Motivation Application 2024 PDF

Psychological definition Defining Defining Motivation Motivation The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation. The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically,...

Psychological definition Defining Defining Motivation Motivation The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation. The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal. Three key elements: – Intensity – how hard a person tries – Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with, organizational goals – Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort Stephen P Robbins  Motivation may be defined as a planned managerial process, which stimulates people to work to the best of their capabilities, by providing them with motives, which are based on their unfulfilled needs. “Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goods.” —William G. Scott “Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward.” — Flippo Motivation is, in fact, pressing the right button to get the desired human behaviour. Organizational Early Early Theories Theories of of Motivation Motivation These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth) McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory McClelland’s Theory of Needs Content CONTENT CONTENT APPROACH APPROACH  Motivation- Content and process approaches  Content theory is a subset of motivational theories that try to define what motivates people. Content theories of motivation often describe a system of needs that motivate peoples’ actions. content theories of motivation attempt to define what those motives or needs are.  Some famous content models include:  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,  Herzberg’s Two Factors Theory,  McClelland’s Theory of Needs, and  Alderfer’s ERG Theory Abraham Abraham Maslow’s Maslow’s Theory Theory of of Human Human Motivation Motivation Pyramid/need Maslow’s Maslow’s Hierarchy Hierarchy of of Needs Needs There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. Assumptions – Individuals cannot Higher Order move to the next Internal higher level until all needs at the current (lower) Lower Order level are satisfied External – Must move in hierarchical order Alderfer’s Alderfer’s ERG ERG Theory Theory A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research. Three groups of core needs: – Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety) – Relatedness (Maslow: social and status) – Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization) Removed the hierarchical assumption – Can be motivated by all three at once Popular, but not accurate, theory McGregor’s McGregor’s Theory Theory XX and and Theory Theory YY  Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and Theory Y (positive). – Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view – The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees  No empirical evidence to support this theory. Herzberg’s Herzberg’s Two-Factor Two-Factor Theory Theory Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs Extrinsic and Intrinsic and Related to Related to Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Criticisms Criticisms of of Two-Factor Two-Factor Theory Theory Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to remove dissatisfaction. If motivators are given, then satisfaction can occur. Herzberg is limited by his procedure – Participants had self-serving bias Reliability of raters questioned – Bias or errors of observation No overall measure of satisfaction was used Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity McClelland’s McClelland’s Three Three Needs Needs Theory Theory  Need for Achievement (nAch) – The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed  Need for Power (nPow) – The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise  Need for Affiliation (nAff) – The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships  People have varying levels of each of the three needs. – Hard to measure Performance Performance Predictions Predictions for for High High nAch nAch  People with a high need for achievement are likely to: – Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations – Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk – Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus. Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch – Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success  Good research support, but it is not a very practical theory PROCESS PROCESS APPROACH APPROACH  Process theories of motivation attempt to explain how and why our motivations affect our behaviors. Some famous process theories of motivation include:  Skinner’s reinforcement theory,  Vroom’s Expectancy Theory,  Adam’s Equity Theory, and  Locke’s Goal Setting Theory. Contemporary Contemporary Theories Theories of of Motivation Motivation  Cognitive Evaluation Theory  Goal-Setting Theory – Management by Objectives (MBO)  Self-Efficacy Theory – Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory  Reinforcement Theory  Equity Theory  Expectancy Theory Cognitive Cognitive Evaluation Evaluation Theory Theory Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation Major Implications for work rewards – Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent – Extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic rewards – Pay should be noncontingent on performance – Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards reduce it Self-concordance – When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personal interests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people are happier and more successful Locke’s Locke’s Goal-Setting Goal-Setting Theory Theory  Basic Premise: – That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance  Difficult Goals: – Focus and direct attention – Energize the person to work harder – Difficulty increases persistence – Force people to be more effective and efficient  Relationship between goals and performance depends on: – Goal commitment (the more public the better!) – Task characteristics (simple, well-learned) – Culture (best match is in North America) Implementation: Implementation: Management Management by by Objectives Objectives  MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.  Goals must be: – Tangible – Verifiable – Measurable  Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization.  Four common ingredients to MBO programs: – Goal specificity – Participative decision making – Explicit time period – Performance feedback Bandura’s Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy Theory Theory  An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. – Higher efficacy is related to: Greater confidence Greater persistence in the face of difficulties Better response to negative feedback (work harder) – Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory. Increased Confidence Given Hard Goal Higher Performance Higher Self-Set Goal Increasing Increasing Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy  Enactive mastery – Most important source of efficacy – Gaining relevant experience with task or job – “Practice makes perfect”  Vicarious modeling – Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task – Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or herself  Verbal persuasion – Motivation through verbal conviction – Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies  Arousal – Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task – Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task Reinforcement Reinforcement Theory Theory  Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one. – Behavior is environmentally caused – Thought (internal cogitative event) is not important Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored – Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers – Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior – Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole cause Adams’ Adams’ Equity Equity Theory Theory  Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others. – When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no tension as the situation is considered fair – When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness Underrewarded states cause anger Overrewarded states cause guilt – Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity Equity Equity Theory’s Theory’s “Relevant “Relevant Others” Others”  Can be four different situations: – Self-Inside The person’s experience in a different job in the same organization – Self-Outside The person’s experience in a different job in a different organization – Other-Inside Another individual or group within the organization – Other-Outside Another individual or group outside of the organization Reactions Reactions to to Inequity Inequity  Employee behaviors to create equity: – Change inputs (slack off) – Change outcomes (increase output) – Distort/change perceptions of self – Distort/change perceptions of others – Choose a different referent person – Leave the field (quit the job)  Propositions relating to inequitable pay: – Paid by time: Overrewarded employees produce more Underrewarded employees produce less with low quality – Paid by quality: Overrewarded employees give higher quality Underrewarded employees make more of low quality Justice Justice and and Equity Equity Theory Theory Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. Vroom’s Vroom’s Expectancy Expectancy Theory Theory The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual. Expectancy of Instrumentality Valuation of the performance of success in reward in success getting reward employee’s eyes Integrating Integrating Contemporary Contemporary Motivation Motivation Theories Theories  Based on Expectancy Theory  Global Global Implications Implications  Motivation theories are often culture-bound. – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Order of needs is not universal – McClelland’s Three Needs Theory nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and performance concerns – not universal traits – Adams’ Equity Theory A desire for equity is not universal “Each according to his need” – socialist/former communists  Desire for interesting work seems to be universal. – There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory may be universal Summary Summary and and Managerial Managerial Implications Implications  Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, Herzberg) – Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior  Goal-Setting Theory – While limited in scope, good predictor  Reinforcement Theory – Powerful predictor in many work areas  Equity Theory – Best known for research in organizational justice  Expectancy Theory – Good predictor of performance variables but shares many of the assumptions as rational decision making Motivation Motivation Applications Applications Job Job Design: Design: The The JCM JCM  Job Characteristics Model (JCM) – Hackman and Oldham’s concept that any job can be described through five core job dimensions: Skill variety – Requirements for different tasks in the job. Task identity – Completion of a whole piece of work. Task significance – The job’s impact on others. Autonomy – Level of discretion in decision making. Feedback – Amount of direct and clear information on performance. – The way elements in a job are organized (job design) impacts motivation, satisfaction, and performance. Motivating Motivating Potential Potential Score Score (MPS) (MPS)  Five dimensions combined into a single predictive index of motivation. – People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive. – Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.  While the JCM framework is supported by research, the MPS model isn’t practical and doesn’t work well. How How Can Can Jobs Jobs Be Be Redesigned? Redesigned?  Job Rotation – The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another  Job Enlargement – The horizontal expansion of jobs  Job Enrichment – The vertical expansion of jobs Alternative Alternative Work Work Arrangements Arrangements  Flextime – Employees work during a common core time period each day but have discretion in forming their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core.  Job Sharing – The practice of having two or more people split a 40-hour-a- week job Another Another Alternative: Alternative: Telecommuting Telecommuting  Telecommuting – Employees do their work at home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked to their office.  The Virtual Office – Employees work out of their home on a relatively permanent basis.  Typical Telecommuting Jobs – Professional and other knowledge-related tasks – Routine information-handling tasks – Mobile activities Motivation Motivation Is Is Not Not the the Whole Whole Story Story P = f(A x M x O) Employee Employee Involvement Involvement A participative process that uses the input of employees to increase their commitment to the organization’s success. By increasing worker autonomy and control over work lives (involvement), organizations: – Increase employee motivation – Gain greater organizational commitment – Experience greater worker productivity – Observe higher levels of job satisfaction Types Types of of Employee Employee Involvement Involvement Programs Programs  Participative Management – Subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors  Representative Participation – Works councils Groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted for any personnel decisions – Board representative An employee sits on a company’s board of directors and represents the interests of the firm’s employees  Quality Circle – A work group of employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems, investigate causes, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions Motivational Motivational Theory Theory Links Links to to EI EI Programs Programs Four Four Major Major Strategic Strategic Reward Reward Decisions Decisions 1. What to pay? (pay structure) 2. How to pay individuals? (variable pay plans and skill-based pay plans) 3. What benefits to offer? Do we offer choice of benefits? (flexible benefits) 4. How to build recognition programs? Summary Summary and and Managerial Managerial Implications Implications  To Motivate Employees – Recognize individual differences – Use goals and feedback – Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them – Link rewards to performance – Check the reward system for equity