Module 6 PDF

CHAPTER 7.1 Prototype is the best example or representation of a Cognition concept is thinking and it encompasses t...

CHAPTER 7.1 Prototype is the best example or representation of a Cognition concept is thinking and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, Natural concepts knowledge, problem solving, judgment, created “naturally” through your language, and memory. experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences Scientists who study cognition are searching for ways to understand how we integrate, organize, Artificial concept and utilize our conscious cognitive experiences a concept that is defined by a specific set of without being aware of all of the unconscious work characteristics that our brains are doing. Schema Cognitive psychology a mental construct consisting of a cluster or the field of psychology dedicated to collection of related concepts examining how people think. there are many different types of schemata, It attempts to explain how and why we think and they all have one thing in common: the way we do by studying the interactions schemata are a method of organizing among human thinking, emotion, creativity, information that allows the brain to work language, and problem solving, in addition more efficiently. When a schema is to other cognitive processes. activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object Cognitive psychologists being observed. strive to determine and measure different types of intelligence, why some people are Role schema better at problem solving than others, and makes assumptions about how individuals how emotional intelligence affects success in certain roles will behave in the workplace, among countless other topics. Event schema (also known as a cognitive script) They also sometimes focus on how we is a set of behaviors that can feel like a organize thoughts and information routine gathered from our environments into Interestingly, event schemata can vary meaningful categories of thought, which will widely among different cultures and be discussed later. countries. For example, while it is quite common for people to greet one another with a handshake in the United States, in Tibet, you greet someone by sticking your tongue out at them, and in Belize, you bump fists (Cairns Regional Council, n.d.) Because event schemata are automatic, they can be difficult to change. CHAPTER 7.3 Concepts are categories or groupings of linguistic Problem-solving strategy information, images, ideas, or memories, a plan of action used to find a solution such as life experiences. Concepts are, in many ways, big ideas that are generated by observing details, and categorizing and combining these details into cognitive structures. You use concepts to see the relationships among the different elements of your experiences and to keep the information in your mind organized and accessible. Concepts are informed by our semantic Mental set memory. is where you persist in approaching a Concepts can be complex and abstract, like problem in a way that has worked in the justice, or more concrete, like types of past but is clearly not working now birds.  Functional fixedness showing that they paid attention to the a type of mental set where you cannot meanings of the words as they learned them. perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed Visual encoding for the encoding of images Acoustic encoding the encoding of sounds, words in particular. Which of the three types of encoding do you think would give you the best memory of verbal information? Some years ago, psychologists Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) conducted a series of experiments to find out. Words that had been encoded semantically were better remembered CHAPTER 8.4 than those encoded visually or acoustically. Memory Semantic encoding involves a deeper level of the set of processes used to encode, store, processing than the shallower visual or acoustic and retrieve information over different encoding. Craik and Tulving concluded that we periods of time process verbal information best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called the self-reference effect. self-reference effect the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in Encoding comparison to material that has less personal the input of information into the memory relevance system Once we receive sensory information from Storage the environment, our brains label or code the creation of a permanent record of it. We organize the information with other information. similar information and connect new In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., concepts to existing concepts. long-term memory), it has to pass through three Encoding information occurs through distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term automatic processing and effortful Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory. processing. These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968). Their Automatic Processing model of human memory, called Atkinson and the encoding of details like time, space, Shiffrin's model, is based on the belief that we frequency, and the meaning of words process memories in the same way that a Automatic processing is usually done computer processes information. without any conscious awareness. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed a working memory model in which short-term Effortful Processing memory has different forms. In their model, requires a lot of work and attention on your part storing memories in short-term memory is like in order to encode information opening different files on a computer and adding information. The working memory files 3 Types of Encoding hold a limited amount of information. The type of short-term memory (or computer file) Semantic Encoding depends on the type of information received. the encoding of words and their meaning There are memories in visual-spatial form, as was first demonstrated by William Bousfield well as memories of spoken or written material, (1935) in an experiment in which he asked and they are stored in three short-term people to memorize words. The 60 words were systems: a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic actually divided into 4 categories of meaning, buffer, and a phonological loop. According to although the participants did not know this Baddeley and Hitch, a central executive part of because the words were randomly presented. memory supervises or controls the flow of When they were asked to remember the words, information to and from the three short-term they tended to recall them in categories, systems, and the central executive is  responsible for moving information into long- Although individual experiences and expertise term memory. can affect concept arrangement, concepts are believed to be arranged hierarchically in the mind. Related concepts are linked, and the Sensory Memory strength of the link depends on how often two In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the concepts have been associated. environment are processed first in sensory memory: Semantic networks differ depending on storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, personal experiences. sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage—up to a Importantly for memory, activating any part of a couple of seconds. semantic network also activates the concepts Sensory information about sights, sounds, smells, linked to that part to a lesser degree. The and even textures, which we do not view as process is known as spreading activation. If valuable information, we discard. If we view one part of a network is activated, it is easier to something as valuable, the information will move access the associated concepts because they into our short-term memory system. are already partially activated. When you remember or recall something, you activate a concept, and the related concepts Short-Term Memory are more easily remembered because they are partially activated. However, the activations do Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary not spread in just one direction. When you storage system that processes incoming remember something, you usually have several sensory memory. routes to get the information you are trying to The terms short-term and working memory are access, and the more links you have to a sometimes used interchangeably, but they are concept, the better your chances of not exactly the same. Short-term memory is remembering. more accurately described as a component of working memory. There are two types of long-term memory: Short-term memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that Explicit memories are those we consciously memory to something already in long-term try to remember, recall, and report. memory. Short-term memory storage lasts 15 Not all long-term memories are strong to 30 seconds. memories, and some memories can only be Active rehearsal is a way of attending to recalled using prompts. information to move it from short-term to long- Explicit memory is sometimes referred to as term memory. During active rehearsal, you declarative memory, because it can be put into repeat (practice) the information to be words. Explicit memory is divided into episodic remembered. If you repeat it enough, it may be memory and semantic memory. moved into long-term memory. Alternatively, Episodic memory is information about events elaborative rehearsal is the act of linking new we have personally experienced (i.e., an information you are trying to learn to existing episode). Usually, episodic memory is reported information that you already know. as a story. The concept of episodic memory Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed the levels was first proposed about in the 1970s (Tulving, of processing hypothesis that states the deeper 1972). Since then, Tulving and others have you think about something, the better you reformulated the theory, and currently scientists remember it. believe that episodic memory is memory about Long-term Memory happenings in particular places at particular times—the what, where, and when of an event Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous (Tulving, 2002). It involves recollection of visual storage of information. Unlike short-term imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity memory, long-term memory storage capacity is (Hassabis & Maguire, 2007). believed to be unlimited. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more Semantic memory is knowledge about words, than just a few minutes ago. One cannot really concepts, and language-based knowledge and consider long-term memory without thinking facts. Semantic memory is typically reported as about the way it is organized facts. Semantic means having to do with A semantic network consists of concepts, and language and knowledge about language. as you may recall from what you’ve learned about memory, concepts are categories or Implicit memories are long-term memories groupings of linguistic information, images, that are not part of our consciousness. Although ideas, or memories, such as life experiences. implicit memories are learned outside of our awareness and cannot be consciously recalled,  implicit memory is demonstrated in the storage system: recall, recognition, and performance of some task (Roediger, 1990; relearning. Schacter, 1987). Implicit memory has been studied with cognitive Recall is what we most often think about when demand tasks, such as performance on artificial we talk about memory retrieval: it means you grammar, word memory, and learning can access information without cues. For unspoken and unwritten contingencies and example, you would use recall for an essay test. rules. Returning to the computer metaphor, implicit memories are like a program running in Recognition happens when you identify the background, and you are not aware of their information that you have previously learned influence. Implicit memories can influence after encountering it again. It involves a process observable behaviors as well as cognitive of comparison. tasks. In either case, you usually cannot put the memory into words that adequately describe The third form of retrieval is relearning and it the task. There are several types of implicit involves learning information that you memories, including procedural, priming, and previously learned. emotional conditioning. CHAPTER 8.4 Implicit procedural memory is often studied using observable behaviors. Implicit procedural Memory-Enhancing Strategies memory stores information about the way to do something, and it is the memory for skilled Rehearsal actions, such as brushing your teeth, riding a the conscious repetition of information to be bicycle, or driving a car. remembered Implicit priming is another type of implicit Chunking memory (Schacter, 1992). During priming you organize information into manageable exposure to a stimulus affects the response to bits or chunks a later stimulus. Stimuli can vary and may Chunking is useful when trying to include words, pictures, and other stimuli to remember information like dates and phone elicit a response or increase recognition. For numbers. instance, some people really enjoy picnics. They love going into nature, spreading a Elaborative rehearsal blanket on the ground, and eating a delicious a technique in which you think about the meal. meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your Implicit emotional conditioning is the type of memory memory involved in classically conditioned Elaborative rehearsal involves both linking emotion responses. These emotional the information to knowledge already relationships cannot be reported or recalled but stored and repeating the information. can be associated with different stimuli. For example, specific smells can cause specific Mnemonic devices emotional responses for some people. memory aids that help us organize information for encoding They are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of information such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a system. Expressive writing helps boost your short-term memory, particularly if you write about a traumatic experience in your life. Saying words aloud : A series of studies found that saying a word out loud improves your memory Retrieval for the word because it increases the word’s the act of getting information out of memory distinctiveness. storage and back into conscious awareness There are three ways you can retrieve information out of your long-term memory How to Study Effectively Make use of mnemonic devices: As you learned earlier in this chapter, mnemonic Use elaborative rehearsal: In a famous article, devices often help us to remember and recall Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) information. There are different types of discussed their belief that information we mnemonic devices, such as the acronym. An process more deeply goes into long-term acronym is a word formed by the first letter of memory. Their theory is called levels of each of the words you want to remember. processing. If we want to remember a piece of information, we should think about it more deeply and link it to other information and memories to make it more meaningful. Apply the self-reference effect: As you go through the process of elaborative rehearsal, it would be even more beneficial to make the material you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you. Use distributed practice: Study across time in short durations rather than trying to cram it all in at once. Memory consolidation takes time, and studying across time allows time for memories to consolidate. In addition, cramming can cause the links between concepts to become so active that you get stuck in a link, and it prevents you from accessing the rest of the information that you learned. Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse: Review the material over time, in spaced and organized study sessions. Organize and study your notes, and take practice quizzes/exams. Link the new information to other information you already know well. Study efficiently: Students are great highlighters, but highlighting is not very efficient because students spend too much time studying the things they already learned. Instead of highlighting, use index cards. Write the question on one side and the answer on the other side. When you study, separate your cards into those you got right and those you got wrong. Study the ones you got wrong and keep sorting. Eventually, all your cards will be in the pile you answered correctly. Be aware of interference: To reduce the likelihood of interference, study during a quiet time without interruptions or distractions (like television or music). Keep moving: Of course you already know that exercise is good for your body, but did you also know it’s also good for your mind? Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise (anything that gets your heart rate elevated) is beneficial for memory (van Praag, 2008). Aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis: the growth of new brain cells in the hippocampus, an area of the brain known to play a role in memory and learning. Get enough sleep: While you are sleeping, your brain is still at work. During sleep the brain organizes and consolidates information to be stored in long-term memory (Abel & Bäuml, 2013).