day, would you rather: Plan what you will do and when OR Just go • Several forms; Form G has 126 items; no response style indices • Much used in occupational settings • Often criticised - Construct validity – does it actually measure Jung’s theoretical types? - Test-Retest reliability – 35% of individuals had a different four letter type after 4- weeks (MBTI manual) Week 12: Projective Techniques Definition of “projection” • Projective techniques require the client to respond to ambiguous stimuli - Assume that the client will “project” his/her characteristic thoughts, feelings, behaviours. onto the material – the projective hypothesis 1. Perception → what the person responds to 2. Interpretation → how the person responds • Interpreter examines responses for clues as to personality • Two meanings of “projection” - Unconscious defense against unacceptable impulses in self by ascribing them to individuals or objects external to self (Freudian) - Normal process in which inner states influence perception and interpretation of the external world Development of Projective Techniques Two influences in the first two decades of the 20th Century 1. Theoretical development - Psychoanalytic theory - Gestalt or holistic theories 2. Psychometric vs clinical tradition - Psychometric ➢ Standardised measurement; reliability and validity; focus on normal characteristics; search for traits Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 - Clinical ➢ Careful, detailed study of the individual; focus on disturbed individuals; less interest in precise measurement; holistic approach Projective techniques have in common: • Stimuli are vague or ambiguous - Only brief general instructions are given • Use of an unstructured task – a task that permits an unlimited variety of possible responses • Use disguised testing procedures • Characterised by a global approach to the assessment of personality • Regarded as effective in revealing covert or unconscious aspects of personality • Primarily used as a clinical tool Supposed Advantages of Projective Techniques over Self –Report Tests • Capacity to bypass or circumvent the conscious defenses of respondents • Capacity to allow clinicians privileged access to important psychological information of which respondents are unaware Types of Projective Techniques • Inkblot techniques - The Rorschach • Pictorial techniques - Thematic Apperception Test • Verbal techniques - Word association tests - Sentence completion • Performance techniques - Drawing techniques: Draw-a-Person Test - Play techniques and Toy tests Inkblot: The Rorschach • Hermann Rorschach (1921) – a Swiss psychiatrist; died in 1922 • An association technique - The stimulus triggers an association between it and concepts, memories etc already held • 10 symmetrical inkblots on separate cards: 5 black and white; 2 contain red; 3 combine pastel shades • Two phases - Association → Cards are shown to them and answers are recorded - Inquiry → illicit why they responded why they did Scoring systems • Have in common scoring categories - Location (where in the blot they found a response) - Determinants (why, what features of the blot, shape, colour, size) - Content (human vs animal, human body parts, reflect nature or abstract) - Popular responses Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Exner’s Comprehensive System • John Exner (1970’s) - Criticised the disparate approaches to the Rorschach - Advocated standardised administration, scoring and interpretation - Emphasis on the structural rather than content variables - Provides normative data for US adults and children and reference data for psychiatric samples Comments on the Rorschach • Norms - Result in over-pathologising of normal US adults; insufficient representation of minorities - However, recently a new “reference” sample was collected (Meyer et al., 2007) • Reliability - Scorer reliability: Exner included no categories in which interscorer reliability was less than .85(adequate) - Test-retest reliability (of scoring): .3 to .9; but only calculated for 40% of variables (lacking) • Validity - Most problematic because of different systems of scoring and interpreting; and variety of uses - A recent meta-analysis (Mihura et al., 2013) found 40 variables had good to excellent support for their validity (mean r = .27) while 13 variables had little or no support when compared against externally assessed criteria (e.g., observer ratings, diagnoses) - Overall, few validity studies have been done (relative to the number of validity studies for selfreport measures of personality) Thematic Apperception Test • Henry Murray (1938) • 31 cards – 20 are used for testing - 19 cards containing ambiguous pictures in black and white and one blank card • Two 1-hour sessions with 10 cards in each session • Respondents construct a story: what lead up to the scene, what the characters are thinking and feeling, what will be the outcome • A construction technique: story-telling; require complex cognitive activities Interpreting the TAT • Content analysis - Hero → who is the hero of the story (person taking the test) - Needs → achievement, affiliation, aggression - Press → attacked, criticise • Wide diversity of scoring and administration procedures: Bellak, Dana, Arnold • Some normative information is available - Most frequent response characteristics ➢ The way the card is perceived ➢ The themes developed ➢ The roles ascribed to the characters ➢ Emotional tones expressed ➢ Speed of responses ➢ Length of stories • BUT, use of “subjective norms” is common Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Comments on the TAT • Non-personality variables can influence the stories told - Personal variables: gender, social class - Situational variables → events • Interpreting themes is confounded by fantasy and inhibition – Validity becomes difficult to establish • Interpreters tend to overpathologise Need-based scoring schemes • Focus on one need - E.g., McClelland et al. (1953) – Need for Achievement • Reliability - Scorer reliability around .8 to .9 (good) - Internal consistency: rarely exceeds .3 to .4 (could be better) - Test-retest reliability over intervals of several weeks: generally, in the .30 range (adequate) • Validity - Construct validity: ➢ Meta-analysis of correlations from 36 studies of TAT vs. self-report achievement indexes: mean correlation of .09 (sig.) ➢ Meta-analysis of correlations from 105 studies of TAT vs. behavioural outcomes: mean correlations of .19 and .22 Sentence Completion Tests • Attitudes, motives, and conflicts rather than the general structure of personality • Respondents are provided with the opening part of a sentence (stem) and are asked to complete it • Stems - Allow a wide variety of possible completions - Are usually formulated to elicit responses relevant to the personality domain of interest • No. of items ranges from 30 to 200 Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank • Rotter & Rafferty (1950); revised in 1992 • Personal adjustment or emotional stability • 40 sentence stems • “Complete these sentences to express your real feelings. Try to do everyone. Be sure to make a complete sentence” • Each completion rated on a 7-point scale (0-6) – manual provides specimen responses Example: “I regret…” - I’m not fishing (score of 0) - Being born (score of 6) Comments on RISB • Reliability - Test-retest ➢ .82 over a 1 -2-week period (adequate) ➢ .70 over 6 months (not bad) - Scorer: .72 - .99 - Coefficient alpha: .69 (not adequate) • Validity - Little evidence available Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Draw-a-Person (D-A-P) • Wide variety of such tests • Have in common: - Ask respondent to draw one or more people - Administered and scored relatively quickly • • Machover, 1949: A sign approach - “draw a person”(e,g, drawing large eyes would show anxiety) - “draw a person of the opposite sex” - Qualitative interpretation: draws inferences from isolated features of the drawings Koppitz, 1968: A global approach Children and adolescents 30 “emotional indicators” that distinguish between children with and without emotional problems (n = 1856) - Maladjustment score – a general indicator of emotional instability – not diagnostic - Comments on D-A-P • Norms - Available for some techniques • Reliability - Scorer reliability: variable, but mostly above .70 - Test-retest reliability: adequate for global features (.74 to .99 in 13 studies); problematic for specific features (e.g., .21 for height of figures) - Internal consistency: moderate to acceptable • Validity - A vast body of research - Conclusion is that indicators from D-A-P techniques have negligible validity ➢ e.g., no correlation between Machover’s signs of personality disturbance in D-A-P and other indicators of disturbance - Some evidence for modest validity of global scoring approaches ➢ E.g., poor quality of overall drawing and psychopathology - Responses open to influence of situational variables ® construct validity? Evaluation of Projective Techniques • Validity – do they measure what they set out to measure? - Faking - Examiner and situational variables • Are they psychological tests? - A standardised measure of a sample of behaviour Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Tutorial Notes Week 6 and 7: Test Fairness and Bias Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices • A different way of testing intelligence might be through examining other abilities e.g. problemsolving ability (fluid intelligence) • One well-known fluid intelligence test is the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RPM) - In this test, participants view a series (or matrix) of geometric figures and select from several options the one that most accurately completes the series (or matrix) - The RPM has 5 sets of test items, each with 12 items with sets becoming progressively more difficult - A “culturally reduced” test Problems with Normative Samples • Many tests of cognitive ability are designed for use in westernised samples - Norms are based on westernised samples The Queensland Test (1970) • Designed for people who have little contact with western urbanized culture, like Aboriginal Australians living outside urbanized settings • A “test of general cognitive ability designed for use under conditions of reduced communication” • Testers using the Queensland Test are given instructions on how to behave when testing. For instance, they are advised: - Not to touch or pat subjects; - To watch if subjects are hunting for answers by looking at the tester’s facial expressions; - To start testing the children of the group first, so that the adults may follow. The Queensland Test: Knox cubes Knox cubes Imitation Test • The tester holds a cube and taps out a pattern on a set of 4 cubes. • The person being tested imitates that pattern • Patterns increase in difficulty. • It is assumed that subjects will learn how to do a test by imitation. • The tester repeats the practice item until the test taker can do it correctly. Test Bias Anastasi & Urbina (1997) • Test bias is a statistical term - Whether a test or procedure systematically predicts one group in favour of another - Two types of test bias ➢ Slope bias ➢ Intercept bias (most commonly associated with the notion of test fairness or unfairness) • Test bias Is usually determined on the basis of a test’s predictive validity i.e. when a test is used to predict a certain criterion or outcome. (This procedure is most commonly used in personnel selection.) The determination of test bias is an objective/ data driven procedure. Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Regression Y= bx + a Slope and Intercept Bias • Slope bias - The slope of a regression line for one group is significantly different from another group - The slope of a regression line (b in the equation) equals the correlation between test scores, x, and the criterion scores, y. ➢ The higher the correlation, the steeper the line. - Also, known as “differential validity” • Intercept bias - The slope of the regression lines for two groups is equal - The intercept of a regression line (the point at which the regression line intercepts the y axis; a in the equation) for one group is significantly different from another group ➢ Intercept bias is equivalent to the notion of unfairness Week 8 and 9: WISC – IV Weschler Tests • There are Wechsler tests for Adults (WAIS-IV Ages 16 and older), children (WISC-V; ages 6 to 16) and preschoolers (WPSSI-III; ages 2 to 6). Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 • • - • - Each test is made up of a number of different subtests assessing different cognitive functions. Some subtests require the child to make a verbal response and others require the child to do something. The WISC-IV has 15 subtests. 10 are always administered (core subtests) and 5 are supplementary tests that can be administered if one of the core subtests is “spoiled” – the administration is not done in a standardized manner. The WISC-IV gives you five scores: Fullscale IQ (FSIQ) Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI; a measure of verbal reasoning, comprehension and expression) Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI; a measure of fluid reasoning (problem solving) without the influence of speed or motor performance) ➢ Note that the more recent version of the WISC, the WISC-V, breaks PRI into two: Fluid Reasoning Index (FRI) and Visual Spatial Index (VSI). Working Memory Index (WMI; a measure of the ability to hold information in mind temporarily, to perform some operation on in to produce a correct result) Processing Speed Index (PSI; a measure of response speed) The scores on the WISC-IV each have a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15. Subtests • Subtest scores on the WISC-IV contribute to the index scores as shown in the following table (subtests in brackets are supplementary and the others are core): Index Score Subtest Verbal Comprehension Index Similarities Vocabulary Comprehension (Information) (Word Reasoning) Perceptual Reasoning Index Block Design Picture Concepts Matrix Reasoning (Picture Completion) Working Memory Index Digit Span Letter Number Sequencing (Arithmetic) Processing Speed Index Coding Symbol Search (Cancellation) • • • • The WISC-IV (and the more recent version, the WISC-V) is often used as a part of an intellectual assessment of the child, for placement in special classes in schools, as a part of an assessment of "developmental disability”. The main use we make of intelligence tests, like the WISC, as psychologists is to examine the child’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, often with a view to determining what cognitive processes might be involved in poor performance at school. Thus, when interpreting test performance on an IQ test it is important to think about the kinds of cognitive skills that are being measured by the subtests you are reporting. It is equally important to think about what high and low scores on the subtests actually mean in practical terms. For example, the Word Reasoning subtest requires the child to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues e.g., “This is something you use to wash with. What is it? This is something you use to wash with and it comes out of a tap. What is it?” This task measures Gc Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 • (Crystallized intelligence; broad CHC ability), Lexical knowledge (VL; narrow CHC ability) and Inductive reasoning (I; narrow CHC ability). Low scores on this subtest could be attributed to poor verbal comprehension, poor language development, and poor concept formation. Performance on this task may be affected by extent and quality of schooling, interests and reading patterns, and cultural opportunities If you think about the component processes involved in the task then it is possible to formulate recommendations that may help that child in a classroom situation. Instructional implications in the case of a child with a low score on Word Reasoning might be to: ask the child to anticipate what might be coming next in a story before reading the next page; engage the child in activities that require formation of concepts e.g., classification games. WISC – IV Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Week 10 and 11: Case Study Week 12 and 13: The 16 Personality Factors • • • The 16PF provides scores on 16 primary factors of personality. The 16 primary factors combine to make 5 global factors. Scores on the 16PF Primary Factors are STEN scores (a standard score where the mean is 5.5 and the standard deviation is 2; the range is 1 – 10) • Global factors are scored by weighting STEN scores on the primary factors appropriately and summing those weighted scores - the final scores are also STEN scores. • STEN scores which are relevant for describing the person’s personality are “extreme” scores i.e., only STEN scores in the range 1-3 and 8-10 are interpreted as being important in describing the person. High and low scores do not indicate abnormality – the test is a measure of normal personality. • Note that there are also 3 validity indices to detect response styles (IM – a measure of socially desirable responding; - ACQ – a measure of acquiescent responding – the tendency to agree with whatever is presented; and - INF – the tendency to endorse items endorsed by a low percentage of the normative sample – may indicate indiscriminate responding or a tendency to fake bad). Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5194257 Desired attribute as stated by Reality TV Factors in the 16PF Rambo’s score emotionally stable C = Emotional stability 9 Does Rambo have Final conclusion the desired would you the attribute position on the show? Yes self-assured O = Apprehension (negative) 2 Yes self-disciplined SC = Self Control 4.7 No outgoing EX = Extraversion H = Social boldness EX = 8.3 H=9 Yes enterprising Q1 = Openness to change Q1 = 5 Downloaded by Jackson Pullar ([email protected])