Organizational Behaviour PDF

September 9th Class→ 1 Characteristics of experts: 1. Extensive knowledge base 2. Complex perception of work 3. Compliment analytical skills with intuitive reasoning 4. Understanding significance of invisible 5. React effectively to non-routine situation and make decisions under pres...

September 9th Class→ 1 Characteristics of experts: 1. Extensive knowledge base 2. Complex perception of work 3. Compliment analytical skills with intuitive reasoning 4. Understanding significance of invisible 5. React effectively to non-routine situation and make decisions under pressure ***When reading a textbook focus mainly on knowledge base section of the text*** → Law of requisite variety: in order for individual to register the complexity of the environment that person must be as complex as the environment —> your conceptual toolbox can be very different from another individual → Subjective and objective reality —>Only 12-15% people will agree with you on the theory you decide is the most valued → while deemed by you least important will be picked a least 10% more → What is a psychological contract? An individual's beliefs shaped by the organizations regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between individuals and their organisation. ○ Implicit and explicit contracts Willing Unwilling Able Inadvertent Breach Unable Disruptive No Contract September 16th Class→ 2 Individual & Organizational Motivation Process Theories Focus on HOW motivation is evoked (e.g., Goal-Setting Theory) What can Organizations do / How should leaders and employees Behave to evoke motivation? Scientific Management Theory Frederick Taylor Applying science to work Saw customised, self-styled work as a serious productivity problem. Popularised “Time and Motion” studies. ○ Entire focus on efficiency, productivity and output ○ Workers need to be Incentivized. -Motivation = Money Wanted to find the “one right way” to do every single task. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Human beings are driven by 5 types of innate needs that reside on different levels. Once a need becomes satisfied, the next level becomes dominant. Factors at higher (or lower!) levels than one is on, are not motivating. Lower Order needs Psychological & Safety needs Satisfied externally. VS. Higher order needs Social, esteem, & self-actualization Satisfied Internally 1. Physiological needs. Needs that must be satisfied for the person to survive. a. Organizational contribution -- e.g., pay) 2. Safety needs. Need for security, stability, and a structured and ordered environment. a. Organizational contribution -- e.g., safe working conditions, job security) 3. Belonging needs. Need for social interaction, affection, love, and friendship. a. (Organizational contribution -- e.g., Friendly and supportive supervision, teamwork) 4. Esteem needs. Need for feelings of adequacy, independence, and appreciation / recognition by others (Organizational contribution -- e.g., promotion) 5. Self-actualization needs. Need to develop one’s true potential as an individual, to the fullest extent possible a. (Organizational contribution -- e.g., development opportunities, creative expression) Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs BUT WAIT!!! Very little empirical support! Individuals allocate resources to high-order needs when lower-order needs have not been satisfied. Not all people experience need categories in the same order… or sequentially. Does not replicate across cultures. Reinforcement: →Modifying employees’ behaviour through the strategic use of immediate rewards and punishments Governed by the law of effect / principle of operant conditioning. - Reinforced behaviour is repeated. Techniques can be / are often used in tandem. - Positive reinforcement leads to higher performance, well-being, and affective /relational benefits among employees. —>Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation: engage in an activity to achieve a separate (i.e. pay, benefits, punishment) Motivation lies outside the person / activity. Behaviour is a means to an end. Intrinsic Motivation: engage in an activity for the inherent satisfaction and pleasure derived from the activity (i.e. feelings of achievement, accomplishment, challenge) Motivation lies inside the person / activity. Behaviour is an end goal. →Equity theory & social comparisons (resentment, competition) (in) justice perception (reduced motivation, workplace deviance/aggression) ▪ Distributive justice: Perceived fairness concerning the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. ▪ Procedural justice: Perceived fairness concerning the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. ▪ Interactive justice: The degree to which one perceives that they are treated with respect and dignity. —>Cognitive Evaluation Theory  Offering extrinsic rewards (e.g money) for work that was previously intrinsically rewarding, will decrease the person’s motivation, and in turn, his/her performance. 1. Reduces sense of control/autonomy 2. Changes in perceived explanation for one’s behaviour / “cheapness” the experience. Fostering Intrinsically Motivating Jobs —>Motivation -The psychological forces that determine the direction of people’s behaviours, their level of effort and level of persistence. An internal state that directs individuals towards certain goals Every living human being is motivated. Relevance of motivation to managers? ‘Lazy ‘are unmotivated workers. – Performance = Ability X motivation How to Change your Boss 1. Understand purpose of Positive reinforcement 2. State undesired Behaviour. 3. State Desired Behaviour 4. Create opportunities for desired behaviour. 5. Give verbal praise. McClelland’s Need Theory - Thematic Apperception test (TAT) Write stories based on pictures, reveals dominate themes. - 3 human motives Power, affiliation, and achievement —>Need for POWER The need to influence and lead others to be in control of one’s environment. (+)SOCIALISED POWER Seek to make things better for others. Use power to empower others. ○ Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King (-)PERSONALIZED POWER Impulsive Personal dominance Dictator-like ○ Donald Trump, Hitler —>Need for AFFILIATION The desire for friendly/close interrelationships (+) AFFILIATIVE INTEREST Concern for relationships but not at expense of goals Can still give negative feedback or make tough decisions. ○ Ex. Lightening McǪueen and Meredith Grey (-)AFFILIATIVE ASSURANCE Seeking approval at all costs Avoids issues or conflicts that threaten relationships. Ex. SpongeBob, Michael Scott (the office) Need for ACHIEVEMENT The need to accomplish goals, excel, and strive continually to do things better. Take calculated risks. Task-oriented Personal responsibility for success/failure ○ Ex. Wolf of Wall Street, Arnold Schwarzenegger STORIES 1.AFFILIATIVE INTEREST: Gabe is in a loving relationship with his girl Alexandria, who are both on the swim team. Gabe told Alexandria, “During practice I want to focus on swimming so I can qualify for finals”. 2.ACHIEVEMENT: Same is practising how to parallel park since his driving test is coming up. He takes time out of his busy day to practise. He knows that if he doesn’t practise, he might fail. 3. PERSONALISED POWER: Ahmad wants to play his game during recess by being extremely bossy. He wants certain children using some toys and others playing by themselves. He mainly has his personal interest in mind. —-> Hackman G Oldham  Job Characteristics Theory: A different approach: focus on internal work motivation Hackman’s daughter in crib Definition of internal work motivation: Performing well on the job results in the individual feeling a sense of accomplishment and feeling good; performing poorly results in the individual feeling unhappy. Hackman G. Oldham Job Characteristic Theory: —->Job Redesign 1. Job rotation → Swap 2. Job enlargement → Tasks 3. Job enrichment → responsibility 4. Sociotechnical system → mach tech 5. Self-management → all 5 characteristics —->The Leader Role Action Scripts that foster motivation Creating the right vision Ensuring that employees are placed in the right jobs Monitoring and rewarding performance Proactive managing low performers  Creating a culture that values employees and performance SEPTEMBER 23RD, 2024 WEEK 3 Decoding Behaviour & Personality —>Personality The relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way an individual interacts with his or her environment and how she or he feels, thinks, and behaves. Big 5: CANOE or OCEAN Frameworks for understanding human personality. →CONSCIENTIOUSNESS Dependable and trustworthy. Refer to a degree of organization, responsibility, and dependability in a person. They are often disciplined, organised and reliable. Strongest influence on performance of the big 5. Prioritises: More time on task Goal setting & persistence Exceed work requirements. Predicts: career success & health →AGREEABLENESS Likeable and cooperative. Tend to be more empathetic and approachable. Prioritizes: Communion striving Focuses on getting along Not very good at dealing with conflict or putting their foot down. →NEUROTICISM Tendency to experience chronic negative emotions like anxiety and depression, leading to mood swings and distress. Low neuroticism indicates emotional stability. Nervous, moody, emotional, insecure and jealous. Associated with Dif erential Exposure. ○ Appraise day-to-day situations as stressful. Associated with Dif erential Reactivity to Stressors. ○ Less belief in cope with stressors Negative af ectivity →OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE Seeking out new experiences. Tend to be imaginative, curious, creative, and open to new ideas and experiences. Predictive of cross-cultural sensitivity & international  More likely to migrate into artistic & scientific fields. —>EXTRAVERSION Outgoing, sociable, and assertive. Enjoy interacting with others. Priorities: Status Striving Strong desire to obtain power & influence within social structure. Tend to be high in positive af ectivity.(sales position, manager ) Mayers-Briggs Type Indicator: →EXTROVERTED / INTROVERTED Outgoing and sociable vs. shy and reserved. Are individuals more oriented toward the external world and social interactions (extraversion) or the internal world of thoughts and reflection (introverted) →SENSING / INTUITING How do individuals like to pertain information. Individuals with sensing focus on concrete facts, while those with intuition prefer possibilities and potential. Using your 5 senses vs. subjective perception and instinct. →THINKING/FEELING This relates to decision making. Thinkers prefer to make decisions based on logic and objective analysis, while feelers prefer to consider the impact on people and special circumstances. Logic and analysis Vs. their own and other people’s reactions →JUDGING /PERCEIVING This reflects and individuals’ preference for either planned or organized approach to life (judging) or a more flexible and spontaneous approach (perceiving). →Honesty / Humility 4 dimensions 1. Sincerity - unwilling to be manipulative/dishonest 2. Fairness-unwilling to cheat, steal, use fraud 3. Greed Avoidance - less concerned with wealth, status 4. Modesty- acknowledge limits, key accomplishments in perspective, low self-focus Predicts Counterproductive Behaviours. Core Self – Evaluation (CSE) “positive self-concept.” Evaluates that represent one’s appraisal of people & things in  relation to oneself. Encompasses 4 traits: 1. Self-esteem 2. Self-efficacy 3. Locus of control (internal vs. external factors) 4. Emotional stability - Linked to higher job satisfaction & performance. →Proactive Personality Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres. Creates positive change in the work environment. →Social Dominance Orientation Preference for social hierarchy & inequality between groups. “Doggy Dog World” Prejudiced views Lack empathy more likely to be more aggressive, homophobic (Putin, stalin) →The Dark Triad← 3 Traits: Callousness & manipulative (more likely to engage in work place harassment) 1. Machiavellianism Manipulative, deceptive, persuasive, and unethical Ends justify the means. Distant power-player 2. Narcissism Arrogant, self-centred, entitled, demand excessive admiration. 3. Psychopathy 1. Deviant behavior due to high level of thrill seeking, impulsive & selfishness 2. Display superficial charm, lack of emotion & remorsefulness —>Emotional Intelligence Capacity to Monitor feelings & emotions. 4 Core Dimensions: 1. Self-awareness: oneself 2.Other awareness: others 3.Emotion Regulation: recover well & respond. 4.Use of emotions: leverage emotions in positive →Interactionist Perspective - More complex view between personality & behavior - Contingent on situation —>Theoretical Models: Reciprocal Determinism ○ Three-way influence Conditional Reasoning ○ Based on personality Trait Activation ○ Certain situational cues needed to be evoked. (traits and situations) —>Dealing With “Difficult” people 1. Create a rich picture of the problem person. 2. Reframe your Goals. 3. Stage the encounter 4. Follow up. —>Trait Models← Assume that people are composed of a relatively stable set of traits or dimensions which define our personality. All people have these traits but vary in the degree to which they exhibit specific dimensions. —>Cognitive Reasoning Approach (CRA) SELF Individuals interpret what happens in social environments based on individual dispositions. These are a type of mental map defining our assumptions, motives and how we frame the world. These differences result in different behaviours due to different justification systems. “IF I… then the situation” Examples: CRA: 1.If I am the best at my job, then I will be promoted. 2.If I am the best at my job, then they won’t promote me because I am irreplaceable. →Cognitive Affective Processing System (CAPs) SITUATION  Individuals react according to “IF then” relations depending on their interpretation of the situation. Behaviour is best predicted from a comprehensive understanding of the person, the situation, and the interaction between the two. “IF then situation… then I” E.g. Managers Vs. Co-Workers Examples: CAPs: 1. If I am criticised by my manager’s, then I accept it and try to improve. 2.If I am criticised by my co-workers, then I don’t listen to them because they have no authority over me SEPTEMBER 30th, 2024 WEEK 4 Interpersonal Communication & Perception/Attribution —>Perception: process by which we select, organize, and evaluate the stimuli, in our environment to make it meaningful for ourselves Positive or negative affects your perception thus affects your action thus affects the outcome —> Stereotype: broad, often oversimplified assumption made about all members of a particular group Benefit: The brain filters information, selects what to focus on, and organizes it into categories for easier understanding.. Drawbacks: ▪ Prevents us from taking everything in ▪ Makes out interpretations open to question. ▪ Can promote stereotypes. Selective Attention —>Factors that affect what we perceive: Internal ○ Motives, values, interests, attitude, past experiences and expectations  External ○ Motion, intensity, size, novelty, and salience Self-Serving Bias- defined. Third most important theory Tendency for people to attribute their successes to internal factors while blaming external. Self-serving Bias strongly associated with mental health. Fundamental Attribution Error Firs First iMPORTANT THEORY We tend to blame others' behaviour more on their personality than on external factors. Communication Mistakes only really smart people make. Poor interpersonal skills The clueless Factor ○ They develop self-referential belief system. 3 Stages of the Perceptual Process (What is involved in each)? A. Selection Filtering info our senses receive. B.Organization Make stimuli simpler. ○ Social Cognition Theory: we organize stimuli into schemas. C.Evaluation Process of evaluating Johari Window: An information processing model Consists of four regions determined by whether information about oneself is known or unknown to oneself and others. Key points A small arena hinders communication. Two ways to increase arena. a) Self-disclosure (façade to arena) b) Feedback from others (blind spot to arena) -Must have trust and psychological –facade has the most conflicts and blindspot is second most common Examples. Arena: I tell people my favourite colour is blue (its known to me and others) Façade: I am very anxious, but I do not display it to others (known to self but not others) Blindspot: I have food in my teeth, and I don’t know but others can see. Unknown: I sleep talk in my sleep, and I don’t know and neither do others Objectives: Think about importance of communication in organizations. Gain insight into your own communication skills. Learn to recognize effective and ineffective types of interpersonal communication. Increase understanding of own self-perceptions and attributions Use the Johari window to reflect on how others perceive you. Communication: Process of information exchange between communicators with the goal of achieving mutual understanding. Why is it important? Essential skill for anyone in business – manager or entry level worker Most frequent and important of managerial activities Basis for almost all other activities people in business sector engage in Social Identity Theory → Based on 3 beliefs 1. Social Categorization  2. Social Identification 3. Social Comparison “The difference between what the sender intended to communicate and what the receiver actually understood.” Sources of distortion = Barriers to communication 1. Poor relationships 2. Lack of clarity 3. Misinterpretation of non-verbal communication Types of Noise 1. Environmental a. Ex. room temp, lawn mower 2. Physiological(body) a. Ex. hunger, headaches 3. Emotional a. Ex. worry, fear, anxiety Responding Styles Styles: Evaluate, Interpretive, Supportive, Probing, and Understanding Active listening: is the most crucial communication skill. Assertiveness: communication that is not overly aggressive or under I-Statement 1. Behaviour 2. Effect 3. Feelings Perceptual Distortions 1.Stereotyping a. Why? Enhance group solidarity, boost our self-esteem b. We perceive things through our mental maps c. Depending in which one if these is important to you – you focus on this when making perceptions  d. People also judge basing on profession 2.Halo Ef ect / Horns Ef ect a. Occurs when our evaluation of another person is dominated by only one of his or her positive/negative traits. 3.Central Tendency a.Occurs when a person avoids extreme judgements and rates everything as average. 4.Contrast Effects (Recency): a. Our judgments are influenced by comparing someone to others we've recently seen who are better or worse in that trait. 5.Primacy Effect a.Perception dominated on first impression. 6.Projection a. We project our own traits or feelings onto others to avoid guilt or failure. It's a defence mechanism to avoid facing our emotions. 7.Perceptual Defense a. It filters out what we don’t want to see and highlights what we do, shaping our self-image and relationships. This can lead to a self-fulfilling cycle of perception. D.I.E Model - More Accurately teach perception & attribution in cross-cultural interactions. - Description, Interpretation, Evaluation —> Attribution Theory Second important theory —>Cognitive dissonance is the uncomfortable feeling we get when we hold two conflicting thoughts or beliefs at the same time, or when our actions don't align with our beliefs. Example: You value being healthy but binge on junk food. This conflict between your belief (eating healthy) and your action (eating junk food) creates discomfort, leading to cognitive dissonance. To reduce it, you might tell yourself, "I’ll work out extra hard tomorrow." October 7th, 2024 WEEK 5 Individual and Organizational Learning → What is knowledge ? Facts, info, skills, acquired through learning (reading, listening, observing) →Power: ability to influence someone to do something they otherwise wouldn't do 5 power bases 3 FORMAL BASES: ○ Coercive: fear threat, punishment ○ Reward: rewards, benefits ○ Legitimate: position, hierarchical 2 PERSONAL BASE: ○ Expert: knowledge, skills, info, experience ○ Referent: attraction, charisma, admiration 2 ADD-ON BASE: trust and respect 1. **Explicit Knowledge** (Tangible): - Can be easily articulated and codified.  - Found in documents like textbooks, policies, and databases. - Easily shared or explained. 2. **Tacit Knowledge** (Intangible): - Difficult to express or write down. - Gained through experience, insights, intuition, and motor skills. - Hard to share and context-specific. - Often individual-based, involving judgement and understanding. 3. Implicit: implied or understood -norms, assumptions, judgment -not always shared & recognized key points: - Explicit knowledge is easier to share, while tacit knowledge is more personal and context-based. - Tacit knowledge isn't always recognized or shared easily. —>general Dependency Postulate -Dependency and power are connected: The more B depends on A, the more power A has over B. Dependency is influenced by supply and demand Dependency increases with: Scarcity: How rare something is. Importance: How vital it is. Non-substitutability: The lack of alternative sources or options. In simple terms, if someone controls something important, rare, and hard to replace, they hold more power. → Learning: relatively permanent change in knowledge Learning challenges ○ learning = change ○ Learning is dif icult ○ Myth of multitasking ○ Strategic unlearning ○ Individual learning vs organizational learning →The learning Style Inventory: Indicates how different people are stronger at different stages of the cycle Measures the extent that you prefer one mode of learning → The learning process or learning Cycle → Learning Style Different learning styles or modes are associated with each stage of this cycle. People develop preferred modes, or ways of learning. Effective learners develop some level of proficiency in each style/mode. → Why are Learning Styles important? They start to teach us about ourselves. Part of the Reflective Mindset – gaining self-awareness They will help us understand one another’s preferences when working in teams → Learning Style Types →Too many/too little 1. Accommodating: a. When there are too many accommodators: i. Trivial improvements ii. Meaningless activity b. When there are too few accommodators: i. Work is not completed on time ii. Impractical plans iii. Work is not goal-directed 2. Diverging: a. When too many divergents: i. Paralyzed by alternatives ii. Cannot make decisions b. When too little divergents: i. Lack of ideas ii. Inability to recognize opportunities and problems 3. Converging: a. When too little: i. Solving the wrong problems ii. Hastily decision making b. When too many: i. Lack of focus ii. No testing of ideas or theories  iii. Scattered throughs 4. Assimilating a. When too little: i. Castle in the air ii. No practical applications b. When too many: i. Unable to learn from mistakes ii. No sound basis for work iii. No systematic approach →Learning Models Concrete Experience (CE) – activist – prefers doing and experiencing Reflective Observation (RO)– reflector – observes and reflects Abstract Conceptualization (AC)– theorist – wants to understand underlying reasons, concepts, relationships Active Experimentation (AE) – pragmatist – likes to try things to see if they work →Learning Styles Accommodating - People with this learning style have the ability to learn primarily from "hands- on" experience Diverging - People with this learning style are best at viewing concrete situations from many different points of view. Their approach situations is to observe rather than take action Converging - People with this learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories Assimilating - People with this learning style are best at understanding a wide range of information and putting it into concise, logical form → Types of Conditioning← →Classical Conditioning based on Ivan Pavlov's experiments: It is passive. The main idea is to create a **conditioned response** to an unconditioned stimulus, making you react to something in a way you didn't before. It is not typically seen as a useful organizational tool. → Operant Conditioning (skinner) - Applies to voluntary behaviour → Reinforcement is about using rewards to encourage the repetition of a behavior:  1. Positive Reinforcement: ○ You reward the behavior by giving something good. 2. Negative Reinforcement: ○ You reward the behavior by removing something bad. In simple terms, both methods increase the chances of the behavior happening again, either by adding a reward or taking away something unpleasant. → Punishment: is used to reduce the likelihood of a behavior being repeated: 1. Positive Punishment: You punish the behavior by adding something unpleasant (giving something bad). 2.Negative Punishment: You punish the behavior by taking away something pleasant (removing something good) →Extinction: doing nothing decreases are likelihood of repeating the behaviour (includes stoping punishment) →Social Learning involves learning by observing others: - **Good consequences** encourage good behavior. - **Bad consequences** discourage bad behavior. - In simple terms, we learn from the experiences of others, but how we interpret consequences can vary. →Cognitive Learning: emphasizes internal thought processes, and rewards can be either personal satisfaction or external incentives. - It may not always be observable. - Cognition refers to the process of knowing or understanding. - It involves the ability to improve learning or change behavior. -Reinforcement in cognitive learning can come from: -Intrinsic rewards: Internal satisfaction like understanding or feeling accomplished. -Extrinsic rewards: External rewards, such as praise or tangible benefits. →Organizational Learning (OL)is a process of growth and change within an organization, focusing on: - An organization’s ability to acquire, process, apply, and  **share knowledge** to achieve success. - It's viewed as an essential skill and strategic capability. - Essentially, it's like applying individual learning principles to the entire organization. -often criticized, particularly the idea of treating the organization as a collective learner rather than focusing only on individuals. →key challenges in organizational learning: - Individual learning ≠ organizational learning. - Fear of investing in employees (they might leave). - Lack of time for reflection due to constant problem-solving. - Focus on immediate tasks over long-term development. - Organizational learning is hard to measure. - Learning requires change, which is difficult. Kolb →Levels of Organizational Learning: - Individual: Exploration and development of knowledge. - Group: Sharing ideas and collaborating. - Organizational: Developing and capturing knowledge across groups. - Inter-organizational: Learning from competitors and other organizations. - As a total system: Understanding how all these levels work together to generate knowledge. →Organizational Learningaccording to Argyris & Schön (1978): - Single-loop learning (Adaptive Learning): Coping by making changes according to existing procedures and strategies ("inside the box"). - Double-loop learning (Generative Learning): Creating by questioning and possibly altering underlying assumptions, policies, and strategies ("outside the box"). - Triple-loop (Deutero) learning: Learning how to learn, a deeper level of understanding the process of learning itself. —> 2 ways organizations learn 1. Exploitation: learn ways to refine and improve existing organ activities and procedures 2. Exploration: search for and experiment with new kinds or forms of organizational activities and procedures