Module 1 An Introduction to Social Psychology PDF

AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Gilovich, Keltner, & Nisbett, 2006: It is the scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations (Macapagal, Ofreneo, Montiel, Nolasco, 2013).  Important factors in social psychology:...

AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Gilovich, Keltner, & Nisbett, 2006: It is the scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations (Macapagal, Ofreneo, Montiel, Nolasco, 2013).  Important factors in social psychology: 1. The person is influenced by the social environment. 2. Individuals actively construe or interpret social situations. 3. The person is equally powerful in determining behavior. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Gordon Allport (1954): It is the discipline that uses scientific methods in an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Myers (2010): It is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate with one another. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Baron and Branscombe (2012): It is a scientific study that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior, feelings, and thought in social situations. DIFFERENCE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO OTHER DISCIPLINES: 1. It is concerned not with social situations in any objective sense but with how people are influenced by their interpretation, or construal, of the social environment. ▪Construal – the way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world. 2. It is a science that tests its assumptions, guesses, and ideas about human social behavior empirically (based on observation and experience) rather than by relying on folk wisdom, common sense, or an appeal to the opinions and insights. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY COMPARED TO SOCIOLOGY Social Psychology A branch of psychology and as such is For example, to understand why people rooted in an interest in individual intentionally hurt one another, it focuses human beings, with an emphasis on the on the psychological processes that trigger psychological processes. aggression. “Besides frustration, what other factors might cause aggression?” Sociology It provides general laws and theories Why is the criminal rate in Metro Manila about societies, not individuals. so much higher than in Tuguegarao? It is concerned with such topics as social class, social structure, and social institutions. It tends toward a more macro focus – that of society at large. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY COMPARED TO PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY Personality Psychology It generally focuses on individual differences, the aspects of people’s personalities that make them different from other people. Social Psychology It shares with personality psychology particularly focusing on what makes people different from one another, it emphasizes the psychological processes shared by most people that make them susceptible to social influence. FRAMES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: AMERICAN, EUROPEAN AND ASIAN WESTERN HISTORY OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PLATO ARISTOTLE People form social groups because they Person’s nature is inherently social. serve a function. WESTERN HISTORY OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY NORMAN TRIPLETT An American psychologist from Indiana University; recorded the first experiment on social psychology in 1897. Social facilitation – consequences of the presence of others on individual performance. Triplett observed that cyclists perform better when they race with an opponent rather than when they are alone. WESTERN HISTORY OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Edward Ross William McDougall Wrote the first book in social British psychologist, he wrote Introduction psychology, Social Psychology: An to Social Psychology. Outline and Source Book written in 1908.  NORTH AMERICAN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY DAVID MYERS Three major domains: 1. Social Thinking – the self, social beliefs, and judgments; behavior and attitudes. 2. Social Influence – genes, culture, and gender; conformity; persuasion; group influence. 3. Social Relations – prejudice, aggression, attraction, helping, conflict, and peacemaking. NORTH AMERICAN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY LEON FESTINGER a. Social Comparison Theory b. Cognitive Dissonance c. Psychology of Attitudes SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY We learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves with other people. We compare ourselves with someone whom we believe is similar to us like peers. Two types:  Upward Social Comparison – We compare ourselves with people whom we deem to be socially better than us in some way (e.g. role models).  Downward Social Comparison –We compare ourselves with those who are worse than us, mostly to enhance our self-esteem.  COGNITIVE DISSONANCE A person may experience psychological discomfort, or dissonance, when there are inconsistencies between one’s cognitions, which may be attitudes, beliefs, or an awareness of one’s behavior. People have a motivation to reduce dissonance, or tension, by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, or by justifying or rationalizing their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTITUDE Attitude – a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular object with some degree of favor or disfavor, like or dislike. It is internal to the person; it is not directly observable but is rather inferred from behavior. The target of an attitude may be a person/ people (e.g. actor-politicians), concepts (e.g. death penalty), or behaviors (e.g. smoking). PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTITUDE Tricomponential view of attitudes conceptualizes attitude as a single identity with three components:  Cognitive component –thoughts, ideas and beliefs (e.g. Filipinos are peace-loving)  Affective component – feeling and emotional component (e.g. I like Filipinos)  Behavioral component – action-related (e.g. I will marry a Filipino)  A separate-entities view sees three separate components that may or may not be related, depending on a particular situation. EUROPEAN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY European social psychology proposed the return of the social or society back into social psychology. Focus on intergroup relations. Hewstone, Stroebe, and Jonas’s (2017) textbook, Introduction to Social Psychology: A European Perspective, has chapters on “People in Groups”, “Group Performance and Leadership”, and “Intregroup Behavior”. According to Graumann (2001), contemporaries consider social psychology as too exclusively centered on the individual. Two kinds of social psychology: Psychological social psychology Sociological social psychology European social psychologists have consistently given greater emphasis to the social contextual dimensions of behavior than have their American counterparts. It focuses on social identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), social representation (Moscovici, 1961), and minority influence (Moscovici, Lage, şi Naffrechoux, 1969). SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that the groups to which people belonged were an important source of pride and gave us a sense of social identity, or a sense of belonging to the social world.  To enhance our self-esteem, we boost the status of our group. It is used to explain why people are biased in favor of their own groups and may discriminate against other groups.  This can then lead to ingroup bias or favoring one’s own group, and outgroup discrimination, or not favoring the other group. For example, Muslims and Christians may have positive views about themselves but have negative views of each other. SOCIAL REPRESENTATIONS They are socially shared ideas about the world around us (Moscovici, 1961). In order for people to understand and interact with each other, they need a common or socially shared meaning about objects and ideas. These shared meanings are produced through talk and guide action. For example, a disaster may be socially represented as a weather- related phenomenon or God’s punishment on sinful people. MINORITY INFLUENCE Moscovici and colleagues (1969) developed the minority influence theory and argued that it was possible for a minority to overcome majority influence as long as the minority is consistent and confident. For the minority to be effective in persuading the majority, the smaller group has to remain consistent with its position.  This position consistency evokes perception of confidence and courage and may lead to defections from the majority. ASIAN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Asian social psychology has been branded as “cultural”. Contributions of Asian social psychologists: ❑Indigenous research ❑Culture and social behavior ❑Specific topics in social psychology  Chinese social psychologist Ho (1993) proposed a conceptual framework for Asian social psychology that he called relational orientation. ❑ According to Ho, Asian social psychology begins with relational conceptions of human existence. According to Chiu (2007), Asian social psychology should not let arbitrary geographical or intellectual boundaries restrict the creative expansion of research ideas, and strive to construct “a global identity with an Asian character by developing theories that describe and explain important Asian social psychological phenomena for the benefits of Asia and beyond”. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES Social psychology along with industrial psychology became new areas of research in the 1970s.  Theses on topics such as attribution, social perception, communication, decision making, attitude change, altruism, stereotypes, reference groups, and language emerged during this decade when Martial Law was declared in the Philippines. Bernardo (1997), indicated that a large percentage of studies conducted by Philippine psychologists were on social psychological topics. Church (1987b), majority of psychological research in the Philippines were applications of Western theoretical models and methods to the local context. INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES According to Lagmay (1984), the most important development in Filipino indigenous psychology was the founding of the Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino (PSSP), or the National Association for Philippine Psychology, by Virgilio G. Enriquez in the 1970s.  Sikolohiyang Pilipino was a protest against colonization or Philippine colonial education; hence, the push towards indigenization of psychology in the Philippines. Sikolohiyang Pilipino is an indigenous Asian psychology that emphasizes identity and national consciousness, social awareness and involvement, psychology of language and culture, and applications and bases of Filipino psychology in health practices, agriculture, art, mass media, religion, among others (Enriquez, 1985, 1992).  Sikolohiyang Pilipino stressed the need for psychology to be ethical or respectful of the Filipino (makatao), to be relevant to Filipino social realities (makabuluhan), and to be culturally appropriate (angkop sa kultura) (Enriquez, 1997).  It urged Filipino psychologists to confront social problems and national issues as well as to utilize indigenous theories and methods.  The use of the Filipino language in Sikolohiyang Pilipino as a means of understanding Filipino culture was integral, with language seen as reflecting indigenous culture and promoting national culture.  In examining the legacy of Virgilio Enriquez to Filipino indigenous psychology, Pe-Pua and Protacio-Marcelino (2000) summarized Sikolohiyang Pilipino:  “Sikolohiyang Pilipino (Filipino Psychology) refers to the psychology born out of the experience, thought and orientation of the Filipinos, based on the full use of Filipino culture and language. The approach is one of “indigenization from within” whereby the theoretical framework and methodology emerge from the experiences of the people from the indigenous culture. It is based on assessing historical and sociocultural realities, understanding the local language, unraveling Filipino characteristics, and explaining them through the eyes of the native Filipino.” Sikolohiyang Pilipino is thus a psychology of, for, and by Filipinos, a psychology that is applicable to Filipino everyday life. THE SEARCH FOR THE FILIPINO PERSONALITY In a review of research and writing on Filipino personality during the 1950s to the 1970s, Church (1987a, 1987b) enumerated the indigenous Filipino concepts that have been studied by various scholars: ❑Lapuz (1973/ 1978) identified pakikisama (to get along with), hiya (to feel shame), utang na loob (to be grateful), delicadeza (to be circumspect or prudent), mapagbigay (to give generously), makiramay (to share feelings), pagtitiis (to endure), and pagtitimpi (to suppress) as personality values of Filipinos. ❑Other writers point to the values of hospitality and high standards of neatness and cleanliness in personal grooming and in the home. ❑Inclusion of value themes such as close family ties, respect for authority, self and emotional control, courteous and friendly interactions, concern and sharing with others, industry, courage and endurance, and desire for economic progress. ❑Bulatao (1963) used projective techniques to study values of Filipino workers in Manila and four major themes emerged:  Emotional closeness and security in the family – sacrificing individual interest for the good of the family and the value of caring relationships.  Approval by the authority figure and by society – concern about what others think, a desire to appear good and acceptable to important others as well as to strangers and foreigners, and the need to maintain smooth interpersonal relations.  Economic and social betterment – desire to raise the standard of living of one’s family.  Patience, suffering and endurance – most related to women. ENRIQUEZ’S KAPWA MODEL Enriquez (1978, 1992) critiqued the extensive focus on hiya (propriety/ dignity), utang na loob (gratirtude/ solidarity), and pakikisama (companionship/ esteem) in studies of Filipino personality and Filipino values.  He described these values as accommodative surface values that support an image of the Filipino as subservient or accommodating. He asserted a corresponding set of confrontative surface values in bahala na (determination), sama/ lakas ng loob (resentment, guts), and pakikibaka (resistance) that presents a counterimage of the Filipino as capable of determination, courage, and resistance.  This signifies that Filipinos can be accommodating as well as confrontative, at times acceding and at other times resisting.  Enriquez further conceptualized a set of Filipino societal values in karangalan (dignity), katarungan (justice), and kalayaan (freedom) as the foundational values of the Filipino nation.  He then argued that what lies at the core of all Filipino values is the core value of kapwa, or shared identity.  Kapwa, or the “self with others”, is the central value that connects all the different Filipino values.  Linking the core value of kapwa to the surface values above is the interpersonal value of pakiramdam, or shared inner perception.  Linking the core value of kapwa to the societal values below is the sociopersonal values of kagandahang- loob, or shared humanity.  In order to manifest the appropriate surface value toward others, one has to practice pakiramdam, that is to sense or perceive what another person is feeling or thinking.  Value of pakikipagkapwa-tao or interacting with others. In order to share the value of freedom, justice, and dignity with the rest of Philippine society, one has to experience shared humanity through kagandahang-loob.  Value of pagkamakatao or valuing people. INDIGENOUS CONCEPTS OF FILIPINO SOCIAL REALITY INDIGENOUS CONCEPTS OF FILIPINO SOCIAL REALITY Filipino psychology is relational rather than personality or value-based. FIVE KEY INDIGENOUS CONCEPTS: Hiya (propriety/ dignity) Bulatao argues that the word comes closer to shyness, timidity, embarrassment, and sensitivity to others, or a consideration of the feelings of others. It is tied to a need to be accepted by others.  The fear or anxiety of losing support or approval requires one to be sensitive to others.  Hiya can also be in relation to social expectations and the need to conform to these expectations in order to be accepted by others or by a group.  Hiya is related to showing respect for others’ feelings or regard for social expectations. The absence of hiya is considered a disregard for social norms, a lack of consideration for other’s feelings, or insensitivity to figures of authority. Utang na loob (gratitude/ solidarity) It was conceptualized by Kaut and Hollnsteiner as a system of exchange.  When a person gives a gift, the recipient of the gift is obligated to give back, or repay, the gift in the future.  Receiving a gift implies incurring an obligation, or a debt; hence debt of gratitude, or debt of obligation, or utang na loob. Individuals who do not recognize their debt of gratitude, or obligation, are walang utang na loob. Andres (1994) further defined utang na loob as the principle of reciprocity incurred when an individual helps another. Pe-Pua and Protacio-Marcelino (2002) argue that utang na loob is the Filipino’s way of expressing gratitude – an opportunity to show gratitude, or to return the favor.  “Ang hindi lumingon sa pinanggalingan ay hindi makakarating sa paroroonan.” Pakikisama (companionship/ esteem) According to Lynch (1973, 1984), one of the basic goals of Filipinos is social acceptance; that is, Filipinos particularly value being accepted by others. To obtain social acceptance, one must enact smooth interpersonal relations by getting along with others, avoiding conflict, being agreeable, and being sensitive to what other people feel at any given moment. Pakikisama is a means for maintaining smooth interpersonal relations; meaning to go along with or to give in, is observed by going along with the group or the majority, that is, conformity. Enriquez (1978, 1992) argued that Filipinos are most concerned with but pakikipagkapwa, or treating the other person as kapwa, or as fellow human being. Kapwa (shared identity) It is divided into two: A. Outsider (ibang tao) ▪ If one is classified as an outsider, or regarded as ibang tao, interaction can range from pakikitungo (transaction/ civility with) to pakikisalamuha (interaction with), to pakikilahok (joining/ participating with), to pakikibagay (in conformity with/ in accord with), and to pakikisama (being/ going along with). B. One-of-us (hindi ibang tao) ▪ If one is categorized as one-of-us, or regarded as hindi ibang tao, interaction occurs at the deeper levels of pakikipagpalagayang-loob (being-in-rapport/ understanding/ acceptance with), or pakikisangkot (getting involved with), or pakikiisa (being one with), which is the highest level of interaction. In contrast, pakikipagkapwa embraces all levels of social interaction. Kapwa is the unity of the self and others. In contrast, kapwa is a recognition of shared identity. Pakikiramdam (shared inner perception) It is the key interpersonal process that allows Filipinos to sense what the other is feeling and know when it is appropriate to practice hiya, utang na loob, and pakikisama. It is the pivotal value of shared inner perception. It refers to heightened awareness and sensitivity. According to Conaco (2009) it is similar concept to empathy, sensitivity and awareness and described as measuring (pagtantya) of the other, being observant and watchful, cautious feeling of the other. Pakikiramdam is an active process involving great care and deliberation in one’s actions toward another.  One is engaging in pakikiramdam when he or she hesitates to react immediately, pays close attention to subtle cues and nonverbal behavior, and practices mental role-playing. Pakikiramdam explains the Filipino inclination for indirect communication.  In Filipino social interactions, one has to be sensitive to body language, voice intonation, and indirect forms of communication. HOW SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGIST ANSWER THE QUESTIONS THEY ASK: RESEARCH AS THE ROUTE TO INCREASED KNOWLEDGE INDIGENOUS RESEARCH METHODS Two scales in Filipino research: a. Iskala ng Mananaliksik (researcher/ method scale) b. Iskala ng Pagtutunguhan ng Mananaliksik at Kalahok (researcher-participant relationship scale) ISKALA NG MANANALIKSIK (RESEARCHER/ METHOD SCALE) It may be used by any researcher who wishes to learn more about people’s work, or anything to do with people’s reactions toward objects and other people, be it their behavior, thoughts, or feelings. ❑Unobtrusive methods:  Pagmamasid (looking around)  Pakikiramdam (sensing, feeling what is happening) ❑Obtrusive methods:  Pagtatanong-tanong (unstructured, informal questioning)  Pagsubok (start talking/ working with respondents) ❑Highest levels of research participation:  Pagdalaw-dalaw (visits to respondent’s home)  Pakikisangkot (deep involvement in the respondents’ activities) ISKALA NG PAGTUTUNGUHAN NG MANANALIKSIK AT KALAHOK (RESEARCHER-PARTICIPANT RELATIONSHIP SCALE) The scale is based on the Filipino view of equality between the researcher and the respondents. Respondents are not to be treated as guinea pigs. The scale includes:  Pakikitungo (transaction, civility)  Pakikisalamuha (interaction)  Pakikilahok (participating, joining)  Pakikibagay (conforming with)  Pakikisama (being along with)  Pakikipagpalagayang-loob (understanding, acceptance)  Pakikisangkot (getting involved)  Pakikiisa (being one with)  Other indigenous research methods involve unstructured conversations and discussions, often in small group context, as well as various degrees of participant observation. These includes:  Pakikipagkuwentuhan (storytelling)  Pakikisama (frequent interaction with respondents)  Pakikipanuluyan (residing in the research setting)  There is no single best method of conducting research in social psychology. Rather, all methods offer advantages and disadvantages, so the guiding principle is that the method that is most appropriate to answering the questions being investigated is the one that should be used. THE QUEST FOR KNOWLEDGE AND THE RIGHTS OF INDIVIDUALS: IN SEARCH OF AN APPROPRIATE BALANCE Deception This technique involves efforts by researchers to withhold or conceal information about the purposes of a study from participants. Many social psychologists believe that if participants know the true purpose of a study, their behavior in it will be changed by that knowledge. Important ethical issues in the used of deception: a. There is the chance, however slim, that deception may result in some kind of harm to the people exposed to it. b. There is the possibility that participants will resent being “fooled” during a study and, as a result, they will acquire negative attitudes toward social psychology and psychological research in general; for instance, they may become suspicious about information presented by researchers. How to resolve these issues? Deception should never be used to persuade people to take part in a study; withholding information about what will happen in an experiment or providing misleading information about what will happen in an experiment in order to induce people to take part in it is not acceptable. Most social psychologists agree that temporary deception may sometimes be acceptable, provided two basic safeguards are employed. Informed Consent A procedure in which research participants are provided with as much information as possible about a research project before deciding whether to participate in it. Debriefing Procedures at the conclusion of a research session in which participants are given full information about the nature of the research and the hypothesis or hypotheses under investigation.