Thinking, Reasoning, and Language PDF

Thinking, Reasoning, & Language Unit 9 Outline Thinking Reasoning Barriers to reasoning rationally Language Take home message Thinking Any mental activity or processing of information Includes: learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing,...

Thinking, Reasoning, & Language Unit 9 Outline Thinking Reasoning Barriers to reasoning rationally Language Take home message Thinking Any mental activity or processing of information Includes: learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, and deciding Cognition Components of Cognition Contents What you know (concepts, facts, propositions, rules, memories) Processes How you manipulate the mental contents e.g., 2 + 2 x 4 = Cognition: Processes Serial processes Take place one after another; carried out in order Parallel processes Take place simultaneously or overlap in time Cognition: Processes Perception is a constructive process that relies on sensory information, memories, and expectations. Bottom-up processing Starts with the raw stimuli, which is then used to form a meaningful concept Top-down processing Starts with a concept, which we then use to interpret the raw stimuli Cognition: Contents Concept A mental category/grouping of objects, actions, or characteristics that have common properties Simplifies and summarizes information Allows for quick and efficient decisions prototype - is an especially representative example of a concept Cognition: Contents Schema A collection or cluster of related concepts Represent an individual’s beliefs and expectations about a specific thing Reasoning Thinking and problem solving based on facts, observations, or assumptions; directed towards a given goal or objective Decision Making- process of selecting among a set of possible alternatives Problem Solving- generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a specific goal Formal Reasoning Requires specific information and typically involves one correct answer/outcome Algorithm- Series of defined steps that always gets the right answer (even when you don’t know how it works!) Informal Reasoning Determining a reasonable solution for a problem that may not have a single correct answer Heuristic- A mental shortcut or “rule of thumb” that provides quick problem solving, but does not guarantee an optimal solution Informal Reasoning Dialectical Reasoning- Weighing the ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ to reach the best decision Uses Reflective Judgment The ability to question assumptions Evaluate and integrate evidence Consider alternative interpretations Reach defendable conclusions Be able to reassess those conclusions in face of new information Barriers to Reasoning Rationally Exaggerating the Improbable Availability Heuristic We judge the probability of an occurrence as being more likely if we can readily think of examples I knew it all along! Hindsight Bias the tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known “Hindsight is 20/20” See… I’m right!! Confirmation Bias Attending to information that confirms ones beliefs, while ignoring contrary information You’ve been framed! Framing Decisions can be influenced by the way a question or information is phrased People try to minimize risks and losses when making decisions Responses to the same choice will differ based on whether outcome is framed as gain or loss Biases Due to Mental Sets Mental Sets becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting our ability to generate alternatives Functional Fixedness difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another Language Language defined Language A system (or set of rules) for combining meaningless symbols, such as words or gestures, to form structured utterances that convey meaning 4 Elements of Language Phonemes Fundamental sounds produced by manipulating our lips, teeth, tongue, vocal cords, throat, and mouth ~100 in total—each language uses only a subset of them 40-45 in English; 15-60 in most languages 4 Elements of Language Morphemes Smallest units of meaning Can be full words (e.g., cat, joy) or modifiers (e.g., re-, -ish) Morphemes convey information about semantics—meaning derived from words and sentences 4 Elements of Language Syntax Rules by which sentences are put together Includes word order, morphological markers, and sentence structure Real-world language rarely follows rules perfectly all the time  4 Elements of Language Extralinguistic information Elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language, but are critical to interpreting its meaning Facial expressions, tone of voice, previous statements by others Used to help interpret ambiguous information  Language Dialects Variations of the same language used by groups of people from specific geographic areas, social groups, or ethnic backgrounds Use consistent syntax rules, although they may differ from “mainstream” speech “Where you at?” vs. “What are you doing?” Learning Language ~0-10 months: babbling and recognition of native language, own name, and some phonemes and words ~1 yr: word production starts; “one-word stage” ~2 yrs: two-word phrases, can say 100s of words, begin to understand syntax Critical Period? Younger children learn language better than older children and adults There’s a sensitive period in which language acquisition works best 2nd language studies Language deprivation cases Critical Period? Critical Period? Tragic cases of language deprivation, like “Genie,” provide support for critical periods of language development, but are complicated by other factors Accounts of Language Acquisition Imitation Suggests babies simply learn language by imitating how adults use it While this is partly true, it does not account for the generative nature of language Accounts of Language Acquisition Nativist Suggests that children are born with some basic knowledge about how language works Chomsky’s language acquisition device hypothetical construct in the brain in which nativists believe knowledge of syntax resides Accounts of Language Acquisition Social Pragmatics Suggests that children learn language by making inferences about word meaning based on context Requires assuming that infants have insight into others’ thoughts Accounts of Language Acquisition General Cognitive Processing Suggests that children use general skills, such as pattern recognition, to acquire language However: children learn language better than adults, even though adults are overall better at learning; and there are language-specific brain regions Nonhuman Animal Communication Animal species differ in the complexity and type of communication Scent, visual, vocal communication possible Most communication is geared towards mating and aggression The Honeybee dance is an exception Nonhuman Animal Communication There have been many attempts to teach non- humans our language, producing mixed results – Chimpanzees – Bonobos – African grey parrot Humans appear unique in our ability to use language in sophisticated ways  Take home message Thinking, reasoning, and language are complex processes of which humans appear to have a unique level of sophistication. But remember… it’s all in your head! Image Sources Slide 2 –Top left: https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/09/books/chapters/chap-alex-and-me.html , Fair Dealing, accessed on 03-01-2024. Right: https://edition.cnn.com/2009/TECH/science/05/01/dancing.parrots/ , Fair Dealing, accessed on 03-01-2024. Bottom left: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLEFB73E4585E94CBC , Fair Dealing, accessed on 03-01-2024. Slide 4 –FreyaSyauqila, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=133146562 , CC BY 4.0, accessed on 03-01- 2024. Slide 6 – Ftmtncy, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vectorel-scissors-2245884.png , CC0, accessed on 03-01-2024. Slide 7 –https://pixabay.com/nl/vectors/illusie-vrouw-afbeelding-zwart-wit-23764/ , Free to use, accessed on 03-01-2024. Slide 8 –Left: EurovisionNim, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=72815802 , CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed on 03- 01-2024. 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