Midterm 1 PDF

1/11/24 1 What Is Human Geography? 1 Introducing Geography Each discipline studies the world in distinct ways Geography o has its distinct language for description and analysis o maps and measures reality with distinct technologies and social practices o focuses on the interaction of people and plac...

1/11/24 1 What Is Human Geography? 1 Introducing Geography Each discipline studies the world in distinct ways Geography o has its distinct language for description and analysis o maps and measures reality with distinct technologies and social practices o focuses on the interaction of people and places These features help identify o complex human–nature interactions, o complex relationships at different spatial scales 2 1 1/11/24 Defining Human Geography Geo + graphie: literally “writing about” or “describing” the earth Tries to both describe spatial patterns and identify their underlying causes 3 Defining Human Geography, cont’d Physical geography is concerned with the patterns and processes of natural phenomena o Severe weather, landforms, earthquakes, and volcanoes, as well as soil, plant, animal ecology Human geography is concerned with patterns and processes of human phenomena o Development and expansion of urban and rural settlements, food production, patterns of cultural activity, population change, geopolitical relations 4 2 1/11/24 Humans and Land Not the result of any single cause such as climate, physiography, religion or culture 5 Humans and Land The human world is the ever-changing product of the activities of human beings, as individuals and as group members, working within human and institutional frameworks to modify pre-existing physical conditions. 6 3 1/11/24 Humans and Land - Human geographers often focus on the evolution of the human world with reference to people, their cultures, and physical environments. - As human geographers, we are interested in landscape both for what it is and for what it means to live in it. 7 Defining Human Geography, cont’d Three illustrative questions: 1. What is where? 2. Why there? 3. Why care? 8 4 1/11/24 The Goal of Human Geography Writing about the human world to increase our understanding of it. 'Geography is the only subject that asks you to look at the world and try to make sense of it. The field never stops being exciting, that’s what geography is all about—trying to make sense of the world.' (Lewis, 2002: 4) 9 The Geographical Perspective All subdisciplines study difference over space Spatial variation can reveal underlying processes Key concepts help describe and explain difference o Concepts of area o Concepts of movement 10 5 1/11/24 Concepts: Space, Place, and Region Space: an areal extent Location: a specific space Place: a specific location Region: an area defined by shared characteristics Distance: the space between two entities 11 Space Space: an areal extent Absolute space: measured in comparable units Relative/perceptual space: varies between observers o Affected by knowledge, experience o socially-produced and subject to change Mental maps (perceptual maps): internalized perceptions of space Scale: a study area in the context of the whole earth o Different scales may reveal different processes 12 6 1/11/24 Location Location: a specific space Absolute location: constant between observers o Established by overlaying space with a constant grid Relative location: varies with the observer o Usually defined in reference to another location Nominal locations: acquire identity and position through commonly known names o Names reflect complex social relations Site: a place’s internal characteristics Situation: a place’s relative location o Can have physical and social dimensions 13 Place Place: a specific location o A location or type of space with acquired meaning Places evoking communal or personal attachment are said to have a sense of place Highly valued places may be sacred places o Reflect religious symbolism or function o Reflect strong political or communal value Homogenous or standardized places may produce a feeling of placelessness o Fail to produce a sense of place or community 14 7 1/11/24 Place Place: refers not only to a location, but also, and more specifically, to the values we associate with that location 1. A location with a special identity- home, place of worship, the shops etc 2. 'Place' is not about where we live, but rather how and where we live Related concepts: 1. 2. 3. 4. Sense of place Sacred space Placelessness Topophilia/Topophobia 15 Region Region: an area defined by shared characteristics Regionalization: the process of classifying locations Formal (uniform) regions: shared characteristic(s) Functional (nodal) regions: shared function Vernacular (perceptual) regions: shared perception A region’s visible characteristics are often described as its landscape o Cultural landscapes embody meaning and symbolism 16 8 1/11/24 Formal regions Formal region: A cultural region inhabited by people who have one or more cultural traits in common. Arabic speech and wheat cultivation represent concept of formal region at its simplest level – based on a single cultural trait. More commonly, formal regions depend on multiple related traits. o An Inuit (Eskimo) culture region might be based on language, religion, economy, social organization, and type of dwellings. 17 Formal regions Source: Domosh et al. 2015 18 9 1/11/24 The subjectivity of formal culture regions No two cultural traits have the same distribution. Territorial extent of a culture region depends on what and how many defining traits are used. How the geographer chooses to define the region depends on the specific purpose of research or teaching that the region is designed to serve. 19 Functional regions Functional region: A cultural area that functions as a unit politically, socially, or economically. Functional regions have nodes (central points where functions are coordinated and directed). Many (but not all) functional regions have clearly defined borders. Functional regions generally do not coincide spatially with formal regions. 20 10 1/11/24 FIGURE 1.5 Aerial view of Denver. This image clearly illustrates the node of a functional region—here, the dense cluster of commercial buildings—that coordinates activities throughout the area surrounding it (Jim Wark/Airphoto.) Source: Domosh et al. 2015 21 Vernacular Regions Vernacular region: A culture region perceived to exist by its inhabitants, based in the collective spatial perception of the population at large and bearing a generally accepted name or nickname (such as “Dixie”). Some based on physical environmental features, and others on economic, political, or historical characteristics. Generally lack sharp borders, vary in scale, and people may claim residence in more than one. 22 11 1/11/24 Vernacular Regions Vernacular region: A vernacular region is defined by people’s feelings and attitudes about an area. Vernacular regions are more likely than other kinds of regions to change over time. They are also frequently based upon stereotypes, as people's definitions of perceptual regions are influenced by travel, media, reading, films, and conversations. 23 FIGURE 1.7 The Redneck Riviera. The coastline of Florida’s panhandle region is popularly known in Florida and beyond as the Redneck Riviera, though local city governments in the region prefer to call it the Emerald Coast (Nik Wheeler/Corbis.) Source: Domosh et al. 2015 24 12 1/11/24 Distance Distance: the space between two entities o Basis for describing much diversity within areas Standardized units: absolute distance Relative distance varies with experience o o o o Time Cost (economic) Psychological: state of mind Social: relative status 25 Concepts: Interaction, Communication, and Movement Distribution: Patterns identified through varying distances between objects Diffusion: Spatial connections through spread and growth Interaction: a measure of the relationship, through movement or communication, between locations and across space 26 13 1/11/24 Distribution Distribution: Patterns identified through varying distances between objects Components of o Density o Concentration o Pattern 27 Distribution 28 14 1/11/24 Diffusion Diffusion: Spatial connections through spread and growth Culture, people, organisms spread through space Cultural expansion o Relocation o Expansion Types of expansion diffusion o Contagious or “nearest neighbour” o Hierarchical: through place or person hierarchy 29 Diffusion Source: Domosh et al. 2015 30 15 1/11/24 Interaction Space affects interaction o Through distance between locations o Through site specific qualities Distance: Tobler’s first “law” of geography o Everything is related to everything else, but… o …near thing are more related than distant things. 31 Interaction, cont’d Distance decay: The effects of distance on spatial interaction Friction of distance: metaphor o The effect of distance is not static o Affected by technology, other factors 32 16 1/11/24 Interaction, cont’d Site qualities: accessibility and connectivity o Accessibility: Relative ease of interaction and communication o Connectivity: Direct and indirect or intangible connections ! E.g., telephone lines ! E.g., common cultural modes of communication Distance, accessibility, and connectivity can overlap in context 33 Geographic Tools Social sciences share many techniques o E.g., in-depth interviews, formal surveys, fieldwork Geography also has two distinct tools: 1. Maps: used to gather, convey, and analyze spatial information 2. Recent geomatics technologies: enhance gathering, conveying, and analyzing practices 34 17 1/11/24 Maps Map-making can be traced for 8,000 years Diverse practices are found in different cultures o E.g., the rebbelib from the Marshall Islands Advances in systematic mapping 3000 years ago o Eastern Mediterranean, including the Greeks, China, North Africa, South Central Asia Cartography emerged as a science and fine art Maps also embody social power relations o Include and exclude information o Emphasize and de-emphasize through visual technique 35 Maps The GA.SUR or Nuzi Map (c.2200 BCE) 36 18 1/11/24 Maps Mercator’s map of the North Pole, 1595 37 Global Grid Two imaginary arc systems create a reference grid o Absolute space Distances between arcs are measured as angles Arcs of latitude or “parallels” o The sun’s relative position sets the equator o Parallels measured as angles from earth’s centre Arcs of longitude converge at the poles o Political decisions set the prime meridian and international date line o Arcs measured as angles from the earth’s axis 38 19 1/11/24 Latitude Latitude is an angular distance north or south of the equator, measured from the centre of Earth (e.g., 49°N, 12°S). A line connecting all points along the same latitudinal angle is a parallel. Source: Christopherson et al, 2016 39 Longitude Source: Christopherson et al, 2016 40 20 1/11/24 Global Grid, cont’d Time zones were created in the late 19th century Co-ordinate increased international movement Idealized system: 24 zones of 15 degrees Variations show that space is also politically and socially made 41 Global Grid, cont’d 42 21 1/11/24 Map Scale Maps simplify and codify spatial information Scale relates map distance to absolute distance o Expressed mathematically, visually, or verbally o Large scale maps show small areas 43 Map Projection Projections are required to convert three dimensional space into a two dimensional images o Distort size, shape, or distance of actual space o Different projections suit different needs Mercator projection and navigation 44 22 1/11/24 Map Forms and Types Reference maps are designed to illustrate location o Combine selected data as needed ! Natural and built landscape features ! Elevation Thematic maps are designed to illustrate analyses o Illustrate patterns, trends by mapping select measures 45 Map Forms and Types Reference maps Thematic maps 46 23 1/11/24 Map Forms and Types, cont’d Four types of thematic maps 1. Dot maps ! Maps a measurement over an area ! Difference indicated by number of dots of identical value 2. Choropleth map ! Maps a measurement over an area ! Difference indicated by shades or colours 3. Isoline maps ! Link points with the same measurement 4. Cartograms ! Often maps a measurement for an area ! Difference indicated by distortion of area size 47 Map Forms and Types, cont’d 1. Dot maps o Maps a measurement over an area o Difference indicated by number of dots of identical value In this map, the contaminated water pump, which was the source of the cholera outbreak, was located at the intersection of Broad Street and Cambridge Street. 48 24 1/11/24 Map Forms and Types, cont’d 2. Choropleth map o Maps a measurement over an area o Difference indicated by shades or colours 49 Map Forms and Types, cont’d 3. Isopleth maps o Link points with the same measurement On this map, the grey contour lines depict areas of equal elevation (above sea level). On this map, the shift from one contour line to the next reflects an increase or decrease in 40 metres of elevation. Mountain peaks or valleys are quite easily seen on such maps. 50 25 1/11/24 Map Forms and Types, cont’d 4. Cartograms o Often maps a measurement for an area o Difference indicated by distortion of area size The area of each province or territory is scaled to its share of the Canadian population. 51 Spatial Analysis and Geomatics Technologies Geomatics includes four interrelated technologies: o o o o Remote sensing Computer-assisted cartography Global positioning systems (GPS) Geographic information systems (GIS) 52 26 1/11/24 Remote Sensing Increase data perceived by viewing from a distance From simple elevation to satellite imagery Photographs standard for recording until 1960s o Aerial photographs o Recent unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or “drones”) Satellites measure electromagnetic radiation 53 Computer-Assisted Cartography Changed production, data storage, updating Enabled rapid creation and updating Diffused the production and use of maps o Other disciplines and professions Maps generated from the computer o Loss of drafting skills o Continued need for design skill 54 27 1/11/24 Global Positioning System (GPS) Satellites now track position through transmitters Changing navigation practices Extensive data collection through personal devices Controversies: o Potentially participatory o Privacy and permission problems o Biases: socially variable participation, design limits 55 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Adds analysis to data collection, storage, mapping Can overlay multiple data in a single map Allows spatial analysis Source: Gervais, B., 2018 56 28 1/11/24 People and Places There is no formula for enhancing a general geographical awareness Knowing people, places, and their interactions requires o Constant attention to world, regional, and local events o Evaluation o Relating events to location 57 Conclusion Geography is both broad and practical Links events and process across space Provides practical skills for spatially-related tasks Disciplinary strengths include o A broad perspective on what makes places o Skills for addressing space and place specific questions o Transferable analytical and communication skills 58 29 1/11/24 References Christopherson, R.; Ginger H. Birkeland; Mary-Louise Byrne; Philip T. Giles 2016. Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography (4th Canadian edition). Pearson Education Canada Domosh, M. , Neumann, R.P. and Price, P.L. 2015. Contemporary Human Geography: Culture, Globalization, Landscape. W.H. Freeman and Company Gervais, B. 2019. Living Physical Geography, 2nd ed., MacMillan Education. 59 30 1/20/21 2 Population and Health Geography Understanding Demography The science that studies: o Population size and composition o Processes influencing population composition o Links between populations and larger human environments Population geography and health geography use demography and examine spatial dimensions Population studies emerged in the 19th century with concerns about rapidly changing populations 1 1/20/21 Population Distribution Relevant dimensions of distribution o Concentration, dispersion, density Dependency on census data Factors affecting distribution o Physical: temperature, water, relief, soil quality o Cultural: continuity of ancient civilizations and recent trade and migration shifts Distribution of World Population Three areas of historic concentration 1. South-Central Asia clustered along key rivers and coasts 2. East Asia clustered toward east coast and along rivers, disperses to west 3. Europe (including Russia) clustered toward west and along rivers, relatively more urban 2 1/20/21 Distribution of World Population Distribution of World Population 3 1/20/21 Other Regional Patterns and Trends Relative growth in Africa, South Asia Declining growth in areas Population Density Measures of population over area Not always captured by country size General patterns reflect historic agriculture Other pockets of high density o More variable, recent causes 4 1/20/21 Population Density Population Dynamics Components of fertility, mortality, migration Demographic equation 5 1/20/21 Measuring Fertility Fertility and fecundity Crude birth rate: Total live births in a given period for every 1,000 people already living o Simplest measure Total fertility rate (TFR): Average number of children a woman will have, assuming she has children at the prevailing age-specific rates as she passes through the fecund years o Between 2.1 and 2.5 is considered replacement-level Measuring Fertility-CBR 6 1/20/21 Factors Affecting Fertility Biological o Age, nutritional well-being, diet Economic o Cost–benefit decision o Affected by economic structure and social needs Cultural o Marriage age and rates, changing correlation to birth o Contraceptive use o Views on abortion Variations in Fertility Spatial variations correspond to economic change o Not necessarily the root cause More developed countries o Industrialization correlated to fertility decline Most less industrialized o Fertility decline more correlated to education of women 7 1/20/21 Measuring Mortality Crude death rate (CDR): Total deaths in a given period for every 1,000 people o Less variable worldwide: affected by well-being and age Infant mortality rate (IMR) o Better indicator of social well-being o Deaths of infants < 1 year old per 1,000 live births/year Life expectancy (LE) o Not a mortality measure; good indicator of well-being o Anticipated average number of years lived Measuring Mortality-CDR 8 1/20/21 Factors Affecting Mortality Unlike CBR, a CDR can never be zero LE more sensitive to factors of: o o o o o o Food availability Nutrition quality Sanitation quality Health care availability and quality Disease Conflict Variations in Mortality World patterns of CDR less variable than CBR LE reflects socio-economic status o Varies between countries o Varies within countries Affected by access to resources 9 1/20/21 Variations in Mortality- LE Natural Increase Rate of natural increase (RNI) is CBR – CDR o Often expressed as a percentage: (CBR – CDR)*10 In 2017, the world RNI was 12 per 1,000 (1.2%) RNI is declining but still positive o world population is increasing, but at a decreasing rate Population momentum: a relatively young world population currently maintains growth 10 1/20/21 Natural Increase, cont’d Regional patterns reflect RNI and base population Doubling time o Was often used to compare different RNIs 11 1/20/21 Government Policies Can address mortality and fertility Mortality policy generally aims to lower o Wars and uneven social well-being as exceptions Fertility policy more variable o May lower or raise, depending on perceived need Some governments may not have formal policies o Indifferent o Divided public opinion Pro-Natalist Policies Theological reasons Social or political reasons o Dominant ethnic group fears relative decline o Economic strategy: raise workforce, market size 12 1/20/21 Anti-Natalist Policies Common after 1960 o Many less-developed countries tried reducing fertility Fears that carrying capacity could be exceeded o Carrying capacity is now seen as more changeable Controversial example of India and China Many now argue intervention inherently unjust o Reflect colonial legacy of control and fear Age and Sex Structure of a Population Fertility and mortality vary significantly with age o A population’s growth is affected by age composition Population pyramid o Representation of age and sex composition Information rich indicator o Shows changes in fertility, mortality, sex ratio, and relative age 13 1/20/21 Age and Sex Structure of a Population, cont’d Age and Sex Structure of a Population, cont’d 14 1/20/21 Global Population Aging In 2000, people over 60 first outnumbered people under 14 o Declining fertility plus increasing life expectancy Rising median age of world population Significant regional and national differences History of Population Growth Species are usually constrained by climate and food availability Cultural development changed adaptive abilities o Ancient: speech, monogamy, fire, clothing o Recent: agriculture, industry 15 1/20/21 Reasons for Growth Agriculture: systematic use of natural processes o Rapid growth with occasional crises Industry: systematic mechanization of processes o New phase of exponential growth Population Projections Growth slowing, but from a high base number Population projections show levelling by 2050 o Dependent on consistent TFR and CDR trends Continued debate o Pessimists: natural limits can be reached o Optimists: technology will increase limits 16 1/20/21 Population Projections Explaining Population Growth Malthusian theory The demographic transition model 17 1/20/21 Malthusian Theory Developed hypothesis from observations o Food production increases at an arithmetic rate o Population increases at a geometric rate o Hypothesis: growth reduces the means of subsistence Additional assumptions: checks on growth o Preventative checks fail: delayed marriage, moral restraint o Positive checks more effective: war, famine Theory lost favour with birth rate, migration changes Lasting impact on population studies: o Neo-Malthusians The Demographic Transition Descriptive generalization of fertility and mortality change in more developed countries Based on known facts rather than assumptions Lacks predictive and explanatory capacity Only appears to describe demographic transition in less developed countries o Differing causes and patterns of change 18 1/20/21 1. State Creation The Demographic Transition Four stages of demographic transition o The demographic transition is a process of change in a society’s population from high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and higher total population. o Every country is in one of these stages The Demographic Transition, cont’d 19 1/20/21 1. State Creation The Demographic Transition Four stages of demographic transition 1. State Creation The Demographic Transition Stage 1 (Low Growth) o Very high CDR and CBR, very low NIR o This is the stage for most of human history, but no country remains in stage 1 today. o During most of this stage, people depended on hunting and gathering for food. When food was easy to obtain, the population increases. 20 1/20/21 1. State Creation The Demographic Transition Stage 2 (High Growth): The Gambia o High CBR, rapidly declining CDR, very high NIR 1. State Creation The Demographic Transition Stage 3 (Moderate Growth): Mexico o Rapidly declining CBR, moderately declining CDR, moderate NIR o After 1974, a National Population Council promoted family planning, 40 percent of Mexico’s married women have sterilizations. 21 1/20/21 1. State Creation The Demographic Transition Stage 4 (Low Growth): Denmark o Very low CBR, low CDR, 0 or negative NIR Migration Long-term relocation of an individual or group o Movement of residence o Subdiscipline excludes temporary movement Humans have always migrated Has expanded resource base, facilitated population increase, stimulated cultural change 22 1/20/21 Why People Migrate Two explanations: 1. Push–Pull Logic: a useful generalization ! favourable and unfavourable conditions ! Natural environment, economy, political/cultural conditions ! Problematic assumption: All people behave according to one common logic 2. Moorings: allow for individual differences ! Considers the perception of location attributes—What gives meaning to people’s lives in place? Why People Migrate 23 1/20/21 The Selectivity of Migration Different factors affect an individual’s choices o o o o o Age Marital status Gender Occupation Education General effect of life cycle Impact of policy, other political and social restrictions 24 1/20/21 Types of Migration Primitive Forced and impelled Free migration Mass migration Illegal migration Health Geographies Distribution of disease and poor health Risks and effects of environmental contaminants Socio-economic determinants of health Availability of and access to care 25 1/20/21 Distribution and Diffusion of Disease Spatial patterns of infectious and degenerative disease o Natural environments o Social conditions E.g., ebola: tropical locations, risk increased by social conditions o Occasional epidemic outbreaks E.g., HIV/AIDS: tropical origins, social behaviours increased spread o now pandemic Distribution and Diffusion of Disease 26 1/20/21 The Epidemiological Transition Shift in prevalence of types of disease o Corresponds to demographic transition Three initial stages extended to a fourth 1. 2. 3. 4. Age of Age of Age of Age of pestilence and famine receding pandemics degenerative diseases delayed degenerative diseases Speculated re-emergence of infectious disease? The Epidemiological Transition, cont’d 27 1/20/21 Health Care Shift from disease focus to health focus Health care provision o Public, private and hybrid systems Variations in distribution by nation-state Variations in distribution within nation-states Health Care 28 1/20/21 Conclusion World population continues to increase markedly but at a decreasing rate Population is distributed unevenly on the earth Women in less developed countries are having fewer children Declining fertility and longer life expectancy are causing populations to age Government attempts to either decrease or increase fertility have had little impact The current distribution of people is an outcome of a long history of migration Health and illness vary spatially, at a variety of scales, and over time 29