NCERT Class 11 History PDF

 ❈ ✁✂✄✁✂☎ ❯✆✝✞✟ P✠✡☛ ✆☞✌ ❊✍✎✏✑ ✒✓✔✕✖✗✕✖✘ ✶✙✚✛ ❊✜✢✕✎✖✘ ✚✹✙✶✣✣ ✤✥✍✦✧✕✦✧ ★✎✍r✕✗✕✓✦✘ ✶✣✩✙✶✛✚ ★✓♦✍✎r✘ ❞✓r✖✎✦✕✘✍✗✕✓✦ ✶✛✪✙✣✪✫ early societies i From the Beginning of Time Writing and City Life...

 ❈ ✁✂✄✁✂☎ ❯✆✝✞✟ P✠✡☛ ✆☞✌ ❊✍✎✏✑ ✒✓✔✕✖✗✕✖✘ ✶✙✚✛ ❊✜✢✕✎✖✘ ✚✹✙✶✣✣ ✤✥✍✦✧✕✦✧ ★✎✍r✕✗✕✓✦✘ ✶✣✩✙✶✛✚ ★✓♦✍✎r✘ ❞✓r✖✎✦✕✘✍✗✕✓✦ ✶✛✪✙✣✪✫ early societies i From the Beginning of Time Writing and City Life  early societies I ◆ ✁✂✄ ✄☎✆ ✂✝✞✟ ✠☎ ✠✂✡✡ ☛☎☞✌ ☞✍✝✎ ✠✝ ✁☎✏☎✄ ☛☎✡☞ ✂✞✑ ✝ ☎☞☛✡❡ ✄✝✆✂☎ ✂☎✄✒ ✓✁☎ ✔✂☛✄ ✂✄ ☞✍✝✎ ✁☎ ✍☎✑✂✞✞✂✞✑✄ ✝✔ ✁✎✏☞✞ ☎✕✂✄ ☎✞✆☎✟ ✔☛✝✏ ✁☎ ☛☎✏✝ ☎ ✖☞✄ ✟ ✏✂✡✡✂✝✞✄ ✝✔ ❡☎☞☛✄ ☞✑✝✒ ✗✝✎ ✠✂✡✡ ✡☎☞☛✞ ✁✝✠ ✁✎✏☞✞✄ ✔✂☛✄ ☎✏☎☛✑☎✌ ✂✞ ❣✔☛✂✆☞ ☞✞✌ ✁✝✠ ☞☛✆✁☞☎✝✡✝✑✂✄ ✄ ✁☞❤☎ ✄ ✎✌✂☎✌ ✁☎✄☎ ☎☞☛✡❡ ✖✁☞✄☎✄ ✝✔ ✁✂✄ ✝☛❡ ✔☛✝✏ ☛☎✏☞✂✞✄ ✝✔ ✍✝✞☎✄ ☞✞✌ ✄ ✝✞☎ ✝✝✡✄✒ ❣☛✆✁☞☎✝✡✝✑✂✄ ✄ ✁☞❤☎ ✏☞✌☎ ☞ ☎✏✖ ✄ ✝ ☛☎✆✝✞✄ ☛✎✆ ✁☎ ✡✂❤☎✄ ✝✔ ☎☞☛✡❡ ✖☎✝✖✡☎ ♣ ✝ ✔✂✞✌ ✝✎ ☞✍✝✎ ✁☎ ✄✁☎✡ ☎☛✄ ✂✞ ✠✁✂✆✁ ✁☎❡ ✡✂❤☎✌✟ ✁☎ ✔✝✝✌ ✁☎❡ ☞ ☎ ✍❡ ✑☞ ✁☎☛✂✞✑ ✖✡☞✞ ✖☛✝✌✎✆☎ ☞✞✌ ✁✎✞ ✂✞✑ ☞✞✂✏☞✡✄✟ ☞✞✌ ✁☎ ✠ ☞❡ ✄ ✂✞ ✠ ✁✂✆ ✁ ✁☎❡ ☎ ✕✖ ☛☎✄✄☎✌ ✁☎ ✏✄☎✡❤☎✄✒ ✇ ✁☎ ☛ ✂✏✖ ✝☛ ☞✞ ✌☎❤☎✡✝✖✏☎✞ ✄ ✂✞✆✡✎✌☎ ✁☎ ✎✄☎ ✝✔ ✔✂☛☎ ☞✞✌ ✝✔ ✡☞✞✑✎☞✑☎✒ ❣✞✌✟ ✔✂✞☞✡✡❡✟ ❡✝✎ ✠✂✡✡ ✄☎☎ ✠✁☎ ✁☎☛ ✁☎ ✡✂❤☎✄ ✝✔ ✖☎✝✖✡☎ ✠✁✝ ✡✂❤☎ ✍❡ ✁✎✞ ✂✞✑ ☞✞✌ ✑☞ ✁☎☛✂✞✑ ✝✌☞❡ ✆☞✞ ✁☎✡✖ ✎✄ ✝ ✎✞✌☎☛✄ ☞✞✌ ✁☎ ✖☞✄ ✒ ✓✁☎ ✄☎✆✝✞✌ ✁☎✏☎ ✌☎☞✡✄ ✠✂ ✁ ✄✝✏☎ ✝✔ ✁☎ ☎☞☛✡✂☎✄ ✆✂ ✂☎✄ ♣ ✁✝✄☎ ✝✔ ▼☎✄✝✖✝ ☞✏✂☞✟ ✖☛☎✄☎✞ ✘✌☞❡ ✙☛☞✚✒ ✓✁☎✄☎ ✆✂ ✂☎✄ ✌☎❤☎✡✝✖☎✌ ☞☛✝✎✞✌ ☎✏✖✡☎✄✟ ☞✞✌ ✠☎☛☎ ✆☎✞ ☛☎✄ ✝✔ ✡✝✞✑✘✌✂✄ ☞✞✆☎ ☛☞✌☎✒ ❣☛✆✁☞☎✝✡✝✑✂✆☞✡ ☎❤✂✌☎✞✆☎ ♣ ☛☎✏☞✂✞✄ ✝✔ ✝✡✌ ✄☎ ✡☎✏☎✞ ✄ ♣ ☞✞✌ ☞✞ ☞✍✎✞✌☞✞✆☎ ✝✔ ✠☛✂ ☎✞ ✏☞ ☎☛✂☞✡ ☞☛☎ ✎✄☎✌ ✝ ☛☎✆✝✞✄ ☛✎✆ ✁☎ ✡✂❤☎✄ ✝✔ ✁☎ ✌✂✔✔☎☛☎✞ ✖☎✝✖✡☎ ✠✁✝ ✡✂❤☎✌ ✁☎☛☎ ♣ ✆☛☞✔ ✄✖☎✝✖✡☎✟ ✄✆☛✂✍☎✄✟ ✡☞✍✝✎☛☎☛✄✟ ✖☛✂☎✄ ✄✟ ❝✂✞✑✄ ☞✞✌ ✚✎☎☎✞✄✒ ✗✝✎ ✠✂✡✡ ✞✝ ✂✆☎ ✁✝✠ ✖☞✄ ✝☛☞✡ ✖☎✝✖✡☎ ✖✡☞❡☎✌ ☞✞ ✂✏✖✝☛ ☞✞ ☛✝✡☎ ✂✞ ✄✝✏☎ ✝✔ ✁☎✄☎ ✝✠✞✄✒ ❣ ✚✎☎✄ ✂✝✞ ✝ ✁✂✞❝ ☞✍✝✎ ✂✄ ✠✁☎ ✁☎☛ ✁☎ ✏☞✞❡ ☞✆ ✂❤✂ ✂☎✄ ✁☞ ✠☎✞ ✝✞ ✂✞ ✆✂ ✂☎✄ ✠✝✎✡✌ ✁☞❤☎ ✍☎☎✞ ✖✝✄✄✂✍✡☎ ✂✔ ✠☛✂ ✂✞✑ ✁☞✌ ✞✝ ✌☎❤☎✡✝✖☎✌✒ ✗✝✎ ✏☞❡ ✠✝✞✌☎☛ ☞✄ ✝ ✁✝✠ ✖☎✝✖✡☎ ✠✁✝ ✔✝☛ ✏✂✡✡✂✝✞✄ ✝✔ ❡☎☞☛✄ ✁☞✌ ✡✂❤☎✌ ✂✞ ✔✝☛☎✄ ✄✟ ✂✞ ✆☞❤☎✄ ✝☛ ☎✏✖✝☛☞☛❡ ✄✁☎✡ ☎☛✄ ✍☎✑☞✞ ✝ ☎❤☎✞ ✎☞✡✡❡ ✡✂❤☎ ✂✞ ❤✂✡✡☞✑☎✄ ☞✞✌ ✆✂ ✂☎✄✒ ✐☎✡✡✟ ✁☎ ✄ ✝☛❡ ✂✄ ☞ ✡✝✞✑ ✝✞☎ ☞✞✌ ✂✄ ☛☎✡☞ ☎✌ ✝ ✄☎❤☎☛☞✡ ✌☎❤☎✡✝✖✏☎✞ ✄ ✁☞ ✝✝❝ ✖✡☞✆☎ ☞ ✡☎☞✄ s✟✛✛✛ ❡☎☞☛✄ ✍☎✔✝☛☎ ✁☎ ☎✄ ☞✍✡✂✄✁✏☎✞ ✝✔ ✁☎ ✔✂☛✄ ✆✂ ✂☎✄✒ ✇✞☎ ✝✔ ✁☎ ✏✝✄ ✔☞☛✘☛☎☞✆✁✂✞✑ ✆✁☞✞✑☎✄ ✠☞✄ ✁☎ ✑☛☞✌✎☞✡ ✄✁✂✔ ✔☛✝✏ ✞✝✏☞✌✂✆ ✡✂✔☎ ✝ ✄☎ ✡☎✌ ☞✑☛✂✆✎✡ ✎☛☎✟ ✠✁✂✆✁ ✍☎✑☞✞ ☞☛✝✎✞✌ ♥✛✟✛✛✛ ❡☎☞☛✄ ☞✑✝✒ ❣✄ ❡✝✎ ✠✂✡✡ ✄☎☎ ✂✞ ✓✁☎✏☎ ♥✟ ✖☛✂✝☛ ✝ ✁☎ ☞✌✝✖ ✂✝✞ ✝✔ ☞✑☛✂✆✎✡ ✎☛☎✟ ✖☎✝✖✡☎ ✁☞✌ ✑☞ ✁☎☛☎✌ ✖✡☞✞ ✖☛✝✌✎✆☎ ☞✄ ☞ ✄✝✎☛✆☎ ✝✔ ✔✝✝✌✒ ✜✡✝✠✡❡✟ ✁☎❡ ✡☎☞☛✞ ✏✝☛☎ ☞✍✝✎ ✌✂✔✔☎☛☎✞ ❝✂✞✌✄ ✝✔ ✖✡☞✞ ✄ ♣ ✠✁☎☛☎ ✁☎❡ ✑☛☎✠✟ ✁☎ ✄☎☞✄✝✞✄ ✠✁☎✞ ✁☎❡ ✍✝☛☎ ✔☛✎✂ ☞✞✌ ✄✝ ✝✞✒ ✢☛✝✏ ✁✂✄✟ ✁☎❡ ✡☎☞☛✞ ✝  ❊❆✥✦✧ ★❖✩✪✫✬✪✫✭ ✸ ❣ ♦✁ ✂✄☎✆✝✞✟ ✠✆ ✡❡✞✝ ☛✞☞☎✌ ✁✍❡☎✝ ☎✆✎ ✏☎ ✄❡✑✌ ✂❡☎✞ ☎✆✎ ✒☎ ☞♦✓✞ ✔☞✆✎✞ ♦✕ ✂✓✄✞❡✞ ✁❡ ❡ ❣ ♦✁✆✟ ✠✆ ♣☎✞✝ ☎✆✎ ✖♦✓✝✍❡☎✞✝ ☛✞☞☎✌ ✝✍❡ ✗ ♦✂✞ ✝✍☎✝ ❣ ❡✁ ❡☎✞☞✄✑ ✁❡ ❡ ✘☞✄✄❡✝ ☎✆✎ ☞✗❡✟ ✙☞✄✄❡✝ ✁☎✞ ☎✄✞♦ ❣ ♦✁✆ ☞✆ ☛✕ ☞✗☎✟ ☛ ♦✓✆✎ ✝✍❡ ✞☎✘❡ ✝☞✘❡✌ ✂❡♦✂✄❡ ✄❡☎ ✆✝ ✍♦✁ ✝♦ ✎♦✘❡✞✝☞✗☎✝❡ ☎✆☞✘☎✄✞ ✞✓✗✍ ☎✞ ✞✍❡❡✂✌ ❣♦☎✝✌ ✗☎✝✝✄❡✌ ✂☞❣ ☎✆✎ ✎♦✆✔❡✑✟ ✚✄☎✆✝ ✕☞✏ ❡✞ ✞✓✗✍ ☎✞ ✗♦✝✝♦✆ ☎✆✎ ✕✄☎✛✌ ☎✆✎ ☎✆☞✘☎✄ ✕☞✏ ❡✞ ✞✓✗✍ ☎✞ ✁♦♦✄ ✁❡ ❡ ✆♦✁ ✁♦✒❡✆ ☞✆✝♦ ✗✄♦✝✍✟ ✖♦✘❡✁✍☎✝ ✄☎✝❡ ✌ ☎✏♦✓✝ ✱✌✜✜✜ ✑❡☎ ✞ ☎❣♦✌ ✎♦✘❡✞✝☞✗☎✝❡✎ ☎✆☞✘☎✄✞ ✞✓✗✍ ☎✞ ✗☎✝✝✄❡ ☎✆✎ ✎♦✆✔❡✑✞ ✁❡ ❡ ✍☎ ✆❡✞✞❡✎ ✝♦ ✂✄♦✓❣✍✞ ☎✆✎ ✗☎ ✝✞✟ ❚✍❡✞❡ ✎❡✒❡✄♦✂✘❡✆✝✞ ✄❡✎ ✝♦ ♦✝✍❡ ✗✍☎✆❣❡✞ ☎✞ ✁❡✄✄✟ ✡✍❡✆ ✂❡♦✂✄❡ ❣ ❡✁ ✗ ♦✂✞✌ ✝✍❡✑ ✍☎✎ ✝♦ ✞✝☎✑ ☞✆ ✝✍❡ ✞☎✘❡ ✂✄☎✗❡ ✝☞✄✄ ✝✍❡ ✗ ♦✂✞ ☞✂❡✆❡✎✟ ✖♦✌ ✞❡✝✝✄❡✎ ✄☞✕❡ ✏❡✗☎✘❡ ✘♦ ❡ ✗♦✘✘♦✆✟ ☛✆✎ ✁☞✝✍ ✝✍☎✝✌ ✂❡♦✂✄❡ ✏✓☞✄✝ ✘♦ ❡ ✂❡ ✘☎✆❡✆✝ ✞✝ ✓✗✝✓ ❡✞ ☞✆ ✁✍☞✗✍ ✝♦ ✄☞✒❡✟ ❚✍☞✞ ✁☎✞ ☎✄✞♦ ✝✍❡ ✝☞✘❡ ✁✍❡✆ ✞♦✘❡ ✗♦✘✘✓✆☞✝☞❡✞ ✄❡☎ ✆✝ ✍♦✁ ✝♦ ✘☎✔❡ ❡☎ ✝✍❡✆ ✂♦✝✞✟ ❚✍❡✞❡ ✁❡ ❡ ✓✞❡✎ ✝♦ ✞✝♦ ❡ ❣ ☎☞✆ ☎✆✎ ♦✝✍❡ ✂ ♦✎✓✗❡✌ ☎✆✎ ✝♦ ✂ ❡✂☎ ❡ ☎✆✎ ✗♦♦✔ ☎ ✒☎ ☞❡✝✑ ♦✕ ✕♦♦✎✞ ✘☎✎❡ ✕ ♦✘ ✝✍❡ ✆❡✁ ❣ ☎☞✆✞ ✝✍☎✝ ✁❡ ❡ ✗✓✄✝☞✒☎✝❡✎✟ ✠✆ ✕☎✗✝✌ ☎ ❣ ❡☎✝ ✎❡☎✄ ♦✕ ☎✝✝❡✆✝☞♦✆ ✁☎✞ ❣☞✒❡✆ ✝♦ ✂ ♦✗❡✞✞☞✆❣ ✕♦♦✎✞ ✝♦ ✘☎✔❡ ✝✍❡✘ ✝☎✞✝✑ ☎✆✎ ✎☞❣❡✞✝☞✏✄❡✟ ❚✍❡ ✁☎✑ ✞✝♦✆❡ ✝♦♦✄✞ ✁❡ ❡ ✘☎✎❡ ☎✄✞♦ ✗✍☎✆❣❡✎✟ ✡✍☞✄❡ ❡☎ ✄☞❡ ✘❡✝✍♦✎✞ ♦✕ ✘☎✔☞✆❣ ✝♦♦✄✞ ✗♦✆✝☞✆✓❡✎✌ ✞♦✘❡ ✝♦♦✄✞ ☎✆✎ ❡✢✓☞✂✘❡✆✝ ✁❡ ❡ ✆♦✁ ✞✘♦♦✝✍❡✆❡✎ ☎✆✎ ✂♦✄☞✞✍❡✎ ✏✑ ☎✆ ❡✄☎✏♦ ☎✝❡ ✂ ♦✗❡✞✞ ♦✕ ❣ ☞✆✎☞✆❣✟ s❡✁ ❡✢✓☞✂✘❡✆✝ ☞✆✗✄✓✎❡✎ ✘♦ ✝☎ ✞ ☎✆✎ ✂❡✞✝✄❡✞ ✕♦ ✂ ❡✂☎ ☞✆❣ ❣ ☎☞✆✌ ☎✞ ✁❡✄✄ ☎✞ ✞✝♦✆❡ ☎✛❡✞ ☎✆✎ ✍♦❡✞✌ ✁✍☞✗✍ ✁❡ ❡ ✓✞❡✎ ✝♦ ✗✄❡☎ ✄☎✆✎ ✕♦ ✗✓✄✝☞✒☎✝☞♦✆✌ ☎✞ ✁❡✄✄ ☎✞ ✕♦ ✎☞❣❣☞✆❣ ✝✍❡ ❡☎ ✝✍ ✝♦ ✞♦✁ ✞❡❡✎✞✟ ✠✆ ✞♦✘❡ ☎ ❡☎✞✌ ✂❡♦✂✄❡ ✄❡☎ ✆✝ ✝♦ ✝☎✂ ✝✍❡ ♦ ❡✞ ♦✕ ✘❡✝☎✄✞ ✞✓✗✍ ☎✞ ✗♦✂✂❡ ☎✆✎ ✝☞✆✟ ✖♦✘❡✝☞✘❡✞✌ ✗♦✂✂❡ ♦ ❡✞ ✁❡ ❡ ✗♦✄✄❡✗✝❡✎ ☎✆✎ ✓✞❡✎ ✕♦ ✝✍❡☞ ✎☞✞✝☞✆✗✝☞✒❡ ✏✄✓☞✞✍❞❣ ❡❡✆ ✗♦✄♦✓ ✟ ❚✍☞✞ ✂ ❡✂☎ ❡✎ ✝✍❡ ✁☎✑ ✕♦ ✝✍❡ ✘♦ ❡ ❡✛✝❡✆✞☞✒❡ ✓✞❡ ♦✕ ✘❡✝☎✄ ✕♦ ✣❡✁❡✄✄❡ ✑ ☎✆✎ ✕♦ ✝♦♦✄✞ ✞✓✏✞❡✢✓❡✆✝✄✑✟ ❚✍❡ ❡ ✁☎✞ ☎✄✞♦ ☎ ❣ ♦✁☞✆❣ ✕☎✘☞✄☞☎ ☞✝✑ ✁☞✝✍ ♦✝✍❡ ✔☞✆✎✞ ♦✕ ✂ ♦✎✓✗❡ ✕ ♦✘ ✎☞✞✝☎✆✝ ✄☎✆✎✞ ❢☎✆✎ ✞❡☎✞✤✟ ❚✍☞✞ ☞✆✗✄✓✎❡✎ ✁♦♦✎✌ ✞✝♦✆❡✞✌ ☞✆✗✄✓✎☞✆❣ ✂ ❡✗☞♦✓✞ ☎✆✎ ✞❡✘☞❞✂ ❡✗☞♦✓✞ ✞✝♦✆❡✞✌ ✘❡✝☎✄✞ ☎✆✎ ✞✍❡✄✄✌ ☎✆✎ ✍☎ ✎❡✆❡✎ ✒♦✄✗☎✆☞✗ ✄☎✒☎✟ ✈✄❡☎ ✄✑✌ ✂❡♦✂✄❡ ✁❡ ❡ ❣♦☞✆❣ ✕ ♦✘ ✂✄☎✗❡ ✝♦ ✂✄☎✗❡✌ ✗☎ ✑☞✆❣ ❣♦♦✎✞ ☎✆✎ ☞✎❡☎✞ ✁☞✝✍ ✝✍❡✘✟ ✡☞✝✍ ☞✆✗ ❡☎✞☞✆❣ ✝ ☎✎❡✌ ✝✍❡ ❣ ♦✁✝✍ ♦✕ ✒☞✄✄☎❣❡✞ ☎✆✎ ✝♦✁✆✞✌ ☎✆✎ ✝✍❡ ✘♦✒❡✘❡✆✝✞ ♦✕ ✂❡♦✂✄❡✌ ☞✆ ✂✄☎✗❡ ♦✕ ✝✍❡ ✞✘☎✄✄ ✗♦✘✘✓✆☞✝☞❡✞ ♦✕ ❡☎ ✄✑ ✂❡♦✂✄❡ ✝✍❡ ❡ ✆♦✁ ❣ ❡✁ ✞✘☎✄✄ ✞✝☎✝❡✞✟ ✡✍☞✄❡ ✝✍❡✞❡ ✗✍☎✆❣❡✞ ✝♦♦✔ ✂✄☎✗❡ ✞✄♦✁✄✑✌ ♦✒❡ ✞❡✒❡ ☎✄ ✝✍♦✓✞☎✆✎ ✑❡☎ ✞✌ ✝✍❡ ✂☎✗❡ ✢✓☞✗✔❡✆❡✎ ✁☞✝✍ ✝✍❡ ❣ ♦✁✝✍ ♦✕ ✝✍❡ ✕☞ ✞✝ ✗☞✝☞❡✞✟ ☛✄✞♦✌ ✝✍❡ ✗✍☎✆❣❡✞ ✍☎✎ ✕☎ ❞ ❡☎✗✍☞✆❣ ✗♦✆✞❡✢✓❡✆✗❡✞✟ ✖♦✘❡ ✞✗✍♦✄☎ ✞ ✍☎✒❡ ✎❡✞✗ ☞✏❡✎ ✝✍☞✞ ☎✞ ☎ ❡✒♦✄✓✝☞♦✆✌ ☎✞ ✝✍❡ ✄☞✒❡✞ ♦✕ ✂❡♦✂✄❡ ✁❡ ❡ ✂ ♦✏☎✏✄✑ ✝ ☎✆✞✕♦ ✘❡✎ ✏❡✑♦✆✎ ❡✗♦❣✆☞✝☞♦✆✟ ♠♦♦✔ ♦✓✝ ✕♦ ✗♦✆✝☞✆✓☞✝☞❡✞ ☎✆✎ ✗✍☎✆❣❡✞ ☎✞ ✑♦✓ ❡✛✂✄♦ ❡ ✝✍❡✞❡ ✝✁♦ ✗♦✆✝ ☎✞✝☞✆❣ ✝✍❡✘❡✞ ☞✆ ❡☎ ✄✑ ✍☞✞✝♦ ✑✟ ❘❡✘❡✘✏❡ ✝♦♦✌ ✝✍☎✝ ✁❡ ✍☎✒❡ ✞❡✄❡✗✝❡✎ ♦✆✄✑ ✞♦✘❡ ❡✛☎✘✂✄❡✞ ♦✕ ❡☎ ✄✑ ✞♦✗☞❡✝☞❡✞ ✕♦ ✎❡✝☎☞✄❡✎ ✞✝✓✎✑✟ ❚✍❡ ❡ ✁❡ ❡ ♦✝✍❡ ✔☞✆✎✞ ♦✕ ❡☎ ✄✑ ✞♦✗☞❡✝☞❡✞✌ ☞✆✗✄✓✎☞✆❣ ✕☎ ✘☞✆❣ ✗♦✘✘✓✆☞✝☞❡✞ ☎✆✎ ✂☎✞✝♦ ☎✄ ✂❡♦✂✄❡✞✟ ☛✆✎ ✝✍❡ ❡ ✁❡ ❡ ♦✝✍❡ ✂❡♦✂✄❡✞ ✁✍♦ ✁❡ ❡ ✍✓✆✝❡ ❞❣☎✝✍❡ ❡ ✞ ☎✞ ✁❡✄✄ ☎✞ ✗☞✝✑ ✎✁❡✄✄❡ ✞✌ ☎✂☎ ✝ ✕ ♦✘ ✝✍❡ ❡✛☎✘✂✄❡✞ ✞❡✄❡✗✝❡✎✟  How to Read Timelines ❨♦✖ ✗✘✙✙ ✚✘✛✜ ✢ ✣✘✤✥✙✘✛✥ ✙✘✦✥ ✣✧✘★ Timeline i ♦✛✥ ✘✛ ✥✩✥✪✫ ★✥✬✣✘♦✛✭ ❊✢✬✧ ♦✚ ✣✧✥★✥ ✗✘✙✙ ✘✛✜✘✬✢✣✥ ★♦✤✥ ♦✚ ✣✧✥ ✤✢t♦✪ ✮✪♦✬✥★★✥★ ✢✛✜ ✥✩✥✛✣★ ✘✛ ✗♦✪✙✜ ✧✘★✣♦✪✫✭ (6 MYA TO 1 BCE) ❆★ ✫♦✖ ★✣✖✜✫ ✣✧✥ ✣✘✤✥ ✙✘✛✥★✯ ✪✥✤✥✤r✥✪✰ ⑩ P✪♦✬✥★★✥★ ✣✧✪♦✖✱✧ ✗✧✘✬✧ ♦✪✜✘✛✢✪✫ ✗♦✤✥✛ ✢✛✜ ✤✥✛ ✧✢✩✥ ★✧✢✮✥✜ ✧✘★✣♦✪✫ ✢✪✥ ✚✢✪ ✤♦✪✥ ✜✘✚✚✘✬✖✙✣ ✣♦ ✜✢✣✥ ✣✧✢✛ ✥✩✥✛✣★ ★✖✬✧ ✢★ ✢ ✗✢✪ r✥✣✗✥✥✛ ✦✘✛✱★✭ ⑩ ❙♦✤✥ ✜✢✣✥★ ✤✢✫ ✘✛✜✘✬✢✣✥ ✣✧✥ r✥✱✘✛✛✘✛✱ ♦✚ ✢ ✮✪♦✬✥★★✯ ♦✪ ✗✧✥✛ ✘✣ ✪✥✢✬✧✥★ ✤✢✣✖✪✢✣✘♦✛✭ ⑩ ❍✘★✣♦✪✘✢✛★ ✢✪✥ ✬♦✛★✣✢✛✣✙✫ ✪✥✩✘★✘✛✱ ✜✢✣✥★ ✘✛ ✣✧✥ ✙✘✱✧✣ ♦✚ ✛✥✗ ✥✩✘✜✥✛✬✥✯ ♦✪ ✛✥✗ ✗✢✫★ ♦✚ ✢★★✥★★✘✛✱ ♦✙✜ ✜✢✣✢✭ ⑩ ❲✧✘✙✥ ✗✥ ✧✢✩✥ ✜✘✩✘✜✥✜ ✣✧✥ ✣✘✤✥✙✘✛✥★ ♦✛ ✢ ✱✥♦✱✪✢✮✧✘✬✢✙ r✢★✘★ ✢★ ✢ ✤✢✣✣✥✪ ♦✚ ✬♦✛✩✥✛✘✥✛✬✥✯ ✧✘★✣♦✪✘✬✢✙ ✜✥✩✥✙♦✮✤✥✛✣★ ♦✚✣✥✛ ✣✪✢✛★✬✥✛✜ ✣✧✥★✥ ✜✘✩✘★✘♦✛★✭ ⑩ ❆✙★♦✯ ✣✧✥✪✥ ✘★ ✢ ✬✧✪♦✛♦✙♦✱✘✬✢✙ ♦✩✥✪✙✢✮ ✘✛ ✧✘★✣♦✪✘✬✢✙ ✮✪♦✬✥★★✥★✭ ⑩ ❖✛✙✫ ★♦✤✥ ✙✢✛✜✤✢✪✦★ ✘✛ ✧✖✤✢✛ ✧✘★✣♦✪✫ ✧✢✩✥ r✥✥✛ ★✧♦✗✛ ✧✥✪✥ ❤ ✗✥ ✧✢✩✥ ✧✘✱✧✙✘✱✧✣✥✜ ✣✧✥ ✮✪♦✬✥★★✥★ ✜✥✢✙✣ ✗✘✣✧ ✘✛ ✣✧✥ ❚ ✁✂ ✄✁☎✆✝✁✞✆ ✟✠✡☛✂✆✂ ✠✞ ✄ ✆ ✣✧✥✤✥★ ✣✧✢✣ ✚♦✙✙♦✗✯ ✗✧✘✬✧ ✢✙★♦ ✧✢✩✥ ★✥✮✢✪✢✣✥ ✣✘✤✥✙✘✛✥★✭ ✆☎✆❡☞✆✞✡✆ ✠✟ ☛☎✌✞✂ ✌✞✍ ✄ ✆ ⑩ ❲✧✥✪✥✩✥✪ ✫♦✖ ★✥✥ ✢ ✲✯ ✫♦✖ ✗✘✙✙ ✍✠☎✆✂✄✁✡✌✄✁✠✞ ✠✟ ❞✝✌✞✄✂ ✌✞✍ ✌✞✁☎✌✝✂✎ ✢✙★♦ ✚✘✛✜ ✢✛ ✘✙✙✖★✣✪✢✣✘♦✛ ✪✥✙✢✣✥✜ ✣♦ ✣✧✥ ✜✢✣✥ ✢✙♦✛✱ ✣✧✥ ✬♦✙✖✤✛✭ ✄ ✁☞ ✝✁☞ ✄✂ ✂✠☎✆ ☎✌✏✠❡ ✄✆✡ ✞✠✝✠☞✁✡✌✝ ⑩ ❘✥✤✥✤r✥✪ ✣✧✢✣ r✙✢✛✦ ★✮✢✬✥★ ✍✆✑✆✝✠❞☎✆✞✄✂ ✂☛✡ ✌✂ ✄ ✆ ☛✂✆ ✠✟ ✟✁❡✆✒ ✜♦ ✛♦✣ ✤✥✢✛ ✣✧✢✣ ✛♦✣✧✘✛✱ ✗✢★ ✧✢✮✮✥✛✘✛✱ ❤ ★♦✤✥✣✘✤✥★ ✣✧✥★✥ ☎✆✄✌✝✂✒ ❞✝✠☛☞ ✌☞❡✁✡☛✝✄☛❡✆ ✌✞✍ ✄ ✆ ✘✛✜✘✬✢✣✥ ✣✧✢✣ ✗✥ ✜♦ ✛♦✣ ✢★ ✫✥✣ ✇ ✆✆✝✎ ✓✄ ✆❡ ❞❡✠✡✆✂✂✆✂ ✄ ✌✄ ✌❡✆ ✂ ✠✇✞ ✦✛♦✗ ✗✧✢✣ ✗✢★ ✧✢✮✮✥✛✘✛✱✭ ⑩ ❨♦✖ ✗✘✙✙ r✥ ✙✥✢✪✛✘✛✱ ✤♦✪✥ ✁✞✡✝☛✍✆ ✄ ✆ ✆☎✆❡☞✆✞✡✆ ✠✟ ✡✁✄✁✆✂ ✌✞✍ ✄ ✆ ✢r♦✖✣ ❙♦✖✣✧ ❆★✘✢✛ ✧✘★✣♦✪✫ ✘✛ ☛✂✆ ✠✟ ✇❡✁✄✁✞☞✎ ✉✠☛ ✇✁✝✝ ✌✝✂✠ ✟✁✞✍ ✱✥✛✥✪✢✙ ✢✛✜ ❣✛✜✘✢✛ ✧✘★✣♦✪✫ ✘✛ ✮✢✪✣✘✬✖✙✢✪ ✛✥♣✣ ✫✥✢✪✭ ✳✧✥ ✜✢✣✥★ ☎✆✞✄✁✠✞ ✠✟ ✂✠☎✆ ✠✟ ✄ ✆ ✆✌❡✝✁✆✂✄ ★✥✙✥✬✣✥✜ ✚♦✪ ❙♦✖✣✧ ❆★✘✢ ✢✪✥ ♦✛✙✫ ✘✛✜✘✬✢✣✘✩✥ ♦✚ ★♦✤✥ ✆☎❞✁❡✆✂ ✔ ✌ ✄ ✆☎✆ ✄ ✌✄ ✇✁✝✝ ✕✆ ♦✚ ✣✧✥ ✜✥✩✥✙♦✮✤✥✛✣★ ✘✛ ✣✧✥ ✍✆✑✆✝✠❞✆✍ ✁✞ ✄✁☎✆✝✁✞✆ ✎ ★✖r✬♦✛✣✘✛✥✛✣✭  ❚ ✁✂✄✁✲ ✺ DATES AFRICA EUROPE 6mya-500,000 BP Australopithecus fossils (5.6 mya) Evidence of use of fire (1.4 mya) 500,000-150,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils (195,000 BP) Evidence of use of fire (400,000 BP) 150,000-50,000 BP 50,000-30,000 Homo sapiens fossils (40,000) 30,000-10,000 Paintings in caves/rock shelters (27,500) Paintings in caves/rock shelters (especially France and Spain) 8000-7000 BCE 7000-6000 Domestication of cattle, dogs 6000-5000 Cultivation of wheat and barley (Greece) 5000-4000 4000-3000 Domestication of donkey, cultivation of Use of copper (Crete) millet, use of copper 3000-2000 Plough agriculture, first kingdoms, cities, Domestication of horse (eastern Europe) pyramids, calendar, hieroglyphic script*, writing on papyrus (Egypt) 2000-1900 Cities, palaces, use of bronze, the potter’s wheel, development of trade (Crete) 1900-1800 1800-1700 1700-1600 Development of a script (Crete)* 1600-1500 1500-1400 Use of glass bottles (Egypt) 1400-1300 1300-1200 1200-1100 1100-1000 Use of iron 1000-900 900-800 City of Carthage established in North Africa by the Phoenicians from West Asia; growing trade around the Mediterranean 800-700 Use of iron (Sudan) First Olympic games (Greece, 776 BCE) 700-600 Use of iron (Egypt) 600-500 Use of coins* (Greece);establishment of the Roman republic (510 BCE) 500-400 Persians invade Egypt Establishment of a ‘democracy’ in Athens (Greece) 400-300 Establishment of Alexandria, Egypt (332 Alexander of Macedonia conquers Egypt BCE ), which becomes a major centre of and parts of West Asia (336-323 BCE) learning 300-200 200-100 100-1 BCE  ✻ ❚❍ ✁ ✂ ✄ ✥❖☎✆✝ ✞✂✟❖☎✠ DATES ASIA SOUTH ASIA 6mya-500,000 BP Evidence of use of fire (700,000 BP, Stone age site in Riwat (1,900,000 BP, China) Pakistan) 500,000-150,000 BP 150,000-50,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils (100,000 BP, West Asia) 50,000-30,000 BP 30,000-10,000 BP Domestication of dog (14,000, West Asia) Cave paintings at Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh); Homo sapiens fossils (25,500 BP , Sri Lanka) 8000-7000 BCE Domestication of sheep and goat, cultivation of wheat and barley (West Asia) 7000-6000 Domestication of pig and cattle (West Early agricultural settlements (Baluchistan) and East Asia) 6000-5000 Domestication of chicken, cultivation of millet and yam (East Asia) 5000-4000 Cultivation of cotton (South Asia); use of copper (West Asia) 4000-3000 Use of the potter’s wheel, wheel for Use of copper transport (3600 BCE), writing (3200 BCE, Mesopotamia), bronze 3000-2000 Plough agriculture, cities (Mesopotamia); silk- Cities of the Harappan civilisation, use of making (China); domestication of the horse script* (c.2700 BCE) (Central Asia); cultivation of rice (Southeast Asia) 2000-1900 Domestication of water-buffalo (East Asia) 1900-1800 1800-1700 1700-1600 1600-1500 Cities, writing, kingdoms (Shang dynasty), use of bronze (China)* 1500-1400 Use of iron (West Asia) Composition of the Rgveda 1400-1300 1300-1200 1200-1100 Use of iron, megaliths (Deccan and South India) 1100-1000 Domestication of the one-humped camel (Arabia) 1000-900 900-800 800-700 700-600 600-500 Use of coins (Turkey); Persian empire (546 Cities and states in several areas, first BCE ) with capital at Persepolis; Chinese coins, spread of Jainism and Buddhism philosopher Confucius (c. 551 BCE) 500-400 400-300 Establishment of the Mauryan empire (c. 321 BCE) 300-200 Establishment of an empire in China (221 BCE ), beginning of the construction of the Great Wall 200-100 100-1 BCE  ✁✒✓✔✕✓✲ ✼ DATES AMERICAS AUSTRALIA / PACIFIC ISLANDS 6mya-500,000 BP 500,000-150,000 BP 150,000-50,000 BP 50,000-30,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils, earliest indications of sea-faring (45,000 BP) 30,000-10,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils (12,000 BP) Paintings (20,000 BP) 8000-7000 BCE 7000-6000 Cultivation of squash 6000-5000 5000-4000 Cultivation of beans ❆ ✁✂✄✂✁☎ 4000-3000 Cultivation of cotton, bottle gourd ❈✆✆✝✞ ✆✟✞ ✠✡☛✞ 3000-2000 Domestication of guinea pig, turkey, ❢☞✆✌ ✞✡✍❈ ✆❢ ☛❈✞ cultivation of maize ✻ ✍✆✎✏✌✟✝ ✡✟✠ ✠❞✝✍✏✝✝ ☛❈✞ 2000-1900 Cultivation of potato, chilli * , cassava, ♣✆✝✝❞✑✎✞ peanut, domestication of llama* and alpaca ✝❞s✟❞❢❞✍✡✟✍✞ ✆❢ ☛❈✞ ♣☞✆✍✞✝✝t 1900-1800 ✞❡✞✟☛ ❢✆☞ ✌✞✟ 1800-1700 ✡✟✠ ❛✆✌✞✟ ✎❞❡❞✟s ❞✟ ☛❈✞ 1700-1600 ☞✞s❞✆✟r 1600-1500 1500-1400 1400-1300 1300-1200 1200-1100 Olmec settlements around the Gulf of Settlements in Polynesia and Micronesia Mexico, early temples and sculpture 1100-1000 1000-900 Development of a hieroglyphic script 900-800 800-700 700-600 600-500 500-400 400-300 300-200 200-100 100-1 BCE  THEME 1 FROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME ❚ ✁✂ ✥✄☎✆✝✞✟ ✝✟☎✥✞✠ ✝✄✞ ✡✞☛☞✌✌☞✌☛ ✍✎ ✄✏✑☎✌ ✞✒☞✠✝✞✌✥✞✓ ✁✝ ✔☎✠ ✺✓✕ ✑☞✖✖☞✍✌ ✗✞☎✟✠ ☎☛✍ ✘✔✟☞✝✝✞✌ ☎✠ ✑✗☎✙ ✝✄☎✝ ✝✄✞ ✎☞✟✠✝ ✄✏✑☎✌✚ ✖☞❧✞ ✥✟✞☎✝✏✟✞✠ ☎✆✆✞☎✟✞✛ ✍✌ ✝✄✞ ✞☎✟✝✄✜✠ ✠✏✟✎☎✥✞✓ ✢✎✝✞✟ ✝✄☞✠✣ ✠✞s✞✟☎✖ ✎✍✟✑✠ ✍✎ ✄✏✑☎✌✠ ✞✑✞✟☛✞✛ ☎✌✛ ✝✄✞✌ ✡✞✥☎✑✞ ✞✒✝☞✌✥✝✓ ✏✑☎✌ ✡✞☞✌☛✠ ✟✞✠✞✑✡✖☞✌☛ ✏✠ ✘✄✞✌✥✞✎✍✟✝✄ ✟✞✎✞✟✟✞✛ ✝✍ ☎✠ ✜✑✍✛✞✟✌ ✄✏✑☎✌✠✜✙ ✍✟☞☛☞✌☎✝✞✛ ☎✡✍✏✝ ♥✕✤✣✤✤✤ ✗✞☎✟✠ ☎☛✍✓ ✦✏✟☞✌☛ ✝✄☞✠ ✖✍✌☛ ✆✞✟☞✍✛ ✍✎ ✄✏✑☎✌ ✄☞✠✝✍✟✗✣ ✆✞✍✆✖✞ ✍✡✝☎☞✌✞✛ ✎✍✍✛ ✡✗ ✞☞✝✄✞✟ ✠✥☎s✞✌☛☞✌☛ ✍✟ ✄✏✌✝☞✌☛ ☎✌☞✑☎✖✠ ☎✌✛ ☛☎✝✄✞✟☞✌☛ ✆✖☎✌✝ ✆✟✍✛✏✥✞✓ ❚✄✞✗ ☎✖✠✍ ✖✞☎✟✌✝ ✄✍✔ ✝✍ ✑☎❧✞ ✠✝✍✌✞ ✝✍✍✖✠ ☎✌✛ ✝✍ ✥✍✑✑✏✌☞✥☎✝✞ ✔☞✝✄ ✞☎✥✄ ✍✝✄✞✟✓ ✢✖✝✄✍✏☛✄ ✍✝✄✞✟ ✔☎✗✠ ✍✎ ✍✡✝☎☞✌☞✌☛ ✎✍✍✛ ✔✞✟✞ ☎✛✍✆✝✞✛ ✖☎✝✞✟✣ ✄✏✌✝☞✌☛✚☛☎✝✄✞✟☞✌☛ ✥✍✌✝☞✌✏✞✛✓ ❤s✞✌ ✝✍✛☎✗ ✝✄✞✟✞ ☎✟✞ ✄✏✌✝✞✟✚ ☛☎✝✄✞✟✞✟ ✠✍✥☞✞✝☞✞✠ ☞✌ ✠✍✑✞ ✆☎✟✝✠ ✍✎ ✝✄✞ ✔✍✟✖✛✓ ❚✄☞✠ ✑☎❧✞✠ ✏✠ ✔✍✌✛✞✟ ✔✄✞✝✄✞✟ ✝✄✞ ✖☞✎✞✠✝✗✖✞✠ ✍✎ ✆✟✞✠✞✌✝✚✛☎✗ ✄✏✌✝✞✟✚☛☎✝✄✞✟✞✟✠ ✥☎✌ ✝✞✖✖ ✏✠ ☎✌✗✝✄☞✌☛ ☎✡✍✏✝ ✝✄✞ ✆☎✠✝✓ ❉✧★✩✪✫✬✭✧✬★ ✪✮ ✯✰✱✲✳ ✮✪★★✧✴★✵ ★✶✪✳✬ ✶✪✪✴★ ✲✳✷ ✩✲✫✬ ✸✲✧✳✶✧✳✹★ Fossils are the ✯✬✴✸ ✰★ ✶✪ ✰✳✷✬✭★✶✲✳✷ ✬✲✭✴✻ ✯✰✱✲✳ ✯✧★✶✪✭✻✼ ✽✲✩✯ ✪✮ ✶✯✬★✬ remains or ✷✧★✩✪✫✬✭✧✬★ ✯✲★ ✲ ✯✧★✶✪✭✻ ✪✮ ✧✶★ ✪❞✳✼ ✾✬✭✻ ✪✮✶✬✳✵ ❞✯✬✳ ★✰✩✯ impressions of a ✮✧✳✷★ ❞✬✭✬ ✮✧✭★✶ ✱✲✷✬✵ ✱✪★✶ ★✩✯✪✴✲✭★ ✭✬✮✰★✬✷ ✶✪ ✲✩✩✬✸✶ ✶✯✲✶ very old plant, ✶✯✬★✬ ✮✪★★✧✴★ ❞✬✭✬ ✶✯✬ ✭✬✱✲✧✳★ ✪✮ ✬✲✭✴✻ ✯✰✱✲✳★✼ t✯✬✻ ❞✬✭✬ animal or human ✲✴★✪ ★✩✬✸✶✧✩✲✴ ✲❛✪✰✶ ✶✯✬ ✲❛✧✴✧✶✻ ✪✮ ✬✲✭✴✻ ✯✰✱✲✳★ ✶✪ ✱✲✿✬ ★✶✪✳✬ which have turned ✶✪✪✴★ ✪✭ ✸✲✧✳✶✼ ❀✶ ❞✲★ ✪✳✴✻ ✪✫✬✭ ✲ ✸✬✭✧✪✷ ✪✮ ✶✧✱✬ ✶✯✲✶ ✶✯✬ ✶✭✰✬ into stone. These ★✧✹✳✧✮✧✩✲✳✩✬ ✪✮ ✶✯✬★✬ ✮✧✳✷★ ❞✲★ ✭✬✲✴✧★✬✷✼ are often embedded t✯✬ ✬✫✧✷✬✳✩✬ ✮✪✭ ✯✰✱✲✳ ✬✫✪✴✰✶✧✪✳ ✩✪✱✬★ ✮✭✪✱ ✮✪★★✧✴★ ✪✮ in rock, and are ★✸✬✩✧✬★ ✪✮ ✯✰✱✲✳★ ❞✯✧✩✯ ✯✲✫✬ ❛✬✩✪✱✬ ✬❁✶✧✳✩✶✼ ❂✪★★✧✴★ ✩✲✳ thus preserved for ❛✬ ✷✲✶✬✷ ✬✧✶✯✬✭ ✶✯✭✪✰✹✯ ✷✧✭✬✩✶ ✩✯✬✱✧✩✲✴ ✲✳✲✴✻★✧★ ✪✭ ✧✳✷✧✭✬✩✶✴✻ millions of years. ❛✻ ✷✲✶✧✳✹ ✶✯✬ ★✬✷✧✱✬✳✶★ ✧✳ ❞✯✧✩✯ ✶✯✬✻ ✲✭✬ ❛✰✭✧✬✷✼ ❜✳✩✬ ✮✪★★✧✴★ ✲✭✬ ✷✲✶✬✷✵ ✲ ★✬❃✰✬✳✩✬ ✪✮ ✯✰✱✲✳ ✬✫✪✴✰✶✧✪✳ ✩✲✳ ❛✬ ❞✪✭✿✬✷ ✪✰✶✼ ❲✯✬✳ ★✰✩✯ ✷✧★✩✪✫✬✭✧✬★ ❞✬✭✬ ✮✧✭★✶ ✱✲✷✬✵ ✲❛✪✰✶ ❄❅❅ ✻✬✲✭★ Species is a group ✲✹✪✵ ✱✲✳✻ ★✩✯✪✴✲✭★ ❞✬✭✬ ✪✮✶✬✳ ✭✬✴✰✩✶✲✳✶ ✶✪ ✲✩✩✬✸✶ ✶✯✲✶ ✮✪★★✧✴★ of organisms that ✲✳✷ ✪✶✯✬✭ ✮✧✳✷★ ✧✳✩✴✰✷✧✳✹ ★✶✪✳✬ ✶✪✪✴★ ✲✳✷ ✸✲✧✳✶✧✳✹★ ❞✬✭✬ can breed to ✲✩✶✰✲✴✴✻ ✩✪✳✳✬✩✶✬✷ ❞✧✶✯ ✬✲✭✴✻ ✮✪✭✱★ ✪✮ ✯✰✱✲✳★✼ t✯✧★ produce fertile ✭✬✴✰✩✶✲✳✩✬ ✹✬✳✬✭✲✴✴✻ ★✶✬✱✱✬✷ ✮✭✪✱ ✶✯✬✧✭ ❛✬✴✧✬✮ ✧✳ ✶✯✬ ❜✴✷ offspring. Members t✬★✶✲✱✬✳✶ ✪✮ ✶✯✬ ❆✧❛✴✬✵ ✲✩✩✪✭✷✧✳✹ ✶✪ ❞✯✧✩✯ ✯✰✱✲✳ ✪✭✧✹✧✳ ❞✲★ of one species ✭✬✹✲✭✷✬✷ ✲★ ✲✳ ✲✩✶ ✪✮ r✭✬✲✶✧✪✳ ❛✻ ❇✪✷✼ ❂✪✭ ✧✳★✶✲✳✩✬✵ ✧✳ ❋✰✹✰★✶ ❈❊❍✵ ❞✪✭✿✱✬✳ ❞✯✪ ❞✬✭✬ ❃✰✲✭✭✻✧✳✹ cannot mate with ✮✪✭ ✴✧✱✬★✶✪✳✬ ✧✳ ✶✯✬ ❢✬✲✳✷✬✭ ✫✲✴✴✬✻ ★✬✬ ❏✲✸ ❄✵ ✸✼ ❈❊❑✵ ✲ ✹✪✭✹✬ those of other ✳✬✲✭ ✶✯✬ ❇✬✭✱✲✳ ✩✧✶✻ ✪✮ ❉✰★★✬✴✷✪✭✮✵ ✮✪✰✳✷ ✲ ★✿✰✴✴ ✲✳✷ ★✪✱✬ species to produce ★✿✬✴✬✶✲✴ ✮✭✲✹✱✬✳✶★✼ t✯✬★✬ ❞✬✭✬ ✯✲✳✷✬✷ ✪✫✬✭ ✶✪ r✲✭✴ ❂✰✯✴✭✪✶✶✵ fertile offspring. ✲ ✴✪✩✲✴ ★✩✯✪✪✴✱✲★✶✬✭ ✲✳✷ ✳✲✶✰✭✲✴ ✯✧★✶✪✭✧✲✳✵ ❞✯✪ ✭✬✲✴✧★✬✷ ✶✯✲✶  ❚✇①② ③④⑤ ❛⑤⑥⑦⑧⑧⑦⑧⑥ ①⑨ ✕⑦②⑤ ✾ t ✁✂ ✄☎✄ ✆✝t ✞✁✟✝✆✠ t✝ ✡ ☛✝✄✁☞✆ ♥☛✡✆✌ ✍✁ t ✁✆ ☛✡✄✁ ✡ ♣✟✡✎t✁☞ ✏✡✎t ✝✑ t ✁ ✎✒♥✟✟ ✡✆✄ ✎✁✆t ☎t t✝ ✍✁☞☛✡✆ ♠✏ ✡✡✑✑ ✡♥✎✁✆❢ ✡ ♣☞✝✑✁✎✎✝☞ ✝✑ ✡✆✡t✝☛✂ ✡t ❛✝✆✆ ✓✆☎✔✁☞✎☎t✂✌ ✕ ✁ ✑✝✟✟✝✖☎✆✠ ✂✁✡☞ t ✁✂ ✗✝☎✆t✟✂ ♣♥✞✟☎✎ ✁✄ ✡ ♣✡♣✁☞❢ ✏✟✡☎☛☎✆✠ t ✡t t ☎✎ ✎✒♥✟✟ ☞✁♣☞✁✎✁✆t✁✄ ✡ ✑✝☞☛ ✝✑ ♥☛✡✆ t ✡t ✖✡✎ ✁✘t☎✆✏t✌ ✙t t ✡t t☎☛✁❢ ✎✏ ✝✟✡☞✎ ✄☎✄ ✆✝t ✡✏✏✁♣t t ☎✎ ✔☎✁✖ ✡✆✄ ☎✆✎t✁✡✄ ✄✁✏✟✡☞✁✄ t ✡t t ✁ ✎✒♥✟✟ ✞✁✟✝✆✠✁✄ t✝ ✡ ♣✁☞✎✝✆ ✝✑ ☛✝☞✁ ☞✁✏✁✆t t☎☛✁✎✌ ❘▲✤▼◆▲❘P✛◗ ❚▼♠♠P❯♠ ❱ ❲❳❨❩❬❭❳❪❨❩❫ ❲❴❵❜❝❬❬❞ ❣❤❝ ❲❴❝❜❨❬❝ ❥❵❜❳❭❨❵❩ ❵❦ ❦❨❩❧❬ ❨❬ ❨q❲❵❴❭❳❩❭ ❦❵❴ ❧❳❭❨❩❫❞ ❙✴✵✶✸ ✹✴✺ ✺✻✼✽✿❀✺❁✹ ✼✸✺❂ ✹✵ ❃✺❄✵❃❂ ✹✴✺ ❅✵❄❆✹✽✵❁ ✵❇ ❇✽❁❂✸❈ ❉✴✺ ❙✴✵✶✸ ✴✵✶ ❆ ❇✵✸✸✽❅ ❇❃❆s❀✺❁✹ ✽✸ ✸✻✼❆❃✺ ❇❃❆❀✺ ✹✵ ✹✴✺ ❅✺❇✹ ✵❇ ✹✴✺ ❆❃❄✴❆✺✵❅✵s✽✸✹ ✽✸ ❆ s❃✽❂ ❂✽❊✽❂✺❂ ❃✺❄✵❊✺❃✺❂ ❇❃✵❀ ✹✴✺ ✸✼❃❃✵✼❁❂✽❁s ✽❁✹✵ ✐❋ ❄❀ ✸✻✼❆❃✺✸❈ ❅❆❄✽❁s ✽✹ ✵❊✺❃ ✹✴✺ ❇✽❁❂ ✸✿✵✹ ✴✺❅✿✸ ✹✵ ✸✹✵❁✺❍ ✽❁ ✹✴✽✸ ❄❆✸✺ ❆ ❊❆❃✽✺✹ ✵❇ ❃✺❄✵❃❂ ✹✴✺ ✴✵❃✽r✵❁✹❆❅ ✿✵✸✽✹✽✵❁ ✵❇ ✹✴✺ ❇✽❁❂❈ ❉✴✺ ✹❃✽❆❁s✼❅❆❃ ❅✽❀✺✸✹✵❁✺❍ ✽❁ ✶✴✽❄✴ ✽✹ ✽✸ ❆✿✿❆❃❆✹✼✸ ✹✵ ✹✴✺ ❃✽s✴✹ ✽✸ ✼✸✺❂ ✹✵ ❃✺❄✵❃❂ ✹✴✺ ❊✺❃✹✽❄❆❅ ✿✵✸✽✹✽✵❁❈ ✺❀❡✺❂❂✺❂❈ ❏✸ ✵✼ ❄❆❁ ✸✺✺❍ ✹✴✽✸ ❃✺✻✼✽❃✺✸ ✸❑✽❅❅ ❆❁❂ ✿❆✹✽✺❁❄✺❈ ✙✤✕P◆P✕⑩ ✜ ✷✚ ✛✝✔✁☛✞✁☞ ✜✢✣✾❢ ✖ ✁✆ ✤ ✡☞✟✁✎ ✥✡☞✖☎✆✦✎ ❖✧ ★✩✪ ❖✫✬✭✬✧ ♦✮ ✯✰✪✱✬✪✲ ✖✡✎ ♣♥✞✟☎✎ ✁✄❢ ☛✡☞✒✁✄ ✡ ✟✡✆✄☛✡☞✒ ☎✆ t ✁ ✎t♥✄✂ ❶✝✎t ☞✁✟☎✠☎✝✆✎ ✝✑ ✁✔✝✟♥t☎✝✆✌ ✙✟✟ ✜❢✷✣✳ ✏✝♣☎✁✎ ✝✑ t ✁ ✑☎☞✎t ♣☞☎✆t ✖✁☞✁ ✎✝✟✄ ✝♥t ✡✔✁ ✎t✝☞☎✁✎ t ✁ ✎✡☛✁ ✄✡✂✌ ✥✡☞✖☎✆ ✡☞✠♥✁✄ t ✡t ♥☛✡✆✎ ✡✄ ✁✔✝✟✔✁✄ ✑☞✝☛ ✡✞✝♥t t ✁ ✡✆☎☛✡✟✎ ✡ ✟✝✆✠ t☎☛✁ ✡✠✝✌ ✏☞✁✡t☎✝✆ ✝✑ ♥☛✡✆ ✞✁☎✆✠✎ ✖ ☎✏ ✝✑t✁✆ ✄✝ ✆✝t ✏✝☞☞✁✎♣✝✆✄ ✖☎t ✎✏☎✁✆t☎✑☎✏ ✄☎✎✏✝✔✁☞☎✁✎✌ ❚☎✆✄ ✝♥t ✡✞✝♥t ✎✝☛✁ ✝✑ t ✁✎✁ ✡✆✄ ✏✝☛♣✡☞✁ t ✁☛ ✖☎t t ✁ ☎✎t✝☞✂ ✝✑ ❉✴✺ ✸❑✼❅❅ ✵❇ ✉✺❆❁❂✺❃✹✴❆❅ ❀❆❁❈ ❙✵❀✺ ♥☛✡✆ ✁✔✝✟♥t☎✝✆ ✵❇ ✹✴✵✸✺ ✶✴✵ ❂✽✸❀✽✸✸✺❂ ✹✴✺ ❆❁✹✽✻✼✽✹ ✡✎ ✄☎✎✏♥✎✎✁✄ ☎✆ ✵❇ ✹✴✺ ✸❑✼❅❅ ❃✺s❆❃❂✺❂ ✽✹ ❆✸ ✈❡❃✼✹✽✸✴✈ ✵❃ t ☎✎ ✏ ✡♣t✁☞✌ ✹✴❆✹ ✵❇ ❆ ✈✿❆✹✴✵❅✵s✽❄❆❅ ✽❂✽✵✹✈❈  ✶ ❚❍✁✂✁✄ ☎ ✥❖✆✝✞ ✟✄✠❖✆✡ The Story of Human Evolution (a) The Precursors of Modern Human Beings Look at these four skulls. A belongs to an ape. B belongs to a species known as Australopithecus (see below). C belongs to a species known as Homo erectus (literally ‘upright man’). A D belongs to a species known as Homo sapiens (literally ‘thinking/wise man’} to which all present-day human beings belong. List as many similarities and differences that you notice, looking carefully at the brain case, jaws and teeth. B ☛☞✌ ✍✎✏✏✌❡✌✑✒✌✓ ✔☞✕✔ ✖✗✘ ✑✗✔✎✒✌ ✎✑ ✔☞✌ ✓✙✘✚✚✓ ✓☞✗✛✑ ✎✑ ✔☞✌ ✎✚✚✘✓✔❡✕✔✎✗✑ ✕❡✌ ✓✗❛✌ ✗✏ ✔☞✌ ✒☞✕✑✜✌✓ ✔☞✕✔ ✒✕❛✌ ✕✢✗✘✔ ✕✓ ✕ ❡✌✓✘✚✔ ✗✏ ☞✘❛✕✑ ✌✣✗✚✘✔✎✗✑✤ ☛☞✌ ✓✔✗❡✖ ✗✏ ☞✘❛✕✑ ✌✣✗✚✘✔✎✗✑ ✎✓ ✌✑✗❡❛✗✘✓✚✖ ✚✗✑✜♠ ✕✑✍ ✓✗❛✌✛☞✕✔ ✒✗❛s✚✎✒✕✔✌✍✤ ☛☞✌❡✌ ✕❡✌ ✕✚✓✗ ❛✕✑✖ ✘✑✕✑✓✛✌❡✌✍ ✦✘✌✓✔✎✗✑✓♠ C ✕✑✍ ✑✌✛ ✍✕✔✕ ✗✏✔✌✑ ✚✌✕✍ ✔✗ ✕ ❡✌✣✎✓✎✗✑ ✕✑✍ ❛✗✍✎✏✎✒✕✔✎✗✑ ✗✏ ✌✕❡✚✎✌❡ ✘✑✍✌❡✓✔✕✑✍✎✑✜✓✤ ✉✌✔ ✘✓ ✚✗✗✙ ✕✔ ✓✗❛✌ ✗✏ ✔☞✌ ✍✌✣✌✚✗s❛✌✑✔✓ ✕✑✍ ✔☞✌✎❡ ✎❛s✚✎✒✕✔✎✗✑✓ ❛✗❡✌ ✒✚✗✓✌✚✖✤ ✧✔ ✎✓ s✗✓✓✎✢✚✌ ✔✗ ✔❡✕✒✌ ✔☞✌✓✌ ✍✌✣✌✚✗s❛✌✑✔✓ ✢✕✒✙ ✔✗ ✢✌✔✛✌✌✑ ★✩ ✕✑✍ ✷✪ ❛✖✕✤ ✫✌ ✓✗❛✌✔✎❛✌✓ ✏✎✑✍ ✎✔ ✍✎✏✏✎✒✘✚✔ ✔✗ ✒✗✑✒✌s✔✘✕✚✎✓✌ ✓✘✒☞ ✚✗✑✜ ✓s✕✑✓ ✗✏ ✔✎❛✌✤ ✧✏ ✖✗✘ ✒✗✑✓✎✍✌❡ ✕ s✕✜✌ ✗✏ ✖✗✘❡ ✢✗✗✙ ✔✗ ❡✌s❡✌✓✌✑✔ D ✬✭♠✭✭✭ ✖✌✕❡✓♠ ✎✑ ✎✔✓✌✚✏ ✕ ✣✕✓✔ ✓s✕✑ ✗✏ ✔✎❛✌♠ ✬✭ s✕✜✌✓ ✛✗✘✚✍ ❡✌s❡✌✓✌✑✔ ✬✭✭♠✭✭✭ ✖✌✕❡✓♠ ✕✑✍ ✕ ✬✭✭ s✕✜✌✓ ✛✗✘✚✍ ✌✦✘✕✚ ✬ ❛✎✚✚✎✗✑ ✖✌✕❡✓✤ ☛✗ ✔☞✎✑✙ ✗✏ ★✩ ❛✎✚✚✎✗✑ ✖✌✕❡✓♠ ✖✗✘ ✛✗✘✚✍ ☞✕✣✌ ✔✗ ✎❛✕✜✎✑✌ ✕ ✢✗✗✙ ★♠✩✭✭ s✕✜✌✓ ✚✗✑✜✸ ☛☞✕✔ ✛✕✓ ✛☞✌✑ s❡✎❛✕✔✌✓♠ ✕ ✒✕✔✌✜✗❡✖ ✗✏ ❛✕❛❛✕✚✓♠ ✌❛✌❡✜✌✍ ✎✑ ✮✓✎✕ ✕✑✍ ✮✏❡✎✒✕✤ ✯✘✢✓✌✦✘✌✑✔✚✖♠ ✢✖ ✕✢✗✘✔ ✷✪ ❛✖✕♠ ✔☞✌❡✌ ✌❛✌❡✜✌✍ ✕ ✓✘✢✜❡✗✘s ✕❛✗✑✜✓✔ s❡✎❛✕✔✌✓♠ ✒✕✚✚✌✍ ☞✗❛✎✑✗✎✍✓✤ ☛☞✎✓ Primates ✎✑✒✚✘✍✌✍ ✕s✌✓✤ ✮✑✍♠ ❛✘✒☞ ✚✕✔✌❡♠ ✕✢✗✘✔ ✱✤✩ ❛✖✕♠ ✛✌ ✏✎✑✍ ✌✣✎✍✌✑✒✌ ✗✏ are a subgroup of a ✔☞✌ ✏✎❡✓✔ ☞✗❛✎✑✎✍✓✤ larger group of ✫☞✎✚✌ ☞✗❛✎✑✎✍✓ ☞✕✣✌ ✌✣✗✚✣✌✍ ✏❡✗❛ ☞✗❛✎✑✗✎✍✓ ✕✑✍ ✓☞✕❡✌ ✒✌❡✔✕✎✑ mammals. They ✒✗❛❛✗✑ ✏✌✕✔✘❡✌✓♠ ✔☞✌❡✌ ✕❡✌ ❛✕✰✗❡ ✍✎✏✏✌❡✌✑✒✌✓ ✕✓ ✛✌✚✚✤ ✲✗❛✎✑✗✎✍✓ ☞✕✣✌ include monkeys, ✕ ✓❛✕✚✚✌❡ ✢❡✕✎✑ ✔☞✕✑ ☞✗❛✎✑✎✍✓✤ ☛☞✌✖ ✕❡✌ ✦✘✕✍❡✘s✌✍✓♠ ✛✕✚✙✎✑✜ ✗✑ ✕✚✚ apes and humans. ✏✗✘❡✓♠ ✢✘✔ ✛✎✔☞ ✏✚✌❢✎✢✚✌ ✏✗❡✌✚✎❛✢✓✤ ✲✗❛✎✑✎✍✓♠ ✢✖ ✒✗✑✔❡✕✓✔♠ ☞✕✣✌ ✕✑ They have body ✘s❡✎✜☞✔ s✗✓✔✘❡✌ ✕✑✍ ✢✎s✌✍✕✚ ✚✗✒✗❛✗✔✎✗✑ ✳✛✕✚✙✎✑✜ ✗✑ ✔✛✗ ✏✌✌✔✴✤ ☛☞✌❡✌ hair, a relatively ✕❡✌ ✕✚✓✗ ❛✕❡✙✌✍ ✍✎✏✏✌❡✌✑✒✌✓ ✎✑ ✔☞✌ ☞✕✑✍♠ ✛☞✎✒☞ ✌✑✕✢✚✌✓ ✔☞✌ ❛✕✙✎✑✜ long gestation ✕✑✍ ✘✓✌ ✗✏ ✔✗✗✚✓✤ ✫✌ ✛✎✚✚ ✌❢✕❛✎✑✌ ✔☞✌ ✙✎✑✍✓ ✗✏ ✔✗✗✚✓ ❛✕✍✌ ✕✑✍ ✔☞✌✎❡ period following ✓✎✜✑✎✏✎✒✕✑✒✌ ❛✗❡✌ ✒✚✗✓✌✚✖ ✚✕✔✌❡✤ birth, mammary ☛✛✗ ✚✎✑✌✓ ✗✏ ✌✣✎✍✌✑✒✌ ✓✘✜✜✌✓✔ ✕✑ ✮✏❡✎✒✕✑ ✗❡✎✜✎✑ ✏✗❡ ☞✗❛✎✑✎✍✓✤ ✵✎❡✓✔♠ glands, different ✎✔ ✎✓ ✔☞✌ ✜❡✗✘s ✗✏ ✮✏❡✎✒✕✑ ✕s✌✓ ✔☞✕✔ ✕❡✌ ❛✗✓✔ ✒✚✗✓✌✚✖ ❡✌✚✕✔✌✍ ✔✗ ☞✗❛✎✑✎✍✓✤ types of teeth, and ✯✌✒✗✑✍♠ ✔☞✌ ✌✕❡✚✎✌✓✔ ☞✗❛✎✑✎✍ ✏✗✓✓✎✚✓♠ ✛☞✎✒☞ ✢✌✚✗✑✜ ✔✗ ✔☞✌ ✜✌✑✘✓ the ability to ❆✹✺✻✼✽✾✿❀❁✻❂❃❄✹✺❅ ☞✕✣✌ ✢✌✌✑ ✏✗✘✑✍ ✎✑ ❇✕✓✔ ✮✏❡✎✒✕ ✕✑✍ ✍✕✔✌ ✢✕✒✙ ✔✗ maintain a constant ✕✢✗✘✔ ✱✤✩ ❛✖✕✤ ✧✑ ✒✗✑✔❡✕✓✔♠ ✏✗✓✓✎✚✓ ✏✗✘✑✍ ✗✘✔✓✎✍✌ ✮✏❡✎✒✕ ✕❡✌ ✑✗ ✗✚✍✌❡ body temperature. ✔☞✕✑ ✬✤t ❛✎✚✚✎✗✑ ✖✌✕❡✓✤  ◗❙❯❲ ❳❨❩ ❬❩❭❪❫❫❪❫❭ ❴❵ ❳❪❲❩ ✶✶ THE EVOLUTION OF THE HAND A A shows the precision grip of the chimpanzee. B B shows the power grip of the human hand. C shows the precision grip of the hominid. The development of the power grip probably preceded the precision grip. Compare the precision grip of the chimpanzee with that of the human hand. Make a list of the things you do using a precision grip. What are the things you do using a power grip? C ❍ ✁✂✄✂☎✆ ✝✞✟ ✄✠ ✡ ☛ ☞☛✁✂✟✌ ✍✄ ✎✄ ☛✆ ❍ ✁✂✄✂☎☛✞✏ ✎✑✂✒✑ ✂✄✒✟✓☎✞✆ ☛✟✟ ☞ ❛✁✆ ☞ ✑✓✁☛✄ ✝✞✂✄✠✆♠ ✔✑✞ ☎✂✆✡✂✄✒✡✂✕✞ ✒✑☛❛☛✒✡✞❛✂✆✡✂✒✆ ☞ ✑ ✁✂✄✂☎✆ ✂✄✒✟✓☎✞ ☛ ✟☛❛✠✞ ✝❛☛✂✄ ✆✂✐✞✏ ✓✖❛✂✠✑✡ ✖ ✆✡✓❛✞✏ ✝✂✖✞☎☛✟ ✟ ✒ ✁ ✡✂ ✄ ☛✄☎ ✆✖✞✒✂☛✟✂✆☛✡✂ ✄ ☞ ✡✑✞ ✑☛✄☎♠ ❍ ✁✂✄✂☎✆ ☛❛✞ ☞✓❛✡✑✞❛ ✆✓✝☎✂✕✂☎✞☎ ✂✄✡ ✝❛☛✄✒✑✞✆✏ ✍✄ ✎✄ ☛✆ ✠✞✄✓✆✏ ☞ ✎✑✂✒✑ ❆✗✘✙✚✛✜✢✣✤✙✥✦✧✗✘ ☛✄☎ ★✢✩✢ ☛❛✞ ✂✁✖ ❛✡☛✄✡♠ ✪☛✒✑ ☞ ✡✑✞✆✞ ✂✄ ✡✓❛✄ ✂✄✒✟✓☎✞✆ ✆✞✕✞❛☛✟ ✆✖✞✒✂✞✆♠ ✔✑✞ ✁☛♥ ❛ ☎✂☞☞✞❛✞✄✒✞✆ ✝✞✡✎✞✞✄ ❆✗✘✙✚✛✜✢✣✤✙✥✦✧✗✘ ☛✄☎ ★✢✩✢ ❛✞✟☛✡✞ ✡ ✝❛☛✂✄ ✆✂✐✞✏ ♥☛✎✆ ☛✄☎ ✡✞✞✡✑♠ Hominoids are ✔✑✞ ☞ ❛✁✞❛ ✑☛✆ ☛ ✆✁☛✟✟✞❛ ✝❛☛✂✄ ✆✂✐✞✏ ✑✞☛✕✂✞❛ ♥☛✎✆ ☛✄☎ ✟☛❛✠✞❛ ✡✞✞✡✑ ✡✑☛✄ different from ✡✑✞ ✟☛✡✡✞❛♠ monkeys in a ❱✂❛✡✓☛✟✟✌ ☛✟✟ ✡✑✞ ✄☛✁✞✆ ✠✂✕✞✄ ✝✌ ✆✒✂✞✄✡✂✆✡✆ ✡ ✆✖✞✒✂✞✆ ☛❛✞ ☎✞❛✂✕✞☎ number of ways. ☞❛ ✁ ❢☛✡✂✄ ☛✄☎ ✫❛✞✞✍ ✎ ❛☎✆♠ ✬ ❛ ✂✄✆✡☛✄✒✞✏ ✡✑✞ ✄☛✁✞ ❆✗✘✙✚✛✜✢✣✤✙✥✦✧✗✘ They have a larger ✒ ✁✞✆ ☞❛ ✁ ☛ ❢☛✡✂✄ ✎ ❛☎✏ ➅✛✗✘✙✚✛✜✭✮ ✁✞☛✄✂✄✠ ✯✆ ✓✡✑✞❛✄✰ ☛✄☎ ☛ ✫❛✞✞✍ body and do not ✎ ❛☎✏ ➅✣✤✙✥✦✱✢✘✭✮ ✁✞☛✄✂✄✠ ✯☛✖✞♠✰ ✔✑✞ ✄☛✁✞ ✎☛✆ ✠✂✕✞✄ ✝✞✒☛✓✆✞ ✡✑✂✆ ✞☛❛✟✂✞✆✡ have a tail. ☞ ❛✁ ☞ ✑✓✁☛✄✆ ✆✡✂✟✟ ❛✞✡☛✂✄✞☎ ✁☛✄✌ ☞✞☛✡✓❛✞✆ ☞ ☛✄ ☛✖✞✏ ✆✓✒✑ ☛✆ ☛ Besides, there is a ❛✞✟☛✡✂✕✞✟✌ ✆✁☛✟✟ ✝❛☛✂✄ ✆✂✐✞ ✂✄ ✒ ✁✖☛❛✂✆ ✄ ✡ ★✢✩✢✮ ✟☛❛✠✞ ✝☛✒✍ ✡✞✞✡✑ ☛✄☎ longer period of ✟✂✁✂✡✞☎ ☎✞❧✡✞❛✂✡✌ ☞ ✡✑✞ ✑☛✄☎✆♠ ✲✖❛✂✠✑✡ ✎☛✟✍✂✄✠ ✎☛✆ ☛✟✆ ❛✞✆✡❛✂✒✡✞☎✏ ☛✆ infant development ✡✑✞✌ ✆✡✂✟✟ ✆✖✞✄✡ ☛ ✟ ✡ ☞ ✡✂✁✞ ✄ ✡❛✞✞✆♠ ✔✑✞✌ ❛✞✡☛✂✄✞☎ ✒✑☛❛☛✒✡✞❛✂✆✡✂✒✆ and dependency amongst hominoids. ❚✳✴✵ ✴✵ ✷ ✸✴✹✺ ✻✼ ✽✳✹ ❖✾✿❀✸✷✴ ❁✻❂❃✹ ✴❄ ✽✳✹ ❘✴✼✽ ❅✷✾✾✹❇❈ ❉✷✵✽ ❊✼❂✴❋✷ ✵✹✹ ✷❏ ❑▲❈ ❏▼❑◆P❈ ✻❄✹ ✻✼ ✽✳✹ ✷❂✹✷✵ ✼❂✻♦ ✺✳✴❋✳ ✽❂✷❋✹✵ ✻✼ ✹✷❂✾❇ ✳❀♦✷❄ ✳✴✵✽✻❂❇ ✳✷✸✹ ▲✹✹❄ ❂✹❋✻✸✹❂✹✿▼ ❜✻✽✴❋✹ ✽✳✹ ✿✴✼✼✹❂✹❄✽ ✾✹✸✹✾✵ ✻✼ ✹✷❂✽✳ ✷✽ ✽✳✹ ❋✹❄✽❂✹ ✻✼ ✽✳✹ ❏✳✻✽✻❃❂✷❏✳▼ ❉✷❋✳ ✻✼ ✽✳✹✵✹ ❂✹❏❂✹✵✹❄✽✵ ✷ ✿✴✵✽✴❄❋✽ ❃✹✻✾✻❃✴❋✷✾ ❏✳✷✵✹▼  ✶ ❚❍✁✂✁✄ ☎ ✥❖✆✝✞ ✟✄✠❖✆✡ ✭☛☞✌✍ ✎☛ ✏✑✒✓ ✔✑✕✖✏✗✘✙☛✚ ✌☞✕✛✖✜ ✍✎✒✜ ✎✒✜ ✔✑✑✢ ✙✑✒✖☛ ✎✒✜ ✘✑✙✗✏✖ ✎✒✣✏✖ ❥✑✗✒✢☛✤ ☛☞✗✢✖✜ ✢✑ ✏✗✔✖ ✑✒ ✢✕✖✖☛✦ ✧✛✖✕ ✢✗✘✖✚ ✎☛ ✢✑✑✏ ✘✎✣✗✒✓ ✎✒✜ ✏✑✒✓★ ✜✗☛✢✎✒✌✖ ❞✎✏✣✗✒✓ ✗✒✌✕✖✎☛✖✜✚ ✘✎✒✩ ✍☞✘✎✒ ✌✍✎✕✎✌✢✖✕✗☛✢✗✌☛ ✎✏☛✑ ✜✖✛✖✏✑✪✖✜✦ The Discovery of Australopithecus, Olduvai Gorge, 17 July 1959 The Olduvai Gorge (see p. 14) was first ‘discovered’ in the early twentieth century by a German butterfly collector. However, Olduvai has come to be identified with Mary and Louis Leakey, who worked here for over 40 years. It was Mary Leakey who directed archaeological excavations at Olduvai and Laetoli and she made some of the most exciting discoveries. This is what Louis Leakey wrote about one of their most remarkable finds: ‘That morning I woke with a headache and a slight fever. Reluctantly, I agreed to spend the day in camp.With one of us out of commission, it was even more vital for the other to continue the work, for our precarious seven-week season was running out. So Mary departed for the diggings with Sally and Toots [two of their dogs] in the Land-Rover [a jeep-like vehicle], and I settled back to a restless day off. Some time later – perhaps I dozed off – I heard the Land-Rover coming up fast to camp. I had a momentary vision of Mary stung by one of our hundreds of resident scorpions or bitten by a snake that had slipped past the dogs. The Land-Rover rattled to a stop, and I heard Mary’s voice calling over and over: “I’ve got him! I've got him! I’ve got him!” Still groggy from the headache, I couldn’t make her out. “Got what? Are you hurt?” I asked. “Him, the man! Our man,” Mary said. “The one we’ve been looking for 23 years. Come quick, I’ve found his teeth!” ’ – From ‘Finding the World's Earliest Man’, by L.S.B. Leakey, National Geographic, 118 (September 1960). ✫✍✖ ✕✖✘✎✗✒☛ ✑✔ ✖✎✕✏✩ ✍☞✘✎✒☛ ✍✎✛✖ ✙✖✖✒ ✌✏✎☛☛✗✔✗✖✜ ✗✒✢✑ ✜✗✔✔✖✕✖✒✢ ☛✪✖✌✗✖☛✦ ✫✍✖☛✖ ✎✕✖ ✑✔✢✖✒ ✜✗☛✢✗✒✓☞✗☛✍✖✜ ✔✕✑✘ ✑✒✖ ✎✒✑✢✍✖✕ ✑✒ ✢✍✖ ✙✎☛✗☛ ✑✔ ✜✗✔✔✖✕✖✒✌✖☛ ✗✒ ✙✑✒✖ ☛✢✕☞✌✢☞✕✖✦ ❡✑✕ ✗✒☛✢✎✒✌✖✚ ☛✪✖✌✗✖☛ ✑✔ ✖✎✕✏✩ ✍☞✘✎✒☛ ✎✕✖ ✜✗✔✔✖✕✖✒✢✗✎✢✖✜ ✗✒ ✢✖✕✘☛ ✑✔ ✢✍✖✗✕ ☛✣☞✏✏ ☛✗♠✖ ✎✒✜ ✜✗☛✢✗✒✌✢✗✛✖ ❥✎❞☛ ✭☛✖✖ ✗✏✏☞☛✢✕✎✢✗✑✒ ✑✒ ✪✦✐✬✤✦ ✫✍✖☛✖ ✌✍✎✕✎✌✢✖✕✗☛✢✗✌☛ ✘✎✩ ✍✎✛✖ ✖✛✑✏✛✖✜ ✜☞✖ ✢✑ ❞✍✎✢ ✍✎☛ ✙✖✖✒ ✌✎✏✏✖✜ ✢✍✖ ✪✑☛✗✢✗✛✖ ✔✖✖✜✙✎✌✣ ✘✖✌✍✎✒✗☛✘✦  ❀❘❁❂ ❃❄❅ ❇❅❊❈❉❉❈❉❊ ❃❈❂❅ ✶ ❚✁✂ ✄☎✆✝❚✝✞✂ ✟✂✂✠✡☛☞✌ ✍✂☞✁☛✎✝✆✍ The arrows pointing towards a box indicate the influences that shaped that particular development. The arrows pointing away from a box indicate how developments mentioned in the box influenced other processes. ✟❋✏ ✑✒✓✔✕✖✑✗ ✘✙✕✑✚✓✖✙✛✔ ✑✜✓✘✖✑✚ ✢✓✜✚✛ ✣❋ ✘✑ ✤✏✑✑✚ ✤❋✏ ✥✓✏✏✦✙✜✧ ✙✜✤✓✜✣✛ ❋✏ ❋✘✐✑✥✣✛★ ✝✜ ✣✩✏✜✗ ✓✛ ✢✓✜✚✛ ✱✑✏✑ ✩✛✑✚ ✔❋✏✑ ✓✜✚ ✔❋✏✑✗ ✩✕✏✙✧✢✣ ✱✓✖✇✙✜✧ ✧✏✓✚✩✓✖✖✦ ✘✑✥✓✔✑ ✔❋✏✑ ✑✤✤✙✥✙✑✜✣★ ☛✕✓✏✣ ✤✏❋✔ ✣✢✑ ✓✚♦✓✜✣✓✧✑ ❋✤ ✤✏✑✑✙✜✧ ✢✓✜✚✛ ✤❋✏ ♦✓✏✙❋✩✛ ✩✛✑✛✗ ✤✓✏ ✖✑✛✛ ✑✜✑✏✧✦ ✙✛ ✥❋✜✛✩✔✑✚ ✱✢✙✖✑ ✱✓✖✇✙✜✧ ✓✛ ✥❋✔✕✓✏✑✚ ✣❋ ✣✢✑ ✔❋♦✑✔✑✜✣ ❋✤ ✓ ❡✩✓✚✏✩✕✑✚★ ✁❋✱✑♦✑✏✗ ✣✢✑ ✓✚♦✓✜✣✓✧✑ ✙✜ ✣✑✏✔✛ ❋✤ ✛✓♦✙✜✧ ✑✜✑✏✧✦ ✙✛ ✏✑♦✑✏✛✑✚ ✱✢✙✖✑ ✏✩✜✜✙✜✧★ ❚✢✑✏✑ ✙✛ ✙✜✚✙✏✑✥✣ ✑♦✙✚✑✜✥✑ ❋✤ ✘✙✕✑✚✓✖✙✛✔ ✓✛ ✑✓✏✖✦ ✓✛ ✪★✫ ✔✦✓★ ❚✢✙✛ ✥❋✔✑✛ ✤✏❋✔ ✣✢✑ ✤❋✛✛✙✖✙✛✑✚ ✢❋✔✙✜✙✚ ✤❋❋✣✕✏✙✜✣✛ ✓✣ ❢✓✑✣❋✖✙✗ ❚✓✜✬✓✜✙✓ ✭✛✑✑ ✆✑✥✣✙❋✜ ✥❋♦✑✏✮★ ✟❋✛✛✙✖ ✖✙✔✘ ✘❋✜✑✛ ✏✑✥❋♦✑✏✑✚ ✤✏❋✔ ✁✓✚✓✏✗ ✂✣✢✙❋✕✙✓ ✕✏❋♦✙✚✑ ✔❋✏✑ ✚✙✏✑✥✣ ✑♦✙✚✑✜✥✑ ❋✤ ✘✙✕✑✚✓✖✙✛✔★ ☛✏❋✩✜✚ ❆★✯ ✔✦✓✗ ✱✙✣✢ ✣✢✑ ❋✜✛✑✣ ❋✤ ✓ ✕✢✓✛✑ ❋✤ ✧✖✓✥✙✓✣✙❋✜ ✭❋✏ ✓✜ ✝✥✑ ☛✧✑✮✗ ✱✢✑✜ ✖✓✏✧✑ ✕✓✏✣✛ ❋✤ ✣✢✑ ✑✓✏✣✢ ✱✑✏✑ ✥❋♦✑✏✑✚ ✱✙✣✢ ✛✜❋✱✗ ✣✢✑✏✑ ✱✑✏✑ ✔✓✐❋✏ ✥✢✓✜✧✑✛ ✙✜ ✥✖✙✔✓✣✑ ✓✜✚ ♦✑✧✑✣✓✣✙❋✜★ ✠✩✑ ✣❋ ✣✢✑ ✏✑✚✩✥✣✙❋✜ ✙✜ ✣✑✔✕✑✏✓✣✩✏✑✛ ✓✛ ✱✑✖✖ ✓✛ ✏✓✙✜✤✓✖✖✗ ✧✏✓✛✛✖✓✜✚ ✓✏✑✓✛ ✑✒✕✓✜✚✑✚ ✓✣ ✣✢✑ ✑✒✕✑✜✛✑ ❋✤ ✤❋✏✑✛✣✛✗ ✖✑✓✚✙✜✧ ✣❋ ✣✢✑ ✧✏✓✚✩✓✖ ✑✒✣✙✜✥✣✙❋✜ ❋✤ ✣✢✑ ✑✓✏✖✦ ✤❋✏✔✛ ❋✤ ✰✲✳✴✵✷✸✹✺✻✴✼✽✾✲✳ ✭✣✢✓✣ ✱✑✏✑ ✓✚✓✕✣✑✚ ✣❋ ✤❋✏✑✛✣✛✮ ✓✜✚ ✣✢✑ ✏✑✕✖✓✥✑✔✑✜✣ ✘✦ ✛✕✑✥✙✑✛ ✣✢✓✣ ✱✑✏✑ ✘✑✣✣✑✏ ✓✚✓✕✣✑✚ ✣❋ ✣✢✑ ✚✏✙✑✏ ✥❋✜✚✙✣✙❋✜✛★ ☛✔❋✜✧ ✣✢✑✛✑ ✱✑✏✑ ✣✢✑ ✑✓✏✖✙✑✛✣ ✏✑✕✏✑✛✑✜✣✓✣✙♦✑✛ ❋✤ ✣✢✑ ✧✑✜✩✛ ❍✹✿✹★  ✶ ❚❍✁✂✁✄ ☎ ✥❖✆✝✞ ✟✄✠❖✆✡ ☛☞✌☞ ✍✎ ✏ ✑✏✒✍✓ ✔✕✖✗✘ ✙✚✏✓✍✓✛ ✜✙✏✓✢✘ ✏✣✒✤✕✦✛✤ ✒✤✚✖✚ ✔✚✖✚ ✔✕✙✚✓ ✏✎ ✔✚✣✣❛ ✧★✍✚✓✒✍✎✒✎ ✗✍✎✒✍✓✛✦✍✎✤ ✏✙✕✓✛✎✒ ✎✚✩✚✖✏✣ ✒✪✫✚✎ ✕✬ ☛☞✌☞✳ ✭✤✚ ✓✏✙✚✎ ✏✎✎✍✛✓✚✗ ✒✕ ✒✤✚✎✚ ✎✫✚★✍✚✎ ✏✖✚ ✗✚✖✍✩✚✗ ✬✖✕✙ ✔✤✏✒ ✏✖✚ ✖✚✛✏✖✗✚✗ ✏✎ ✒✤✚✍✖ ✒✪✫✍★✏✣ ★✤✏✖✏★✒✚✖✍✎✒✍★✎✳ ✧✕ ✬✕✎✎✍✣✎ ✏✖✚ ★✣✏✎✎✍✬✍✚✗ ✏✎ ☛☞✌☞ ❤✮✯✰✱✰✲ ✴✒✤✚ ✒✕✕✣ ✙✏✵✚✖✷✘ ☛☞✌☞ ❡✸❡✹✺✻✲ ✴✒✤✚ ✦✫✖✍✛✤✒ ✙✏✓✷✘ ✏✓✗ ☛☞✌☞ ✲✮s✰❡✼✲ ✴✒✤✚ ✔✍✎✚ ✕✖ ✒✤✍✓✵✍✓✛ ✙✏✓✷✳ ❋✕✎✎✍✣✎ ✕✬ ☛☞✌☞ ❤✮✯✰✱✰✲ ✤✏✩✚ ✽✚✚✓ ✗✍✎★✕✩✚✖✚✗ ✏✒ ✾✙✕ ✍✓ ✿✒✤✍✕✫✍✏ ✏✓✗ ✏✒ ✾✣✗✦✩✏✍ ❀✕✖✛✚ ✍✓ ✭✏✓❁✏✓✍✏✳ ✭✤✚ ✚✏✖✣✍✚✎✒ ✬✕✎✎✍✣✎ ✕✬ ☛☞✌☞ ❡✸❡✹✺✻✲ ✤✏✩✚ ✽✚✚✓ ✬✕✦✓✗ ✽✕✒✤ ✍✓ ❂✬✖✍★✏ ✏✓✗ ❂✎✍✏❃ ❄✕✕✽✍ ❋✕✖✏✘ ✏✓✗ ✔✚✎✒ ✭✦✖✵✏✓✏✘ ❄✚✓✪✏✘ ❑✕✗❅✕✵✚✖✒✕ ✏✓✗ ✧✏✓✛✍✖✏✓✘ ❆✏✩✏✳ ❂✎ ✒✤✚ ✬✍✓✗✎ ✍✓ ❂✎✍✏ ✽✚✣✕✓✛ ✒✕ ✏ ✣✏✒✚✖ ✗✏✒✚ ✒✤✏✓ ✒✤✕✎✚ ✍✓ ❂✬✖✍★✏✘ ✍✒ ✍✎ ✣✍✵✚✣✪ ✒✤✏✒ ✤✕✙✍✓✍✗✎ ✙✍✛✖✏✒✚✗ ✬✖✕✙ ✿✏✎✒ ❂✬✖✍★✏ ✒✕ ✎✕✦✒✤✚✖✓ ✏✓✗ ✓✕✖✒✤✚✖✓ ❂✬✖✍★✏✘ ✒✕ ✎✕✦✒✤✚✖✓ ✏✓✗ ✓✕✖✒✤♥✚✏✎✒✚✖✓ ❂✎✍✏✘ ✏✓✗ ✫✚✖✤✏✫✎ ✒✕ ✿✦✖✕✫✚✘ ✎✕✙✚ ✒✍✙✚ ✽✚✒✔✚✚✓ ♦ ✏✓✗ ❇✳❈ ✙✪✏✳ ✭✤✍✎ ✎✫✚★✍✚✎ ✎✦✖✩✍✩✚✗ ✬✕✖ ✓✚✏✖✣✪ ✏ ✙✍✣✣✍✕✓ ✪✚✏✖✎✳ ▼❉❊ ❏▲◆P ◗❘❙❯❱▲ ▼❉❊ ❏❲◆P ❳❨❩ ❬▲❭❪ ◗❘❙❯❱▲❫ ❴❯❘❪ ❵▲❜❜❩❝  ❫❴❵❛ ✾❝❞ ❡❞❢❥❦❦❥❦❢ ❧♦ ✾❥❛❞ ✶ ✁ ✂✄☎✆ ✝✁✂✞✟✁✠✆✂✡ ✞☛✆ ✁✟☎✆✂ ☞✄✌ ☞✄✂✂✝✍✂ ✟✌✆ ✎✆✌✝✏✆✎ ☞✌✄☎ ✞☛✆ ✑✍✟✠✆✂ ✇☛✆✌✆ ✞☛✆ ☞✝✌✂✞ ☞✄✂✂✝✍✂ ✄☞ ✟ ✑✟✌✞✝✠✒✍✟✌ ✞✓✑✆ ✇✆✌✆ ☞✄✒✁✎✔ ✕✄ ☞✄✂✂✝✍✂ ☞✄✒✁✎ ✝✁ ✐✆✝✎✆✍✖✆✌✗✡ ✟ ✠✝✞✓ ✝✁ ✘✆✌☎✟✁✓✡ ✇✆✌✆ ✠✟✍✍✆✎ ❍✙✚✙ ❤✛✜✢✛✣✤✛✥❣✛✦✧✜✧★ ✇☛✝✍✆ ✞☛✄✂✆ ☞✄✒✁✎ ✝✁ ✞☛✆ ✩✆✟✁✎✆✌ ✏✟✍✍✆✓ ✪✂✆✆ ✑✔ ✫✬✭ ✇✆✌✆ ✠✟✞✆✗✄✌✝✂✆✎ ✟✂ ❍✙✚✙ ✦✛✮✦✢✛✥✯❤✮✣✛✦✧✜✧✰ ❚☛✆ ✆✟✌✍✝✆✂✞ ☞✄✂✂✝✍✂ ☞✌✄☎ ✱✒✌✄✑✆ ✟✌✆ ✄☞ ❍✙✚✙ ❤✛✜✢✛✣✤✛✥❣✛✦✧✜✧ ✟✁✎ ❍✙✚✙ ✦✛✮✦✢✛✥✯❤✮✣✛✦✧✜✧✔ ✳✄✞☛ ✖✆✍✄✁✗ ✞✄ ✞☛✆ ✂✑✆✠✝✆✂ ✄☞ ✟✌✠☛✟✝✠ ✪✞☛✟✞ ✝✂✡ ✄✍✎✭ ❍✙✚✙ ✧✮✲✜✛✦✧✔ ❚☛✆ ☞✄✂✂✝✍✂ ✄☞ ❍✙✚✙ ❤✛✜✢✛✣✤✛✥❣✛✦✧✜✧ ✪✴✔✬✵✴✔✫ ☎✓✟✭ ☛✟✏✆ ✟ ✇✝✎✆ ✎✝✂✞✌✝✖✒✞✝✄✁✡ ☛✟✏✝✁✗ ✖✆✆✁ ☞✄✒✁✎ ✝✁ ✷☞✌✝✠✟✡ ✷✂✝✟ ✟✁✎ ✱✒✌✄✑✆✔ ❚☛✆ ✩✆✟✁✎✆✌✞☛✟✍✂ ✄✠✠✒✑✝✆✎ ✱✒✌✄✑✆ ✟✁✎ ✇✆✂✞✆✌✁ ✟✁✎ ♥✆✁✞✌✟✍ ✷✂✝✟ ☞✌✄☎ ✌✄✒✗☛✍✓ ✫r✴✡✴✴✴ ✞✄ r✸✡✴✴✴ ✓✆✟✌✂ ✟✗✄✔ ❚☛✆✓ ✎✝✂✟✑✑✆✟✌✆✎ ✟✖✌✒✑✞✍✓ ✝✁ ✇✆✂✞✆✌✁ ✱✒✌✄✑✆ ✟✌✄✒✁✎ r✸✡✴✴✴ ✓✆✟✌✂ ✟✗✄✔ ✁ ✗✆✁✆✌✟✍✡ ✠✄☎✑✟✌✆✎ ✇✝✞☛ ❆✹✧✯✥✮✣✙✲✜✯❤✛✺✹✧★ ❍✙✚✙ ☛✟✏✆ ✟ ✍✟✌✗✆✌ ✖✌✟✝✁✡ ❜✟✇✂ ✇✝✞☛ ✟ ✌✆✎✒✠✆✎ ✄✒✞✇✟✌✎ ✑✌✄✞✌✒✂✝✄✁ ✟✁✎ ✂☎✟✍✍✆✌ ✞✆✆✞☛ ✪✂✆✆ ✝✍✍✒✂✞✌✟✞✝✄✁ ✄✁ ✑✔ ✫✴✭✔ ✷✁ ✝✁✠✌✆✟✂✆ ✝✁ ✖✌✟✝✁ ✂✝✻✆ ✝✂ ✟✂✂✄✠✝✟✞✆✎ ✇✝✞☛ ☎✄✌✆ ✝✁✞✆✍✍✝✗✆✁✠✆ ✟✁✎ ✟ ✖✆✞✞✆✌ ☎✆☎✄✌✓✔ ❚☛✆ ✠☛✟✁✗✆✂ ✝✁ ✞☛✆ ❜✟✇✂ ✟✁✎ ✞✆✆✞☛ ✇✆✌✆ ✑✌✄✖✟✖✍✓ ✌✆✍✟✞✆✎ ✞✄ ✎✝☞☞✆✌✆✁✠✆✂ ✝✁ ✎✝✆✞✟✌✓ ☛✟✖✝✞✂✔ PEOPLING OF THE WORLD WHEN WHERE WHO 5-1 mya Sub-Saharan Africa Australopithecus, early Homo, Homo erectus 1 mya-40,000 years ago Africa, Asia and Europe in Homo erectus, archaic mid-latitudes Homo sapiens, Neanderthals, Homo sapiens sapiens/modern humans 45,000 years ago Australia Modern humans 40,000 years ago to Europe in high-latitudes Late Neanderthals, present and Asia-Pacific islands modern humans North and South America in deserts, rain forests ✼✽✾✿❀✿✾❁ ❂ P❃❄❅ ❅❇❈ ❉❇❊❋❈❏ ❑❋▲❑❉❊❅❈▲ ❑❋ ❅❇❈ ❉❇❊▼❅ ❊◆❄❖❈ ❄❋ ❊❋ ❄◗❅❃❑❋❈ ♠❊❘ ❄❙ ❅❇❈ ❯❄▼❃▲❱ ❲❏❈ ▲❑❙❙❈▼❈❋❅ ❉❄❃❄◗▼❏ ❙❄▼ ❅❇❈ ❙❄◗▼ ❅❑♠❈ ◆▼❊❉❳❈❅❏❱ ❨❑❏❅ ❅❇❈ ❉❄❋❅❑❋❈❋❅❏ ❯❇❈▼❈ ❩❄◗ ◗❏❈ ❬❊❭ ❊ ❏❑❋❃❈ ❉❄❃❄◗▼❪ ❬◆❭ ❅❯❄ ❉❄❃❄◗▼❏❪ ❬❉❭ ♠❄▼❈ ❅❇❊❋ ❅❯❄ ❉❄❃❄◗▼❏❱  ✶ ❚❍✁✂✁✄ ☎ ✥❖✆✝✞ ✟✄✠❖✆✡ The Story of Human Evolution (b) Modern Human Beings ☛☞ ✌✍✎ ✏✍✍✑ ✒✓ ✓✔✕✖ ✗✔✒✘✓✙ ✌✍✎ ✚✕✏✏ ✛✍✓✕✗✜ ✓✔✒✓ THE EARLIEST FOSSILS OF MODERN ✖✍s✜ ✍☞ ✓✔✜ ✜✒✘✏✕✜✖✓ ✜✢✕✣✜✛✗✜ ☞✍✘ ✤✦✧✦ ★✩✪✫✬✭★ HUMANS ✔✒✖ ❤✜✜✛ ☞✍✎✛✣ ✕✛ ✣✕☞☞✜✘✜✛✓ ❡✒✘✓✖ ✍☞ ✮☞✘✕✗✒✯ ✰✔✕✖ ✘✒✕✖✜✖ ✓✔✜ ✱✎✜✖✓✕✍✛ ✍☞ ✓✔✜ ✗✜✛✓✘✜ ✍☞ ✔✎s✒✛ WHERE WHEN (years ago) ✍✘✕♦✕✛✯ ✲✒✖ ✓✔✜✘✜ ✒ ✖✕✛♦✏✜ ✗✜✛✓✘✜ ✍✘ ✚✜✘✜ ✓✔✜✘✜ ✖✜✢✜✘✒✏✳ ETHIOPIA 195,000-160,000 ✰✔✜ ✕✖✖✎✜ ✍☞ ✓✔✜ ❡✏✒✗✜ ✍☞ ✍✘✕♦✕✛ ✍☞ s✍✣✜✘✛ Omo Kibish ✔✎s✒✛✖ ✔✒✖ ❤✜✜✛ s✎✗✔ ✣✜❤✒✓✜✣✯ ✰✚✍ ✓✍✓✒✏✏✌ ✣✕✢✜✘♦✜✛✓ ✢✕✜✚✖ ✔✒✢✜ ❤✜✜✛ ✜❞❡✍✎✛✣✜✣✙ ✍✛✜ SOUTH AFRICA 120,000-50,000 ✒✣✢✍✗✒✓✕✛♦ ✓✔✜ ✘✜♦✕✍✛✒✏ ✗✍✛✓✕✛✎✕✓✌ s✍✣✜✏ ❛✚✕✓✔ Border Cave s✎✏✓✕❡✏✜ ✘✜♦✕✍✛✖ ✍☞ ✍✘✕♦✕✛♠✙ ✓✔✜ ✍✓✔✜✘ ✓✔✜ Die Kelders Klasies River Mouth ✘✜❡✏✒✗✜s✜✛✓ s✍✣✜✏ ❛✚✕✓✔ ✒ ✖✕✛♦✏✜ ✍✘✕♦✕✛ ✕✛ ✮☞✘✕✗✒♠✯ MOROCCO 70,000-50,000 ✮✗✗✍✘✣✕✛♦ ✓✍ ✓✔✜ ✘✜♦✕✍✛✒✏ ✗✍✛✓✕✛✎✕✓✌ s✍✣✜✏✙ Dar es Solton ✓✔✜ ✒✘✗✔✒✕✗ ✤✦✧✦ ★✩✪✫✬✭★ ✕✛ ✣✕☞☞✜✘✜✛✓ ✘✜♦✕✍✛✖ ♦✘✒✣✎✒✏✏✌ ✜✢✍✏✢✜✣ ✒✓ ✣✕☞☞✜✘✜✛✓ ✘✒✓✜✖ ✕✛✓✍ s✍✣✜✘✛ ISRAEL 100,000-80,000 ✔✎s✒✛✖✙ ✒✛✣ ✔✜✛✗✜ ✓✔✜ ✢✒✘✕✒✓✕✍✛ ✕✛ ✓✔✜ ☞✕✘✖✓ Qafzeh Skhul ✒❡❡✜✒✘✒✛✗✜ ✍☞ s✍✣✜✘✛ ✔✎s✒✛✖ ✕✛ ✣✕☞☞✜✘✜✛✓ ❡✒✘✓✖ ✍☞ ✓✔✜ ✚✍✘✏✣✯ ✰✔✜ ✒✘♦✎s✜✛✓ ✕✖ ❤✒✖✜✣ ✍✛ AUSTRALIA 45,000-35,000 ✓✔✜ ✘✜♦✕✍✛✒✏ ✣✕☞☞✜✘✜✛✗✜✖ ✕✛ ✓✔✜ ☞✜✒✓✎✘✜✖ ✍☞ Lake Mungo ❡✘✜✖✜✛✓♣✣✒✌ ✔✎s✒✛✖✯ ✮✗✗✍✘✣✕✛♦ ✓✍ ✓✔✍✖✜ ✚✔✍ BORNEO 40,000 ✒✣✢✍✗✒✓✜ ✓✔✕✖ ✢✕✜✚✙ ✓✔✜✖✜ ✣✕✖✖✕s✕✏✒✘✕✓✕✜✖ ✒✘✜ ✣✎✜ Niah Cave ✓✍ ✣✕☞☞✜✘✜✛✗✜✖ ❤✜✓✚✜✜✛ ✓✔✜ ❡✘✜♣✜❞✕✖✓✕✛♦ ✤✦✧✦ ✬✴✬✵✷✸★ ✒✛✣ ✤✦✧✦ ✹✬✫✺✬✻✼✬✴✽✬✭★✫★ ❡✍❡✎✏✒✓✕✍✛✖ FRANCE 35,000 ✓✔✒✓ ✍✗✗✎❡✕✜✣ ✓✔✜ ✖✒s✜ ✘✜♦✕✍✛✖✯ Cro-Magnon, near Les Eyzies The Replacement and Regional Continuity Models ✰✔✜ ✘✜❡✏✒✗✜s✜✛✓ s✍✣✜✏ ✢✕✖✎✒✏✕✖✜✖ ✓✔✜ ✗✍s❡✏✜✓✜ ✘✜❡✏✒✗✜s✜✛✓ ✜✢✜✘✌✚✔✜✘✜ ✍☞ ✒✏✏ ✍✏✣✜✘ ☞✍✘s✖ ✍☞ ✔✎s✒✛✖ ✚✕✓✔ s✍✣✜✘✛ ✔✎s✒✛✖✯ ☛✛ ✖✎❡❡✍✘✓ ✍☞ ✓✔✕✖ ✢✕✜✚ ✕✖ ✓✔✜ ✜✢✕✣✜✛✗✜ ✍☞ ✓✔✜ ♦✜✛✜✓✕✗ ✒✛✣ ✒✛✒✓✍s✕✗✒✏ ✔✍s✍♦✜✛✜✕✓✌ ✍☞ s✍✣✜✘✛ ✔✎s✒✛✖✯ ✰✔✍✖✜ ✚✔✍ ✖✎♦♦✜✖✓ ✓✔✕✖ ✒✘♦✎✜ ✓✔✒✓ ✓✔✜ ✜✛✍✘s✍✎✖ ✖✕s✕✏✒✘✕✓✌ ✒s✍✛♦✖✓ s✍✣✜✘✛ ✔✎s✒✛✖ ✕✖ ✣✎✜ ✓✍ ✓✔✜✕✘ ✣✜✖✗✜✛✓ ☞✘✍s ✒ ❡✍❡✎✏✒✓✕✍✛ ✓✔✒✓ ✍✘✕♦✕✛✒✓✜✣ ✕✛ ✒ ✖✕✛♦✏✜ ✘✜♦✕✍✛✙ ✚✔✕✗✔ ✕✖ ✮☞✘✕✗✒✯ ✰✔✜ ✜✢✕✣✜✛✗✜ ✍☞ ✓✔✜ ✜✒✘✏✕✜✖✓ ☞✍✖✖✕✏✖ ✍☞ s✍✣✜✘✛ ✔✎s✒✛✖ ❛☞✘✍s ✾s✍ ✕✛ ✿✓✔✕✍❡✕✒♠ ✒✏✖✍ ✖✎❡❡✍✘✓✖ ✓✔✜ ✘✜❡✏✒✗✜s✜✛✓ s✍✣✜✏✯ ❙✗✔✍✏✒✘✖ ✚✔✍ ✔✍✏✣ ✓✔✕✖ ✢✕✜✚ ✖✎♦♦✜✖✓ ✓✔✒✓ ✓✔✜ ❡✔✌✖✕✗✒✏ ✣✕☞☞✜✘✜✛✗✜✖ ✍❤✖✜✘✢✜✣ ✓✍✣✒✌ ✒s✍✛♦ s✍✣✜✘✛ ✔✎s✒✛✖ ✒✘✜ ✓✔✜ ✘✜✖✎✏✓ ✍☞ ✒✣✒❡✓✒✓✕✍✛ ❛✍✢✜✘ ✒ ✖❡✒✛ ✍☞ ✓✔✍✎✖✒✛✣✖ ✍☞ ✌✜✒✘✖♠ ❤✌ ❡✍❡✎✏✒✓✕✍✛✖ ✚✔✍ s✕♦✘✒✓✜✣ ✓✍ ✓✔✜ ❡✒✘✓✕✗✎✏✒✘ ✘✜♦✕✍✛✖ ✚✔✜✘✜ ✓✔✜✌ ☞✕✛✒✏✏✌ ✖✜✓✓✏✜✣ ✣✍✚✛✯  ❋❘✷✸ ✹✺✻ ✼✻✽✾✿✿✾✿✽ ❀❁ ✹✾✸✻ ✶ Early Humans: Ways of Obtaining Food ❙✁ ✂✄☎✱ ✆✝ ✞✄✟✝ ✠✝✝✡ ☛✁✡☞✌✍✝☎✌✡✎ ✏✞✝ ✝✟✌✍✝✡☛✝ ✁✂ ☞✑✝✒✝✏✄✒ ☎✝❡✄✌✡☞ ✄✡✍ ☞✝✝✌✡✎ ✞✁✆ ✏✞✝☞✝ ✞✄✟✝ ✠✝✝✡ s☞✝✍ ✏✁ ☎✝☛✁✡☞✏☎s☛✏ ✏✞✝ ✞✌☞✏✁☎✌✝☞ ✁✂ ✏✞✝ ❡✁✟✝❡✝✡✏☞ ✁✂ ♠✝✁♠✒✝☞ ✄☛☎✁☞☞ ☛✁✡✏✌✡✝✡✏☞✓ ✔s✏✱ ✏✞✝☎✝ ✄☎✝ ✁✏✞✝☎✱ ❡✁☎✝ ☎✁s✏✌✡✝ ✄☞♠✝☛✏☞ ✁✂ ✞s❡✄✡ ✒✌✂✝ ✄☞ ✆✝✒✒✓ ❛✝✏ s☞ ☞✝✝ ✞✁✆ ✏✞✝☞✝ ☛✄✡ ✠✝ ☞✏s✍✌✝✍✓ ❊✄☎✒✕ ✞s❡✄✡☞ ✆✁s✒✍ ✞✄✟✝ ✁✠✏✄✌✡✝✍ ✂✁✁✍ ✏✞☎✁s✎✞ ✄ ✡s❡✠✝☎ ✁✂ ✆✄✕☞✱ ☞s☛✞ ✄☞ ✎✄✏✞✝☎✌✡✎✱ ✞s✡✏✌✡✎✱ ☞☛✄✟✝✡✎✌✡✎ ✄✡✍ ✂✌☞✞✌✡✎✓ ✖✄✏✞✝☎✌✡✎ ✆✁s✒✍ ✌✡✟✁✒✟✝ ☛✁✒✒✝☛✏✌✡✎ ♠✒✄✡✏ ✂✁✁✍☞ ☞s☛✞ ✄☞ ☞✝✝✍☞✱ ✡s✏☞✱ ✠✝☎☎✌✝☞✱ ✂☎s✌✏☞ ✄✡✍ ✏s✠✝☎☞✓ t✞✄✏ ✎✄✏✞✝☎✌✡✎ ✆✄☞ ♠☎✄☛✏✌☞✝✍ ✌☞ ✎✝✡✝☎✄✒✒✕ ✄☞☞s❡✝✍ ☎✄✏✞✝☎ ✏✞✄✡ ☛✁✡☛✒s☞✌✟✝✒✕ ✝☞✏✄✠✒✌☞✞✝✍✱ ✄☞ ✏✞✝☎✝ ✌☞ ✟✝☎✕ ✒✌✏✏✒✝ ✍✌☎✝☛✏ ✝✟✌✍✝✡☛✝ ✂✁☎ ✌✏✓ ❲✞✌✒✝ ✆✝ ✎✝✏ ✄ ✂✄✌☎ ✄❡✁s✡✏ ✁✂ ✂✁☞☞✌✒ ✠✁✡✝☞✱ ✂✁☞☞✌✒✌☞✝✍ ♠✒✄✡✏ ☎✝❡✄✌✡☞ ✄☎✝ ☎✝✒✄✏✌✟✝✒✕ ☎✄☎✝✓ t✞✝ ✁✡✒✕ ✁✏✞✝☎ ✆✄✕ ✁✂ ✎✝✏✏✌✡✎ ✌✡✂✁☎❡✄✏✌✁✡ ✄✠✁s✏ ♠✒✄✡✏ ✌✡✏✄✑✝ ✆✁s✒✍ ✠✝ ✌✂ ♠✒✄✡✏ ☎✝❡✄✌✡☞ ✆✝☎✝ ✄☛☛✌✍✝✡✏✄✒✒✕ ✠s☎✡✏✓ t✞✌☞ ♠☎✁☛✝☞☞ ☎✝☞s✒✏☞ ✌✡ ☛✄☎✠✁✡✌☞✄✏✌✁✡✓ ✗✡ ✏✞✌☞ ✂✁☎❡✱ ✁☎✎✄✡✌☛ ❡✄✏✏✝☎ ✌☞ ♠☎✝☞✝☎✟✝✍ ✂✁☎ ✄ ✒✁✡✎ ☞♠✄✡ ✁✂ ✏✌❡✝✓ ✘✁✆✝✟✝☎✱ ☞✁ ✂✄☎ ✄☎☛✞✄✝✁✒✁✎✌☞✏☞ ✞✄✟✝ ✡✁✏ ✂✁s✡✍ ❡s☛✞ ✝✟✌✍✝✡☛✝ ✁✂ ☛✄☎✠✁✡✌☞✝✍ ☞✝✝✍☞ ✂✁☎ ✏✞✌☞ ✟✝☎✕ ✝✄☎✒✕ ♠✝☎✌✁✍✓ ✗✡ ☎✝☛✝✡✏ ✕✝✄☎☞✱ ✏✞✝ ✏✝☎❡ ✞s✡✏✌✡✎ ✞✄☞ ✠✝✝✡ s✡✍✝☎ ✍✌☞☛s☞☞✌✁✡ ✠✕ ☞☛✞✁✒✄☎☞✓ ✗✡☛☎✝✄☞✌✡✎✒✕✱ ✌✏ ✌☞ ✠✝✌✡✎ ☞s✎✎✝☞✏✝✍ ✏✞✄✏ ✏✞✝ ✝✄☎✒✕ ✞✁❡✌✡✌✍☞ ☞☛✄✟✝✡✎✝✍ ✁☎ ✂✁☎✄✎✝✍✙ ✂✁☎ ❡✝✄✏ ✄✡✍ ❡✄☎☎✁✆ ✂☎✁❡ ✏✞✝ ☛✄☎☛✄☞☞✝☞ ✁✂ ✯✥✦✧★✩✪✫✩ ✬✭★✫✮ ✰✦ ✄✡✌❡✄✒☞ ✏✞✄✏ ✞✄✍ ✍✌✝✍ ✡✄✏s☎✄✒✒✕ ✁☎ ✞✄✍ ✠✝✝✡ ✑✌✒✒✝✍ ✠✕ ✁✏✞✝☎ ♠☎✝✍✄✏✁☎☞✓ ✮✭★✧✲✳ ✗✏ ✌☞ ✝s✄✒✒✕ ♠✁☞☞✌✠✒✝ ✏✞✄✏ ☞❡✄✒✒ ❡✄❡❡✄✒☞ ☞s☛✞ ✄☞ ☎✁✍✝✡✏☞✱ ✠✌☎✍☞ ✚✄✡✍ ❢✦✧ ❢✦✦✴✵ ✏✞✝✌☎ ✝✎✎☞✛✱ ☎✝♠✏✌✒✝☞ ✄✡✍ ✝✟✝✡ ✌✡☞✝☛✏☞ ✚☞s☛✞ ✄☞ ✏✝☎❡✌✏✝☞✛ ✆✝☎✝ ✝✄✏✝✡ ✠✕ ✝✄☎✒✕ ✞✁❡✌✡✌✍☞✓ ✘s✡✏✌✡✎ ♠☎✁✠✄✠✒✕ ✠✝✎✄✡ ✒✄✏✝☎ ❍ ✄✠✁s✏ ✜✢✢✱✢✢✢ ✕✝✄☎☞ ✄✎✁✓ t✞✝ ✝✄☎✒✌✝☞✏ ☛✒✝✄☎ ✝✟✌✍✝✡☛✝ ✂✁☎ ✏✞✝ ✍✝✒✌✠✝☎✄✏✝✱ ♠✒✄✡✡✝✍ ✞s✡✏✌✡✎ ✄✡✍ ✠s✏☛✞✝☎✕ ✁✂ ✒✄☎✎✝ ❡✄❡❡✄✒☞ ☛✁❡✝☞ ✂☎✁❡ ✏✆✁ ☞✌✏✝☞❧ ✔✁✣✎☎✁✟✝ ✌✡ ☞✁s✏✞✝☎✡ ❊✡✎✒✄✡✍ ✚✜✢✢✱✢✢✢ ✕✝✄☎☞ ✄✎✁✛ ✄✡✍ ❙☛✞✁✡✌✡✎✝✡ ✌✡ ✖✝☎❡✄✡✕ ✚✤✢✢✱✢✢✢ ✕✝✄☎☞ ✄✎✁✛  ✶ ❚❍✁✂✁✄ ☎ ✥❖✆✝✞ ✟✄✠❖✆✡ ✭☛☞☞ ✌✍✎ ✏ ✑✒ ✓✔☛✕✔✖✗ ✘✍☛ ✍✙☛✚ ✔✛✎✚✜✢✍✖✢✣ ✍☛ ✔☛ ☞✤✔✦☞✖✢ ✧✜✚✛ ✢✕☞ ✦✔☛★✚✤☞✜✩ ✚✧ ✧✔☛✕ ♦✚✖☞☛ ✍✢ ✦✔✧✧☞✜☞✖✢ ☛✔✢☞☛✒ ▼❆✺ ✻✼ ✽✾✿❀❁❂ ✓✜✚✛ ✍♦✚❋✢ ✪✫✣✬✬✬ ✩☞✍✜☛ ✍✗✚✣ ✢✕☞✜☞ ✔☛ ☞✤✔✦☞✖★☞ ✚✧ ✎✙✍✖✖☞✦ ✕❋✖✢✔✖✗ ✧✜✚✛ ☛✚✛☞ ✮❋✜✚✎☞✍✖ ☛✔✢☞☛✒ ✯✚✛☞ ☛✔✢☞☛✣ ☛❋★✕ ✍☛ ✰✚✙✖✔ ✱☞☛✢✚✖✔★☞ ✭✔✖ ✢✕☞ t✲☞★✕ ✳☞✎❋♦✙✔★✣ ☛☞☞ ✌✍✎ ✏✑✣ ✘✕✔★✕ ✘✍☛ ✖☞✍✜ ✍ ✜✔✤☞✜✣ ☛☞☞✛ ✢✚ ✕✍✤☞ ♦☞☞✖ ✦☞✙✔♦☞✜✍✢☞✙✩ ★✕✚☛☞✖ ♦✩ ☞✍✜✙✩ ✎☞✚✎✙☞✒ ❜☞✜✦☛ ✚✧ ✛✔✗✜✍✢✚✜✩ ✍✖✔✛✍✙☛ ☛❋★✕ ✍☛ ✜☞✔✖✦☞☞✜ ✍✖✦ ✕✚✜☛☞ ✎✜✚♦✍♦✙✩ ★✜✚☛☛☞✦ ✢✕☞ ✜✔✤☞✜ ✦❋✜✔✖✗ ✢✕☞✔✜ ✍❋✢❋✛✖ ✍✖✦ ☛✎✜✔✖✗ ✛✔✗✜✍✢✔✚✖☛ ✍✖✦ ✘☞✜☞ ❛✔✙✙☞✦ ✚✖ ✍ ✙✍✜✗☞ ☛★✍✙☞✒ ✴✕☞ ★✕✚✔★☞ ✚✧ ☛❋★✕ ☛✔✢☞☛ ✔✖✦✔★✍✢☞☛ ✢✕✍✢ ✎☞✚✎✙☞ ❛✖☞✘ ✍♦✚❋✢ ✢✕☞ ✛✚✤☞✛☞✖✢ ✚✧ ✢✕☞☛☞ ✍✖✔✛✍✙☛ ✍✖✦ ✍✙☛✚ ✍♦✚❋✢ ✢✕☞ ✛☞✍✖☛ ✚✧ ❛✔✙✙✔✖✗ ✙✍✜✗☞ ✖❋✛♦☞✜☛ ✚✧ ✍✖✔✛✍✙☛ ✵❋✔★❛✙✩✒ ✰✔✦ ✛☞✖ ✍✖✦ ✘✚✛☞✖ ✕✍✤☞ ✦✔✧✧☞✜☞✖✢ ✜✚✙☞☛ ✔✖ ✗✍✢✕☞✜✔✖✗✣ ☛★✍✤☞✖✗✔✖✗✣ ✕❋✖✢✔✖✗ ✍✖✦ ✧✔☛✕✔✖✗❤ ✷☞ ✦✚ ✖✚✢ ✜☞✍✙✙✩ ❛✖✚✘✒ ✴✚✦✍✩ ✘☞ ✧✔✖✦ ☛✚★✔☞✢✔☞☛ ✢✕✍✢ ✙✔✤☞ ♦✩ ✕❋✖✢✔✖✗ ✍✖✦ ✗✍✢✕☞✜✔✖✗✣ ✘✕☞✜☞ ✘✚✛☞✖ ✍✖✦ ✛☞✖ ❋✖✦☞✜✢✍❛☞ ✍ ✜✍✖✗☞ ✚✧ ✦✔✧✧☞✜☞✖✢ ✍★✢✔✤✔✢✔☞☛✣ ♦❋✢✣ ✍☛ ✘☞ ✘✔✙✙ ☛☞☞ ✙✍✢☞✜ ✔✖ ✢✕☞ ★✕✍✎✢☞✜✣ ✔✢ ✔☛ ✖✚✢ ✍✙✘✍✩☛ ✎✚☛☛✔♦✙☞ ✢✚ ☛❋✗✗☞☛✢ ✎✍✜✍✙✙☞✙☛ ✘✔✢✕ ✢✕☞ ✎✍☛✢✒ Early Humans From Trees, to Caves and Open-air Sites ✷☞ ✍✜☞ ✚✖ ☛❋✜☞✜ ✗✜✚❋✖✦ ✘✕☞✖ ✘☞ ✢✜✩ ✢✚ ✜☞★✚✖☛✢✜❋★✢ ✢✕☞ ☞✤✔✦☞✖★☞ ✧✚✜ ✎✍✢✢☞✜✖☛ ✚✧ ✜☞☛✔✦☞✖★☞✒ ❡✖☞ ✘✍✩ ✚✧ ✦✚✔✖✗ ✢✕✔☛ ✔☛ ♦✩ ✎✙✚✢✢✔✖✗ ✢✕☞ ✦✔☛✢✜✔♦❋✢✔✚✖ ✚✧ ✍✜✢☞✧✍★✢☛✒ ✓✚✜ ☞❞✍✛✎✙☞✣ ✢✕✚❋☛✍✖✦☛ ✚✧ ✧✙✍❛☞ ✢✚✚✙☛ ✍✖✦ ✕✍✖✦ ✍❞☞☛ ✕✍✤☞ ♦☞☞✖ ☞❞★✍✤✍✢☞✦ ✍✢ ✸✔✙✚✛♦☞ ✍✖✦ ❡✙✚✜✗☞☛✍✔✙✔☞ ✭✸☞✖✩✍✑✒ ✴✕☞☛☞ ✧✔✖✦☛ ✍✜☞ ✦✍✢☞✦ ♦☞✢✘☞☞✖ ✹✬✬✣✬✬✬ ✍✖✦ ✫✬✬✣✬✬✬ ✩☞✍✜☛ ✍✗✚✒  ❋❘❈❉ ❊ ❏❑▼◆◆▼◆❑ P◗ ❊▼❉ ✶ ❍✁✂ ✄☎✄ ✆✝✞✟✞ ✆✁✁✠✟ ✡☛☛☞✌☞✠✡✆✞ ☎✍ ✁✍✞ ✎✠✡☛✞✏ ✑✆ ☎✟ ✎✁✟✟☎✒✠✞ ✆✝✡✆ ▲✙✚✛✜ ✢✣✙ ✤✥✛✙ ✦✚ ✟✁✌✞ ✎✠✡☛✞✟s ✂✝✞✓✞ ✔✁✁✄ ✓✞✟✁☞✓☛✞✟ ✂✞✓✞ ✡✒☞✍✄✡✍✆s ✂✞✓✞ ✕☎✟☎✆✞✄ ❖✧✦★✩✙✤✪✥✧✥✙✫ ✢✣✙ ✓✞✎✞✡✆✞✄✠r✖ ✑✍ ✟☞☛✝ ✡✓✞✡✟s ✎✞✁✎✠✞ ✂✁☞✠✄ ✆✞✍✄ ✆✁ ✠✞✡✕✞ ✒✞✝☎✍✄ ✆✓✡☛✞✟ ✁✔ ✙✬✭✪✮✪✛✦★✤✯ ✰✪★✱ ✪✲✳ ▲✦✴✥✤ ▲✙✪✵✙✱✯ ✣✪✳ ✪ ✆✝✞☎✓ ✡☛✆☎✕☎✆☎✞✟ ✡✍✄ ✎✓✞✟✞✍☛✞s ☎✍☛✠☞✄☎✍t ✡✓✆✞✔✡☛✆✟✖ ✗✝✞ ✄✞✎✁✟☎✆✞✄ ✡✓✆✞✔✡☛✆✟ ✭✪✛❝✪✧✵ ✷✴✥✧✛ ✪★✦✴✲✳ ✂✁☞✠✄ ✡✎✎✞✡✓ ✡✟ ✎✡✆☛✝✞✟ ✁✍ ✆✝✞ ✠✡✍✄✟☛✡✎✞✖ ✗✝✞ ✎✠✡☛✞✟ ✆✝✡✆ ✂✞✓✞ ✠✞✟✟ ✛✣✙ ✤✥✛✙ ✚✦★ ✦✷✤✙★✮✙★✤✫ ✔✓✞❢☞✞✍✆✠r ✕☎✟☎✆✞✄ ✂✁☞✠✄ ✝✡✕✞ ✔✞✂✞✓ ✡✓✆✞✔✡☛✆✟s ✂✝☎☛✝ ✌✡r ✝✡✕✞ ✒✞✞✍ ❆✷✦✮✙✜ ❆ ✭✧✦✤✙✸✴✹ ✦✚ ✟☛✡✆✆✞✓✞✄ ✁✕✞✓ ✆✝✞ ✟☞✓✔✡☛✞✖ ✛✦✦✧✤ ✚✦✴✲✳ ✪✛ ✛✣✙ ✤✥✛✙✯ ✑✆ ☎✟ ✡✠✟✁ ☎✌✎✁✓✆✡✍✆ ✆✁ ✓✞✌✞✌✒✞✓ ✆✝✡✆ ✆✝✞ ✟✡✌✞ ✠✁☛✡✆☎✁✍✟ ☛✁☞✠✄ ✝✡✕✞ ✥✲✭✧✴✳✥✲✩ ✣✪✲✳ ✪✬✙✤✫ ✒✞✞✍ ✟✝✡✓✞✄ ✒r ✝✁✌☎✍☎✄✟s ✁✆✝✞✓ ✎✓☎✌✡✆✞✟ ✡✍✄ ☛✡✓✍☎✕✁✓✞✟✖ ❡✁✁✘ ✡✆ ✆✝✞ ✄☎✡t✓✡✌ ✒✞✠✁✂ ✆✁ ✟✞✞ ✝✁✂ ✆✝☎✟ ✌✡r ✝✡✕✞ ✂✁✓✘✞✄✖ Artefacts are objects that are made by human beings. The term can refer to a wide range of things – tools, paintings, sculpture, ❆★✭✣✪✙✦✧✦✩✥✤✛✤ ✤✴✩✩✙✤✛ ✛✣✪✛ ✙✪★✧✱ ✣✦✺✥✲✥✳✤ ✤✴✭✣ ✪✤ ✻✼✽✼ ✾✿❀❁❂❁❃ ✹★✦✷✪✷✧✱ engravings. ✭✦✲✤✴✺✙✳ ✺✦✤✛ ✦✚ ✛✣✙ ✚✦✦✳ ❝✣✙★✙ ✛✣✙✱ ✚✦✴✲✳ ✥✛✯ ✤✧✙✹✛ ✥✲ ✳✥✚✚✙★✙✲✛ ✹✧✪✭✙✤✯ ✪✲✳ ✤✹✙✲✛ ✺✴✭✣ ✦✚ ✛✣✙✥★ ✛✥✺✙ ✥✲ ✛★✙✙✤✫ ❄✦❝ ❝✦✴✧✳ ✷✦✲✙✤ ✣✪✮✙ ★✙✪✭✣✙✳ ✛✣✙ ✤✥✛✙❅ ❄✦❝ ❝✦✴✧✳ ✤✛✦✲✙✤ ✣✪✮✙ ★✙✪✭✣✙✳ ✛✣✙ ✤✥✛✙❅ ❇✦✴✧✳ ✷✦✲✙✤ ✣✪✮✙ ✤✴★✮✥✮✙✳ ✥✲✛✪✭✛❅  ✷ ❚❍✁✂✁✄ ☎ ✥❖✆✝✞ ✟✄✠❖✆✡ ❇☛☞✌☛☛✍ ✎✏✏✑✏✏✏ ✒✍✓ ✔✕✖✑✏✏✏ ✗☛✒✘✙ ✒✚✛✑ ✜✒✢☛✙ ✒✍✓ ✛✣☛✍✤✒✦✘ ✙✦☞☛✙ s☛✚✒✍ ☞✛ s☛ ✧✙☛✓★ ✩✢✦✓☛✍✜☛ ✪✛✘ ☞✫✦✙ ✜✛✬☛✙ ✪✘✛✬ ✙✦☞☛✙ ✦✍ ✩✧✘✛✣☛★ ♦✍ ☞✫☛ ✭✒✮✒✘☛☞ ✜✒✢☛ ✦✍ ✙✛✧☞✫☛✘✍ ♥✘✒✍✜☛✑ ✒ ✔✕✯✎ ✬☛☞✘☛ ✙✫☛♠☞☛✘ ✌✒✙ s✧✦♠☞ ✒✚✒✦✍✙☞ ☞✫☛ ✜✒✢☛ ✌✒♠♠★ ♦✍✙✦✓☛ ✦☞ ✌☛✘☛ ☞✌✛ ✫☛✒✘☞✫✙ ✒✍✓ ☛✢✦✓☛✍✜☛ ✛✪ ✓✦✪✪☛✘☛✍☞ ✪✛✛✓ ✙✛✧✘✜☛✙❝ ✪✘✧✦☞✙✑ ✢☛✚☛☞✒s♠☛✙✑ ✙☛☛✓✙✑ ✍✧☞✙✑ s✦✘✓ ☛✚✚✙ ✒✍✓ ✪✘☛✙✫✌✒☞☛✘ ✪✦✙✫ ❢☞✘✛✧☞✑ ✣☛✘✜✫ ✒✍✓ ✜✒✘✣✰★ ✱☞ ✒✍✛☞✫☛✘ ✙✦☞☛✑ ✲☛✘✘✒ ✱✬✒☞✒ ✛✍ ☞✫☛ ✜✛✒✙☞ ✛✪ ✙✛✧☞✫☛✘✍ ♥✘✒✍✜☛✑ ✪♠✦✬✙✗ ✙✫☛♠☞☛✘✙ ✌✦☞✫ ✘✛✛✪✙ ✛✪ ✌✛✛✓ ✒✍✓ ✚✘✒✙✙☛✙ ✌☛✘☛ s✧✦♠☞ ✪✛✘ ✙✫✛✘☞✤☞☛✘✬✑ ✙☛✒✙✛✍✒♠ ✢✦✙✦☞✙★ P✦☛✜☛✙ ✛✪ s✒✳☛✓ ✜♠✒✗ ✒✍✓ s✧✘✍☞ s✛✍☛ ✒♠✛✍✚ ✌✦☞✫ ✙☞✛✍☛ ❉❊❋ ❋ ❏ ☞✛✛♠✙✑ ✓✒☞☛✓ s☛☞✌☛☛✍ ✔★✎ ✒✍✓ ✔ ✬✗✒✑ ✫✒✢☛ s☛☛✍ ✪✛✧✍✓ ✒☞ t✫☛✙✛✌✒✍✴✒✑ r▲◆◗❘❙r❯◆❙❋◗❘ ◗❱ ❏ ❊❯❙ ❏❙ ❉▲rr❏ ❲❳❏❙❏❨ ❉❊▲ ❑☛✍✗✒ ✒✍✓ ✵✌✒✘☞✳✘✒✍✙✑ ✵✛✧☞✫ ✱✪✘✦✜✒★ ✶☛✘☛ ☞✫☛✙☛ ☞✫☛ ✘☛✙✧♠☞ ✛✪ ✒ ✍✒☞✧✘✒♠ ❧❏r❩▲ ❙◗❘▲ ❬◗❯❧❭▲r s✧✙✫✪✦✘☛ ✛✘ ✢✛♠✜✒✍✦✜ ☛✘✧✣☞✦✛✍❜ ✸✘ ✌☛✘☛ ☞✫☛✗ ✣✘✛✓✧✜☛✓ ☞✫✘✛✧✚✫ ☞✫☛ ✇▲r▲ ❯▲❭ ❙◗ ❯❪❪◗r❙ ✓☛♠✦s☛✘✒☞☛✑ ✜✛✍☞✘✛♠♠☛✓ ✧✙☛ ✛✪ ✪✦✘☛❜ ✶☛ ✓✛ ✍✛☞ ✘☛✒♠♠✗ ✳✍✛✌★ ❙❊▲ ❋❭▲ ◗❱ ❙❊▲ ❊❯❙❨ ✹☛✒✘☞✫✙✑ ✛✍ ☞✫☛ ✛☞✫☛✘ ✫✒✍✓✑ ✒✘☛ ✦✍✓✦✜✒☞✦✛✍✙ ✛✪ ☞✫☛ ✜✛✍☞✘✛♠♠☛✓ ✧✙☛ ✛✪ ❉❊▲ ❳❏❧❧ ◆❏❙❙▲r ◗❱ ❙◗❘▲ ◗❘ ❙❊▲ ❱❧◗◗r ✇▲r▲ ✪✦✘☛★ ✲✫✦✙ ✫✒✓ ✙☛✢☛✘✒♠ ✒✓✢✒✍☞✒✚☛✙ ❡ ✪✦✘☛ ✣✘✛✢✦✓☛✓ ✌✒✘✬☞✫ ✒✍✓ ♠✦✚✫☞ ❪❧❏◆▲ ✇❊▲r▲ ❪▲◗❪❧▲ ✦✍✙✦✓☛ ✜✒✢☛✙✑ ✒✍✓ ✜✛✧♠✓ s☛ ✧✙☛✓ ✪✛✘ ✜✛✛✳✦✍✚★ ❇☛✙✦✓☛✙✑ ✪✦✘☛ ✌✒✙ ✧✙☛✓ ☞✛ ❳❏❭▲ ❙◗❘▲ ❙◗◗❧❨ ❉❊▲ ✫✒✘✓☛✍ ✌✛✛✓✑ ✒✙ ✪✛✘ ✦✍✙☞✒✍✜☛ ☞✫☛ ☞✦✣ ✛✪ ☞✫☛ ✙✣☛✒✘★ ✲✫☛ ✧✙☛ ✛✪ ✫☛✒☞ ✒♠✙✛ ❬❧❏◆❫ ❪◗❙ ❳❏r❫▲❭ ✪✒✜✦♠✦☞✒☞☛✓ ☞✫☛ ✪♠✒✳✦✍✚ ✛✪ ☞✛✛♠✙★ ✱✙ ✦✬✣✛✘☞✒✍☞✑ ✪✦✘☛ ✜✛✧♠✓ s☛ ✧✙☛✓ ☞✛ ✙✜✒✘☛ ✇❋❙❊ ❏❘ ❏rr◗✇ ✒✌✒✗ ✓✒✍✚☛✘✛✧✙ ✒✍✦✬✒♠✙★ ❋❘❭❋◆❏❙▲ ❏ ❊▲❏r❙❊❨ ❴❘ ✇❊❏❙ ✇❏❵ ❭◗ ❵◗❯ ❙❊❋❘❫ ❧❋❱▲ ❱◗r ❙❊◗▲ ✇❊◗ ❧❋❞▲❭ ❋❘ ❙❊❋ Early Humans: Making Tools ❊▲❧❙▲r ✇◗❯❧❭ ❬▲ ❭❋❱❱▲r▲❘❙ ❱r◗❳ ❙❊❏❙ ◗❱ ✲✛ ✙☞✒✘☞ ✌✦☞✫✑ ✦☞ ✦✙ ✧✙☛✪✧♠ ☞✛ ✘☛✬☛✬s☛✘ ☞✫✒☞ ☞✫☛ ✧✙☛ ✛✪ ☞✛✛♠✙ ✒✍✓ ☞✛✛♠ ❙❊▲ ❊◗❳❋❘❋❭ ✇❊◗ ❧❋❞▲❭ ◗❘ ❙r▲▲❣ ✬✒✳✦✍✚ ✒✘☛ ✍✛☞ ✜✛✍✪✦✍☛✓ ☞✛ ✫✧✬✒✍✙★ ❇✦✘✓✙ ✒✘☛ ✳✍✛✌✍ ☞✛ ✬✒✳☛ ✛s✴☛✜☞✙ ☞✛ ✒✙✙✦✙☞ ☞✫☛✬ ✌✦☞✫ ✪☛☛✓✦✍✚✑ ✫✗✚✦☛✍☛ ✒✍✓ ✙✛✜✦✒♠ ☛✍✜✛✧✍☞☛✘✙✺ ✒✍✓ ✌✫✦♠☛ ✪✛✘✒✚✦✍✚ ✪✛✘ ✪✛✛✓ ✙✛✬☛ ✜✫✦✬✣✒✍✮☛☛✙ ✧✙☛ ☞✛✛♠✙ ☞✫✒☞ ☞✫☛✗ ✫✒✢☛ ✬✒✓☛★ ✹✛✌☛✢☛✘✑ ☞✫☛✘☛ ✒✘☛ ✙✛✬☛ ✪☛✒☞✧✘☛✙ ✛✪ ✫✧✬✒✍ ☞✛✛♠ ✬✒✳✦✍✚ ☞✫✒☞ ✒✘☛ ✍✛☞ ✳✍✛✌✍ ✒✬✛✍✚ ✒✣☛✙★ ✱✙ ✌☛ ✫✒✢☛ ✙☛☛✍ ❢✙☛☛ ✣★ ✔✔✰✑ ✜☛✘☞✒✦✍ ✒✍✒☞✛✬✦✜✒♠ ✒✍✓ ✍☛✧✘✛♠✛✚✦✜✒♠ ❢✘☛♠✒☞☛✓ ☞✛ ☞✫☛ ✍☛✘✢✛✧✙ ✙✗✙☞☛✬✰ ✒✓✒✣☞✒☞✦✛✍✙ ✫✒✢☛ ♠☛✓ ☞✛ ❤◗❳▲ ▲❏r❧❵ ❙◗◗❧❨ ☞✫☛ ✙✳✦♠♠☛✓ ✧✙☛ ✛✪ ✫✒✍✓✙✑ ✣✘✛s✒s♠✗ ✓✧☛ ☞✛ ❉❊▲▲ ❙◗◗❧ ✇▲r▲ ☞✫☛ ✦✬✣✛✘☞✒✍☞ ✘✛♠☛ ✛✪ ☞✛✛♠✙ ✦✍ ✫✧✬✒✍ ♠✦✢☛✙★ ❱◗❯❘❭ ❋❘ ✐❧❭❯❞❏❋❨ ❉❊▲ ◗❘▲ ❏❬◗❞▲ ❋ ❏ ▼✛✘☛✛✢☛✘✑ ☞✫☛ ✌✒✗✙ ✦✍ ✌✫✦✜✫ ✫✧✬✒✍✙ ✧✙☛ ◆❊◗❪❪▲r❨ ❉❊❋ ❋ ❏ ❧❏r❩▲ ✒✍✓ ✬✒✳☛ ☞✛✛♠✙ ✛✪☞☛✍ ✘☛❛✧✦✘☛ ✚✘☛✒☞☛✘ ❙◗❘▲ ❱r◗❳ ✇❊❋◆❊ ✬☛✬✛✘✗ ✒✍✓ ✜✛✬✣♠☛✯ ✛✘✚✒✍✦✙✒☞✦✛✍✒♠ ✙✳✦♠♠✙✑ ❱❧❏❫▲ ❊❏❞▲ ❬▲▲❘ s✛☞✫ ✛✪ ✌✫✦✜✫ ✒✘☛ ✒s✙☛✍☞ ✦✍ ✒✣☛✙★ r▲❳◗❞▲❭ ❙◗ ❪r◗❭❯◆▲ ❏ ✇◗r❫❋❘❩ ▲❭❩▲❨ ✲✫☛ ☛✒✘♠✦☛✙☞ ☛✢✦✓☛✍✜☛ ✪✛✘ ☞✫☛ ❉❊▲ ◗❘▲ ❬▲❧◗✇ ❋ ❏ ✬✒✳✦✍✚ ✒✍✓ ✧✙☛ ✛✪ ✙☞✛✍☛ ☞✛✛♠✙ ❊❏❘❭ ❏❥▲❨ ✜✛✬☛✙ ✪✘✛✬ ✙✦☞☛✙ ✦✍ ✩☞✫✦✛✣✦✒ ✒✍✓ ❦❏❘ ❵◗❯ ❯❩❩▲❙ ✇❊❏❙ ❑☛✍✗✒ ❢✙☛☛ ▼✒✣ ✔✰★ ♦☞ ✦✙ ♠✦✳☛♠✗ ☞✫✒☞ ❙❊▲▲ ❙◗◗❧ ❳❏❵ ❊❏❞▲ ☞✫☛ ☛✒✘♠✦☛✙☞ ✙☞✛✍☛ ☞✛✛♠ ✬✒✳☛✘✙ ✌☛✘☛ ❬▲▲❘ ❯▲❭ ❱◗r❣ ☞✫☛ ❆✻✼✽✾✿❀❁❂❃✽❄❅❈✻✼★  ❖❘P◗ ❙❯❱ ❲❱❳❨❩❩❨❩❳ ❬❭ ❙❨◗❱ ✷ ✥✁ ✂✄ ☎✆✝ ✞✟✁✝ ✠✡ ✠☎✆✝☛ ✟✞☎✂☞✂☎✂✝✁✌ ✍✝ ✎✠ ✄✠☎ ✏✄✠✍ ✍✆✝☎✆✝☛ ☎✠✠✑ ♠✟✏✂✄✒ ✍✟✁ ✎✠✄✝ ✓✔ ♠✝✄ ✠☛ ✍✠♠✝✄ ✠☛ ✓✠☎✆✕ ✖☎ ✂✁ ✗✠✁✁✂✓✑✝ ☎✆✟☎ ✁☎✠✄✝ ☎✠✠✑ ♠✟✏✝☛✁ ✍✝☛✝ ✓✠☎✆ ✍✠♠✝✄ ✟✄✎ ♠✝✄✕ ❛✠♠✝✄ ✂✄ ✗✟☛☎✂✞♦✑✟☛ ♠✟✔ ✆✟☞✝ ♠✟✎✝ ✟✄✎ ♦✁✝✎ ☎✠✠✑✁ ☎✠ ✠✓☎✟✂✄ ✡✠✠✎ ✡✠☛ ☎✆✝♠✁✝✑☞✝✁ ✟✁ ✍✝✑✑ ✟✁ ☎✠ ✁♦✁☎✟✂✄ ☎✆✝✂☛ ✞✆✂✑✎☛✝✄ ✟✡☎✝☛ ✍✝✟✄✂✄✒✕ ✥✓✠♦☎ ❆✘✌✙✙✙ ✔✝✟☛✁ ✟✒✠✌ ✂♠✗☛✠☞✝♠✝✄☎✁ ✂✄ ☎✆✝ ☎✝✞✆✄✂✚♦✝✁ ✡✠☛ ✏✂✑✑✂✄✒ ✟✄✂♠✟✑✁ ✟☛✝ ✝☞✂✎✝✄☎ ✡☛✠♠ ☎✆✝ ✟✗✗✝✟☛✟✄✞✝ ✠✡ ✄✝✍ ✏✂✄✎✁ ✠✡ ☎✠✠✑✁ ✁♦✞✆ ✟✁ ✁✗✝✟☛✲ ☎✆☛✠✍✝☛✁ ✟✄✎ ☎✆✝ ✓✠✍ ✟✄✎ ✟☛☛✠✍✕ t✆✝ ♠✝✟☎ ☎✆♦✁ ✠✓☎✟✂✄✝✎ ✍✟✁ ✗☛✠✓✟✓✑✔ ✗☛✠✞✝✁✁✝✎ ✓✔ ☛✝♠✠☞✂✄✒ ☎✆✝ ✓✠✄✝✁✌ ✡✠✑✑✠✍✝✎ ✓✔ ✎☛✔✂✄✒✌ ✁♠✠✏✂✄✒ ✟✄✎ ✁☎✠☛✟✒✝✕ t✆♦✁✌ ✡✠✠✎ ✞✠♦✑✎ ✓✝ ✁☎✠☛✝✎ ✡✠☛ ✑✟☎✝☛ ✞✠✄✁♦♠✗☎✂✠✄✕ t✆✝☛✝ ✍✝☛✝ ✠☎✆✝☛ ✞✆✟✄✒✝✁✌ ✁♦✞✆ ✟✁ ☎✆✝ ☎☛✟✗✗✂✄✒ ✠✡ ✡♦☛✲✓✝✟☛✂✄✒ ✟✄✂♠✟✑✁ ✛☎✠ ♦✁✝ ☎✆✝ ✡♦☛ ✡✠☛ ✞✑✠☎✆✂✄✒✜ ✟✄✎ ☎✆✝ ✂✄☞✝✄☎✂✠✄ ✠✡ ✁✝✍✂✄✒ ✄✝✝✎✑✝✁✕ ✤ ✦✧★✩✪✫✬✭✪✮✯★✪✳ t✆✝ ✝✟☛✑✂✝✁☎ ✝☞✂✎✝✄✞✝ ✠✡ ✁✝✍✄ ✞✑✠☎✆✂✄✒ ✞✠♠✝✁ ✡☛✠♠ ✟✓✠♦☎ ❚✢✌✙✙✙ ✔✝✟☛✁ ◆✮✬★ ✬✭★ ✰✩✪✱✴✵✶ ✮✵ ✬✭★ ✭✩✵✸✹★✳ ✺✭★ ✻✦★ ✮✼ ✟✒✠✕ ✣✝✁✂✎✝✁✌ ✍✂☎✆ ☎✆✝ ✂✄☎☛✠✎♦✞☎✂✠✄ ✠✡ ☎✆✝ ✗♦✄✞✆ ✓✑✟✎✝ ☎✝✞✆✄✂✚♦✝ ☎✠ ✬✭★ ✦✧★✩✪✫✬✭✪✮✯★✪ ♠✟✏✝ ✁♠✟✑✑ ✞✆✂✁✝✑✲✑✂✏✝ ☎✠✠✑✁✌ ✂☎ ✍✟✁ ✄✠✍ ✗✠✁✁✂✓✑✝ ☎✠ ♠✟✏✝ ✝✄✒☛✟☞✂✄✒✁ ★✵✩❡✹★✸ ✭✻✵✬★✪✦ ✬✮ ✠✄ ✓✠✄✝✌ ✟✄☎✑✝☛✌ ✂☞✠☛✔ ✠☛ ✍✠✠✎✕ ✭✻✪✹ ✦✧★✩✪✦ ✮✱★✪ ✹✮✵✶★✪ ✸✴✦✬✩✵✰★✦✳ ❈✩✵ ✽✮✻ ✦✻✶✶★✦✬ ✩✵✽ ✩✸✱✩✵✬✩✶★ ✴✵ ✻✦✴✵✶ ✦✻✰✭ ★s✻✴✧✾★✵✬✿ ❄❅❇ ❉❊❋❅ ❍❏❑❇ ❄❇❅❋▲▼❊❇ A C D B