Unit 5 Agriculture and Rural Land-Use - AP Human Geography PDF

UNIT 5 Agriculture and Rural Land-Use Patterns and Processes Chapter 11 Origins, Patterns, and Settlements of Agriculture Chapter 12 The Second and Third Agricultural Revolutions Chapter 13 Spatial Arrangement of Agriculture Chapter 14 Challenges and Consequences of Agriculture Unit Overview About 12,000 years ago, people living in Southwest Asia began to intentionally grow crops and raise animals. From the beginning of agriculture in that region, and later in other regions, agriculture diffused throughout the world. The evolution of agriculture has been punctuated by four revolutions that have pushed agriculture and societies forward. Since 1750, mechanization, the use of chemicals, and research have dramatically increased agricultural productivity. Additional advancements have increased productivity and allowed more people to work outside of agriculture, but these advancements have increased stress on the environment. Physical Geography, Economics, and Settlement Patterns What people have grown and raised has always been shaped by the climate, soils, and landforms of a place. In addition, the types of agricultural goods that farmers produce, whether dairy or vegetables or grain, are heavily influenced by the nearness of the market. Farmers have also shaped the landscape by cutting down trees, draining wetlands, etc. Improvements in technology have shifted agriculture toward larger enterprises and greater interdependence. Changes and Opportunities Changes in technology and society influence how people produce and consume food. Historically, women have often been responsible for cooking, but as more women entered the workforce, more food has been prepared outside the home. ENDURING UNDERSTANDINGS 1. Availability of resources and cultural practices influence agricultural practices and land-use patterns. (PSO-5) 2. Agriculture has changed over time because of cultural diffusion and advances in technology. (SPS-5) 3. Agricultural production and consumption patterns vary in different locations, presenting different environmental, social, economic, and cultural opportunities and challenges. (IMP-5) Source: AP® Human Geography Course and Exam Description. Effective Fall 2020 (College Board). Unit 5: Agriculture and rural land-use patterns and processes 269 CHAPTER 11 Origins, Patterns, and Settlements of Agriculture Topics 5.1–5.3 Topic 5.1 Introduction to Agriculture Learning Objective: Explain the connection between physical geography and agricultural practices. (PSO-5.A) Topic 5.2 Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods Learning Objective: Identify different rural settlement patterns and methods of surveying rural settlements. (PSO-5.B) Topic 5.3 Agricultural Origins and Diffusions Learning Objectives: Identify major centers of domestication of plants and animals. (SPS-5.A) Explain how plants and animals diffuse globally (SPS-5.B) To most people, this is just dirt. To a farmer, it is potential. —Anonymous Source: Getty Images An aerial view of rectangular plots of land in Kansas showing the Public Land Survey System used in the United States. The circular shapes are created by using center-pivot irrigation systems. (See Topic 5.2 for more about survey patterns and Topic 5.10 for more on irrigation systems.) 270 CHAPTER 11: Origins, Patterns, and Settlements of Agriculture 5.1 Introduction to Agriculture Essential Question: What is the connection between physical geography and agricultural practices? T wo physical elements have always shaped agriculture, the process by which humans alter the landscape in order to raise crops and livestock for consumption and trade. One is physical geography, such as soil types and landforms. The other is climate, the long-term weather patterns in a region. For example, coffee grows best on hillsides in warm climates, such as in Kenya or Colombia. Olives, grapes, and figs do well in the soil and climate near the Mediterranean Sea. Those foods became dietary staples for people in the region. Economic factors also impact agriculture. For example, whether consumers want to purchase peaches or plums influences what farmers will grow. Physical Geography and Agriculture Agriculture is affected by physical geography in numerous ways. Animals and crops need water. Even cattle herders in the Sahel, a dry region on the southern edge of the Sahara, must have access to water. Nutrient levels in the soil influence what people can grow. For example, cotton needs nutrient-rich soil, while sorghum can grow in nutrient-poor soils, such as those in tropical rainforests. Landforms also shape agricultural activity. Flat land in large, expansive valleys provides excellent landscapes for agriculture. In contrast, rugged land requires more human labor in order to make the land useful for agriculture. Humans have altered the physical environment to increase agricultural production. They have used techniques such as irrigation, terrace farming, deforestation, desertification, and the drainage of wetlands. (See Topic 5.10.) Source: Wikimedia Commons, Raoul Rives Agricultural activities are dictated by physical constraints as well as the level of economic development of a region. Pictured above are examples of agricultural products and activity in Morocco 5.1: Introduction to agriculture 271 Climate and Agriculture Despite human intervention, environmental and economic factors are often the most important influence on agriculture. They will determine what types of crops will be grown and what types of animals will be raised by farmers in many cases. Climate Conditions and Agricultural Production Climate always has and will continue to play a major role in determining what types of agriculture will take place throughout the world. Most of the earth’s land surface supports some type of agricultural activity. The few exceptions are those that are considered to be physically extreme. These include land at highest latitudes or highest elevations, and areas with the highest or lowest precipitation. In these areas, population density for most of human history has been low WET AND ARID AREAS OF THE WORLD polar region tropics Equator tropics Wet Areas Arid Areas polar region The level of development of a country and its access to modern technology can have a significant influence overcoming climatic obstacles. In the cold climates of Iceland and Greenland, farmers can grow crops in greenhouses. The tomato market, once dominated by sunny and warm U.S. states such as Florida and California, now includes the products of large Canadian indoor growing facilities. The relationship between climate and cultural traits, such as food preferences, also shapes agricultural activity. The climate of Southwest Asia is fine for raising hogs. However, in a region dominated by Muslims and Jews, most people have religious objections to eating hogs, so farmers choose to raise other animals. 272 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION Economic Factors and Agriculture Climate has a significant influence on agriculture, but economic factors also influence production. Many people across the world are involved in food production, but a significant difference is who consumes the food they produce. Subsistence Agriculture The primary goal of subsistence agriculture is to grow enough food or raise enough livestock to meet the immediate needs of the farmer and his or her family. A secondary goal is to sell or trade any surplus for income or goods. Most subsistent farmers live in less-developed regions of the world and have small farms of fewer than two acres. Limited land and the expense of advanced agricultural technologies have made it difficult for subsistent farmers to grow excess food to sell or trade. Commercial Agriculture The primary goal of the commercial farmer is to grow enough crops or raise enough livestock to sell for profit. It exists in all countries but is more common in developed countries. However, it has become increasingly common in semiperiphery countries, such as China, Mexico, and Brazil. To increase yields further, commercial farmers often use the profit from the sale of their products to purchase more land, equipment, and technology, or to pay for training in the newest farming techniques. The interaction of economic factors and climate influences agricultural activities in many locations. For example, animal herding takes place in drier climates such as North Africa and parts of the United States and Canada. Animal herding practiced by pastoral nomads in North Africa is an example of subsistence agriculture. Their herds are generally smaller in size, and the milk, meat, and hides are used by the farmers and their families, rather than sold for profit. By contrast, cattle raising in the United States and Canada is commercial agriculture. Cattle roam the western prairies and feed on natural vegetation prior to being sold and slaughtered. Intensive and Extensive Farming Practices Another factor that influences agriculture is the amount and type of resources used to grow crops or raise animals. Intensive agricultural practices are those in which farmers or ranchers use large amounts of inputs, such as energy, fertilizers, labor, or machines, to maximize yields. Extensive agricultural practices use fewer amounts of the inputs and typically result in less yields. Every type of agriculture involves labor, resources, and capital. Consider these ideas as part of a continuum, or line, in which each agricultural activity uses resources more or less intensely than the others. (See Topic 5.6.) Intensive Commercial Agriculture Heavy investments in labor and capital are used in this type of agriculture which often results in high yields and profits. Capital is the money invested in land, equipment, and machines. Intensive commercial agriculture is almost always capital intensive but can also be labor intensive. Examples include market gardening, plantations, and large- scale mixed crop and livestock systems. 5.1: Introduction to agriculture 273 Intensive Subsistent Agriculture This form of agriculture is often labor and animal intensive. For example, in rice paddies in Southeast Asia, most of the farming is performed using low-paid human labor rather than machines. The seedlings are planted by hand and during the harvesting process, laborers cut the crops and take the outer husks off to expose the grains of rice. Extensive Commercial Agriculture This type of farming uses low inputs of resources but has the goal of selling the product for profit. Ranching is the most common example and can be found in the western regions of the United States and Canada, Argentina, New Zealand, and Australia. Typically, the human labor required for this type of agricultural activity is extremely low. Extensive Subsistent Agriculture Few inputs are used in this type of agricultural activity. It is often practiced in areas that have climatic extremes such as tropical, semi-arid, or arid regions. Two examples include nomadic herding and shifting cultivation. TYPES OF AGRICULTURE Intensive Intensive Extensive Extensive Commercial Subsistent Commercial Subsistent Location Global: core, Global: primarily Global: core, Global: primarily semiperiphery, periphery and semiperiphery, periphery and and periphery semiperiphery and periphery semiperiphery Regional: near Regional: Regional: Regional: transportation usually near transportation usually in access to urban towns and cities access to sparsely and global with access to processing and populated areas markets local markets local, regional, with limited and global access to local markets markets Inputs Labor: intensive Labor: intensive Labor: not Labor: intensive Capital: Capital: not intensive Capital: not intensive intensive Capital: intensive intensive Yield Crop Crop Crop Crop productivity: productivity: productivity: productivity: high low high low Livestock Livestock Livestock Livestock productivity: productivity: productivity: low productivity: high low low Agricultural Practices and Regions There are a variety of agricultural practice classifications, and the regions in which they occur are strongly influenced by level of development, climate, and the purpose of the product. American geographer Derwent Whittlesey identified the eleven main agricultural regions in 1936. The following chart summarizes the types of agriculture commonly found in each climate region. 274 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION AGRICULTURAL REGIONS Agricultural Practice Climate Locations Pastoral Nomadism Drylands Southwest, Central, and East Asia North Africa Shifting Cultivation Tropical Latin America Sub-Saharan Africa Southeast Asia Plantation Tropical/Sub- Latin America Tropical Sub-Saharan Africa South and Southeast Asia Mixed Crop and Cold and Warm Midwest United States and Canada Livestock Mid-Latitude Central Europe Grain Cold Mid-Latitude North Central United States South Central Canada East Europe Commercial Gardening Warm Mid- Southeast United States Latitude Southeast Australia Dairy Cold and Warm Northeast United States Mid-Latitude Southeast Canada Northwest Europe Mediterranean Warm Mid- Southern coast of Europe Latitude Northern coast of Africa Pacific coast of the United States Livestock Ranching Drylands Western North America Southeast South America Central Asia Southern Africa Intensive Warm Mid- South, Southeast, and East Asia Subsistence Latitude Near large populations Pastoral Nomadism This type of subsistent extensive agriculture is practiced in arid and semi-arid climates throughout the world. Nomads rely on the animals for survival. Animals such as cattle, camels, reindeer, goats, yaks, sheep, and horses provide meat for food and hides for clothing and shelter. Pastoral nomads move their herds to different pastures within their territory and often trade meat for crops with nearby subsistence farmers. Nomads in different regions rely upon different animals, depending on their culture and the climate in which they live: 5.1: Introduction to agriculture 275 In South Central Asia and East Africa, people rely on cattle because they adapt to the hot climate. In desert regions of the Middle East, people rely on camels because they can survive without water for long periods. In Siberia, people rely on reindeer because they thrive in cold weather. Shifting Cultivation In this type of subsistent extensive farming, farmers grow crops on a piece of land for a year or two. When the soil loses fertility, they move to another field. Unlike crop rotation, in which farmers change the crops that are grown within a field, shifting cultivation involves using new fields. A specific type of shifting cultivation used in tropical climate regions is known as slash-and-burn agriculture, or swidden agriculture, because farmers sometimes clear the land by burning vegetation. This process enriches nutrient- poor soil by adding nitrogen to it. On the cleared land, farmers plant and harvest crops for a few growing seasons until the soil becomes less fertile. Then, they move to another area of dense, wild vegetation and repeat the process. Examples of shifting cultivation including growing rice in Southeast Asia, maize (corn) in South America, and millet and sorghum in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most families grow various food crops in one field for their own consumption. The community or village often owns the land used for shifting cultivation. As population increases and land becomes scarce, this practice is not sustainable. Shifting cultivation practices are often not sustainable and have negative influences on land, including depletion of nutrients in the soil. Plantation Agriculture Under colonialism, commerical agriculture often replaced subsistence farming. A plantation is a large commercial farm that specializes in one crop. Most plantations are found in the low latitudes with hot, humid climates and substantial rainfall. They are typically labor intensive and often exploit the low-wage labor available in nearby villages and towns. 276 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION To reduce the cost of moving bulky crops, some processing occurs near the plantation. The valuable portion of the crop is transported. Common plantation crops include coffee, cocoa, rubber, sugarcane, bananas, tobacco, tea, and cotton. As labor costs rise, plantations become more capital intensive. Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming Large-scale mixed crop and livestock farming is an intensive commercial integrated system that demonstrates an interdependence between crops and animals. In some cases, one person owns the land on which the crops are grown and the cattle are raised. In other cases, the adjacent parcels of land are owned by different people—one raises crops and the other raises livestock. On these farms, the majority of the crops are grains that are eaten by the livestock—to fatten cattle for slaughter or to feed dairy cows. The animals’ manure is, in turn, used to help fertilize the crops. Mixed crop and livestock farming is common in developed regions, such as Canada, the Midwestern United States, and northern Europe, but it has diffused to parts of the developing world. U.S. farmers often grow corn and soybeans. These crops can be used as animal feed or made into various products. Grain Farming In regions too dry for mixed crop agriculture, farmers often raise wheat. Consumed mostly by people, wheat is produced in the prairies and plains. China, India, Russia, and the United States are the world’s top wheat producers. The type of wheat grown reflects the climate: Spring wheat is planted in early spring and harvested in early autumn. It is grown in colder regions such as Canada, Montana, and the Dakotas. Winter wheat is planted in the fall and harvested in early summer. It is grown in warmer regions such as Kansas, Oklahoma, and Europe. Commercial Gardening Typical fruits and vegetables grown in the United States include lettuce, broccoli, apples, oranges, and tomatoes. Large-scale commercial vegetable gardens and fruit farms are found mostly in California, Arizona, and states of the Southeast. In the winter, the United States imports these types of products from Mexico and Chile. This type of intensive farming is also referred to as truck farming because the products were traditionally driven to local urban markets and sold. Today, however, most trucks are refrigerated which allows farmers to sell their products to distant markets. The concept of small-scale market gardening is making a resurgence near cities with buy-local food movements. Market gardening is when fruits and vegetables are grown near an urban market and sold to local suppliers, stores, restaurants. Today’s market gardening in the United States is intensive and usually requires capital investments of greenhouses and fertilizers. Dairy Farming Traditionally, dairies were local farms that supplied products to customers in a small geographic area. This pattern still exists in many less-developed regions of the world. However, during later 20th century, improvements in refrigeration and transportation expanded the milk shed, the geographic distance that milk is delivered. Large corporate dairy operations replaced smaller family-owned farms, which resulted in fewer farms but more 5.1: Introduction to agriculture 277 production. Most commercial dairy farms in the United States, Canada, and other developed countries are near urban centers and transportation corridors. In a few countries, such as Argentina and Brazil, demand for dairy products increased faster than the pressure for consolidation. With economic growth and higher incomes, the number of dairy farms increased. Mediterranean Agriculture Mediterranean agriculture is practiced in regions with hot, dry summers, mild winters, narrow valleys, and often some irrigation. Some of these regions are southern Europe, northern Africa, southwestern Africa, southwestern Asia, southwestern Australia, California, and central Chile. Common crops grown in Mediterranean agriculture include figs, dates, olives, and grapes. Herders in these regions often practice transhumance, the seasonal herding of animals from higher elevations in the summer to lower elevations and valleys in the winter. (See Topic 2.11.) Goats and sheep are the principal livestock because of the region’s rugged terrain. Livestock Ranching Livestock ranching is the commercial grazing of animals confined to a specific area. Similar to pastoral nomadism, livestock ranching is found in areas that are too dry to grow crops in large quantities. Ranching is common in the western United States; the pampas of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay; parts of Spain and Portugal; China; and central Australia. REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION Essential Question: What is the connection between physical geography and agricultural practices? Elements That Influence Agriculture Effects on Agriculture KEY TERMS agriculture extensive commercial grain farming climate agriculture commercial gardening subsistence agriculture capital market gardening commercial agriculture extensive subsistent dairy farming intensive agriculture agriculture milk shed extensive agriculture pastoral nomadism Mediterranean agriculture intensive commercial shifting cultivation transhumance agriculture plantation livestock ranching intensive subsistent mixed crop and livestock agriculture farming 278 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION 5.2 Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods Essential Question: What are rural settlement patterns and methods of surveying rural settlements? T he study of geography emphasizes a spatial perspective. Learning how people organized themselves spatially in the rural, or agricultural, environment has the same spatial perspective. Population density is less in rural regions compared to urban regions, but how and why humans interact with their environment in rural areas is just as significant. As technology has changed how people interact with the physical environment and the patterns of settlements. Rural Settlement Patterns Throughout history, rural residents commonly lived in clustered, or nucleated settlements. These settlements had groups of homes located near each other in a village and fostered a strong sense of place and often shared of services, such as schools. Villagers raised crops and animals in the fields and pastures around their settlements. Soil types, climate, and labor force influenced the types of crops grown by residents of rural settlements and sold in local markets. In contrast to many parts of the world, North American farmers usually created dispersed settlements, patterns in which farmers lived in homes spread throughout the countryside. In Canada and the United States, the governments promoted westward expansion by giving farmers land—usually 160 acres—if they agreed to reside on it for several years. Settlers moving westward also utilized the wide-open land to raise cattle. Fertile land in the expansive Ohio Valley allowed farmers to grow crops on large farms. As a result, most farmers in North America lived near their fields, and agricultural villages were rare. Dispersed settlements do occur in other locations, particularly areas that have rugged or challenging environments, such as with limited water or poor soil. Dispersed settlements encourage individual self-sufficiency but make shared services such as schools or defense difficult. Another rural settlement pattern is a linear settlement, in which buildings and human activities are organized close to a body of water or along a transportation route. Linear settlements along a river were common before industrialization because of the need for fresh water to irrigate crops. Today, the desire to be close to a transportation route is even more important. Small communities will sprawl along a railroad track or a metropolitan city will have multiple entry and exit points from an interstate highway. 5.2: Settlement patterns and survey methods 279 RURAL SETTLEMENT RURAL PATTERNS SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Dispersed Linear Clustered Agricultural Practices Impact Land-Use Patterns Rural land use evolved as agricultural practices changed, often due to new technology. For example, Cyrus McCormick’s invention of the mechanical reaper in 1831 reduced need for human labor since the machine cut and harvested crops. New technology made it easier for more agricultural products to be grown on more land with fewer laborers. Farming techniques, like crop rotation, also improved crop yields and produced a greater variety of foods. Since new technology allowed more land to be farmed, changes in land ownership followed. The British enclosure movement divided up common land that had been shared by farmers into individual plots. Other European countries did the same, and farm size and production grew across the continent. Rural land use was further altered by the Green Revolution (see Topic 5.5), which allowed agriculture to be practiced in regions of Mexico, India, and Indonesia, which were previously thought to be incapable of producing food. As agriculture became more commercialized, family farms struggled to compete with large corporate farms and many failed. Each of these changes impacted the size, scope, and organization of land-use patterns. Establishing Property Boundaries In England, fields often had irregular shapes that reflected the location of physical features and traditional patterns of use. Plot boundaries were described using the metes and bounds system. Metes were used for short distances and often referred to features of specific points, such as “from the oak tree, 100 yards north, to the corner Source: goegraph.org.uk of the barn.” Bounds covered larger areas Irregularly shaped plots of land created by the metes and bounds system in the United and were based on larger features, such as Kingdom. streams or roads. 280 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION The English colonists in America also used metes and bounds. However, beginning in 1785, the United States switched to a system based on surveying rather than landscape features. Surveying involves measuring and recording the distance, elevation, and size of features on the earth’s surface. The Public Land Survey System, or township and range system, created rectangular plots of consistent size. The government organized land into townships, areas six miles long and six miles wide. Each square mile, or section, consisted of 640 acres, and it could be divided into smaller lots, such as half sections or quarter sections. Because of this system, property boundaries in most of the land the west of the Appalachian Mountains often contain squares or rectangles. French settlers in North America emphasized the value of access to a river for water and trade. So many farmers could have some river frontage, they developed the French long-lot system, in which farms were long, thin sections of land that ran perpendicular to a river. The best examples of this system in North America occur in Quebec and Louisiana. A positive aspect of the long-lot system is that each landowner had access to water. What are some negative aspects of this system? REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION Essential Question: What are rural settlement patterns and methods of surveying rural settlements? Rural Land-Use Patterns Rural Land Surveying Methods KEY TERMS clustered (nucleated) metes and bounds townships settlements Public Land Survey System section dispersed settlements (township and range French long-lot system linear settlement system) 5.2: Settlement patterns and survey methods 281 5.3 Agricultural Origins and Diffusions Essential Question: What are major centers of domestication of plants and animals and how have plants and animals diffused globally? Until humans learned to produce a regular, predictable food source, searching for food consumed their time. But as people learned to grow crops, they eventually had time to develop new nonagricultural technologies. The development of agriculture was a gateway to other advances. Centers of Plant and Animal Domestication The First (Neolithic) Agricultural Revolution was the origin of farming. It was marked by the domestication of plants and animals. Much of the farming that took place during this time was subsistence farming, when farmers consumed the crops that they raised using simple tools and manual labor. The First Agricultural Revolution began in five centers, or hearths. The first hearths were in Southwest Asia, East Asia, South Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Agricultural Hearths In the mid-20th century, geographer Carl Sauer was among the first to argue that people in various times and locations developed agricultural hearths independently. He claimed the first hearths were in areas with high biodiversity on the edge of forests. Additional common characteristics of hearths include available fresh water, fertile soils, moderate climates, and skilled residents. Before humans developed agriculture, they had existed as hunters and gatherers for tens of thousands of years. They lived in small, mobile groups— approximately 30 to 50 people—who could move easily in search of food. Larger groups would have surpassed the carrying capacity of their respective regions. People survived by living in low population density regions. Animal Domestication Hunters in Central Asia were probably the first people to domesticate animals. They raised dogs and horses for protection, work, transportation, or as a food source. Later, agriculturalists in Southwest Asia kept goats, pigs, sheep, and cattle. People then domesticated cats, horses, camels, donkeys, and llamas, among other animals. Plant Domestication Growing crops probably began after domestication of animals. People first used vegetative planting, or using parts of the stems or roots of existing plants to grow others. Planting seeds came later. Eventually, people in separate hearths began to trade of crops, animals, and innovations. 282 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION MAJOR HEARTHS OF CROP AGRICULTURE Time Period Location Crops Early Diffusion Pattern 10,000 to Southwest Asia Barley North Africa 12,000 years ago (Fertile Crescent) Wheat Southern Europe Lentils Central Asia Olives 10,000 years ago Southeast Asia Mangos Southeastern Asia Taro Coconuts 9,500 to 7,500 South Asia (Indus Barley Indian subcontinent years ago Valley) Cotton Southwest Asia Wheat Peas 9,500 East Asia Rice North Central Asia years ago Soybeans Korean peninsula Walnuts 7,000 Sub-Saharan Africa Yams Western Africa years ago Sorghum North Africa Cowpeas Coffee African rice 5,500 Mesoamerica Squash North America years ago Peppers South America Maize (corn) Potatos Cassava The development of agriculture allowed people to live in permanent, higher-density communities. These communities were usually along rivers, which provided a source of water for people to drink. Rivers also provided a source of food (fish), a means of transporation for trade with other people, and, at times, defense from other groups. But rivers such as the Nile, the Chang Jiang, and the Indus had another benefit. They flooded regularly, which spread nutrients across the land that contributed to soil fertility. Since this made agriculture more productive, farmers could support denser settlements, and it freed more people to specialize in tasks other than growing food. People could dedicate themselves to building stronger structures in which to live and store products, providing protection from predators and enemies (military), and developing new ideas and products. Increases in agricultural productivity spurrred creativity and advances in all areas of human life. 5.3: Agricultural origins and diffusions 283 THE FIRST THE FIRST AGRICULTURAL AGRICULTURAL HEARTHS HEARTHS Southwest Asia East Asia Mesoamerica Southeast South Asia Asia Sub-Saharan Africa Diffusion of the First Agricultural Revolution The first major hearth of agriculture is the Fertile Crescent in Southwest Asia. The area extends from the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and continues in an arc along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to the Persian Gulf. Other major hearths existed along large river valleys such as the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) and Huang He (Yellow) valleys in East Asia, the Ganges valley in South Asia, and the Nile valley in northeastern Africa. In each location, people raised a variety of domesticated crops and animals. In some cases, crops and animals were domesticated in multiple regions with seemingly no interaction among the people. This is called an independent innovation. For example, wheat was domesticated independently in Southwest Asia, East Asia, and South Asia. Pigs were domesticated in Southwest Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Unique to the hearth of the Americas was the domestication of maize (corn), sweet and white potatoes, and tomatoes. Through diffusion, these products are now important parts of diets throughout most of the world. Impacts of Hearths and Agriculture The major hearths of agriculture led to the first urban centers. These first settlements grew into the first civilizations—large societies with cities and powerful states. Civilization brought increased trade, larger empires, and conquest. As societies continued to develop, people had time to specialize in their work and develop new occupations and technologies. This led to the advent of full-time metalworkers, artists, soldiers, weavers, and other specialized jobs. Over thousands of years, agriculture spread widely and led to increased trade. The diffusion paths in the ancient world were expansive considering the transportation technology of the time. For example, the Roman Empire, which reached its geographic peak around 200 C.E., carried on extensive trade in 284 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION wheat and other agricultural products with present-day England, Africa, and Southwest Asia. On the Silk Roads, the land and sea routes connecting East Asia to the Middle East and Rome, people traded silk, rice, and other goods. The Columbian Exchange One of the most dramatic shifts in agriculture came after the voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. The Columbian Exchange was the global movement of plants and animals between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas. Europeans brought hundreds of plants and animals west across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas and took hundreds of plants and animals back east. Crops such as coffee (originally from eastern Africa) and bananas and sugarcane (originally from New Guinea) continue to thrive today in the tropical climates of the Americas. Temperate climate crops such as potatoes (originally from northwest South America) and maize (originally from southern Mexico) are still extensively grown in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Domesticated animals from the Eastern Hemisphere, such as cattle, goats, and horses, were also brought to the Western Hemisphere. The turkey was originally found in the Americas and taken by Europeans back to their respective countries. In addition to the agricultural exchange, there were many diseases that were also diffused across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas, including smallpox, influenza, malaria, and measles. All of these had a devastating impact on indigenous populations. Tens of millions of people died, with the total population decreasing as much as 90 percent within a few generations of contact with European diseases. COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE From the Western to the Easten Hemishere Western Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere Potatoes Corn Bananas Olives Chocolate Beans Onions Rice Casava Peanuts Sugarcane Wheat Peppers Pumpkins Cattle Goats Squash Tobacco Horses Pigs Tomatoes Turkeys Diseases: Smallpox Malaria Measles From the Eastern to the Western Hemisphere 5.3: Agricultural origins and diffusions 285 Modern Diffusion Diffusion of agricultural products, techniques, and technologies continued as civilizations became more advanced. The impact of the Industrial Revolution, which started in Great Britain in the mid-18th century, marked the Second Agricultural Revolution. (See Topic 5.4.) New machines, coupled with scientific discoveries to better preserve food, increased the food supply exponentially. Industrialization diffused across Europe about the same time as it reached the Americas, and ever since, most of Europe, the United States, and Canada have continued to be global leaders in food production and distribution. By the mid-20th century, Green Revolution (see Topic 5.5) scientists created new crossbred or hybrid seedlings in a laboratory. These seedlings are used in more climatically restrictive regions and allowed people to produce food for themselves. This has helped to support growing populations in the semiperiphery countries of Mexico, India, and Indonesia. REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION Essential Question: What are major centers of domestication of plants and ani- mals and how have plants and animals diffused globally? Agricultural Hearths Diffusion Patterns from Hearth KEY TERMS First (Neolithic) Agricultural Revolution Fertile Crescent animal domestication independent innovation plant domestication Columbian Exchange 286 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVES: DIFFUSION OF GOODS A modern diet is often rich in food from around the world. Geographers have traced the diffusion of these crops from their hearths and the networks created through trade. Crops and Locations Florida oranges, Irish potatoes, Colombian coffee, Swiss chocolate, and Italian tomato sauces are closely associated with specific geographic locations. But each of these items originated in hearths distant from where they are produced today. Similarly, black pepper from India, cinnamon from Sri Lanka, and nutmeg from the Moluccas are among the many non-native luxuries that diffused to the European mainland. The goal of reducing the friction of distance between Europe and these faraway lands in order to improve the variety of peoples’ diets was a significant factor in the diffusion of crops from one location to another. Rate of Adoption But people are creatures of habit, so it can take centuries for the new crops to be accepted by another culture. For example, when Europeans brought tomatoes from the Americas back to Europe, they became popular in Italy—but only for ornamental purposes. Initially believed to be poisonous, tomatoes did not find their way into conventional Italian cuisine until the 19th century. Impact of Land and Climate Successful diffusion depends on more than what people want. Crops are notoriously fickle with respect to the conditions in which they grow best. A slight change in soil conditions, average temperature, growing season, moisture, and latitudinal position can severely hinder the production of a crop. For instance, natural latex, extracted from rubber trees originating in South America, was first introduced to France in the 18th century. French and British companies then started to plant rubber trees in their colonies in South and Southeast Asia. Today, over 90 percent of its production is concentrated in Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia. This primarily has to do with the availability of abundant low-paid labor in those regions, as opposed to the Americas. However, this has occurred only because both regions’ distances from the equator and relative climates are very similar. 1. escribe a benefit of having access to food from a variety of places around the D world. 2. escribe a cultural or social reason why the adoption of food from another D location is a slow process. 3. escribe an environmental barrier that slows the spread of new crops growing D in different regions. CHAPTER 11: Origins, Patterns, and Settlements of Agriculture 287 THINK AS A GEOGRAPHER: ANALYZING RURAL NETWORKS Global trade has been significantly different ever since Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in search of India. Even though he did not achieve his goal, lives were changed forever because of the migrations of people, the diffusion of ideas, the introduction of new foods, and the spread of diseases. COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE From the Western to the Easten Hemishere Western Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere Potatoes Corn Bananas Olives Chocolate Beans Onions Rice Casava Peanuts Sugarcane Wheat Peppers Pumpkins Cattle Goats Squash Tobacco Horses Pigs Tomatoes Turkeys Diseases: Smallpox Malaria Measles From the Eastern to the Western Hemisphere 1. Define the Columbian Exchange. 2. E xplain ONE positive and ONE negative social consequence of the Columbian Exchange on the Americas. 3. U sing the graphic, explain the degree to which you have benefited from the diffusion of foods from Afro-Eurasia to the Americas. 4. U sing the graphic, explain to what extent the Columbian Exchange changed the way human beings eat. 288 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION CHAPTER 11 REVIEW: Origins, Patterns, and Settlements of Agriculture Topics 5.1–5.3 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. As a result of the Columbian Exchange, which crop was transferred from the Americas to Europe and later spread through the world? (A) Coffee (B) Maize (corn) (C) Rice (D) Olives (E) Wheat 2. An agricultural hearth is a location where (A) linear settlements are commonly found (B) the Second Agricultural Revolution began (C) widespread terracing is used (D) plants and animals were first domesticated (E) where the Third Agricultural Revolution failed 3. In which state or province is the long-lot land division most common? (A) Montana (B) Quebec (C) Texas (D) Iowa (E) British Columbia 4. Mediterranean agricultural products are most commonly grown in (A) Southern Spain and California (B) the American Midwest and the European Highlands (C) Northern Italy and the Nordic countries (D) Australia and Central Asia (E) the Middle East and the Andean Highlands Chapter 11 Review: Origins, Patterns, and Settlements of Agriculture 289 5. A meal that includes olives, pita bread, cheese, figs, lamb, and wine is most associated with which of the following? (A) Mexico (B) United Kingdom (C) Greece (D) China (E) Russia Question 6 refers to the following image. 6. Using the image above, which of the following is the most important identifier of the Public Land Survey System? (A) Circular fields (B) Alternating crops shown with different colors in the fields (C) Storage structures shown in the top half of image (D) Square and rectangular fields (E) Darker fields showing the flow of water 7. Rice and beans are very common ingredients used in Latin American food today. Which of the following scenarios best explains this? (A) Beans diffused from Europe and were added to meals using rice (B) Rice and beans diffused from Europe and added to the diets of local people in the Americas (C) Rice and beans are indigenous foods of the Americas (D) Rice diffused from China and beans from Spain (E) Rice diffused from Europe and was added to meals using beans. 290 Chapter 11 Review: Origins, Patterns, and Settlements of Agriculture FREE-RESPONSE QUESTION Different types of rural settlement patterns developed for specific reasons. N W E Transportation route/river S Settlement A Settlement B Settlement C (A) Identify the type of rural settlement of A, B, and C. (B) Describe ONE reason why people settled in permanent rural settlements. (C) Explain ONE economic reason why people would settle in a pattern that reflects Settlement A. (D) Describe ONE environmental reason for the settlement pattern on Settlement C. (E) Using ONE world region explain how technology encouraged the settlement pattern such as in Settlement B. (F) Explain ONE negative social aspect of the settlement pattern in Settlement B. (G) Describe ONE limitation of analyzing settlement patterns by using a hypothetical diagram. Chapter 11 Review: Origins, Patterns, and Settlements of Agriculture 291 CHAPTER 12 The Second and Third Agricultural Revolutions Topics 5.4–5.5 Topic 5.4 The Second Agricultural Revolution Learning Objective: Explain the advances and impacts of the Second Agricultural Revolution. (SPS-5.C) Topic 5.5 The Green Revolution Learning Objective: Explain the consequences of the Green Revolution on food supply and the environment in the developing world. (SPS-5.D) Yet food is something that is taken for granted by most world leaders despite the fact that more than half of the population of the world is hungry. —Norman Borlaug, Nobel lecture, 1970 Source: Getty Images Advanced agricultural techniques and irrigations systems have diffused around the world. This image shows a center-pivot irrigation system in Botswana, Africa. (See Topics 5.4 and 5.5 for irrigation changes during agricultural revolutions.) 292 CHAPTER 12: The Second and Third Agricultural Revolutions 5.4 The Second Agricultural Revolution Essential Question: What are the advances and impacts of the Second Agricultural Revolution? A griculture underwent a wide-ranging overhaul beginning in the mid-18 th century, and the changes have not slowed since. Technological advances of the Industrial Revolution benefited farmers with dramatically better yields and productivity. As a result, the world moved out of the First Agricultural Revolution and into a series of new agricultural revolutions based on innovation and science to meet an increased global demand for food: The Second Agricultural Revolution, which began in the 1700s, used the advances of the Industrial Revolution to increase food supplies and support population growth. Agriculture benefited from mechanization and improved knowledge of fertilizers, soils, and selective breeding practices for plants and animals. The Third Agricultural Revolution (see Topic 5.5), which began in the 1960s, included the Green Revolution and an agribusiness model that controlled the development, planting, processing, and selling of food products. Impact of the Second Agricultural Revolution The Second Agricultural Revolution involved the mechanization of agricultural production, advances in transportation, development of large-scale irrigation, and changes to consumption patterns of agricultural goods. Innovations, such as the steel plow and mechanized harvesting, greatly increased food production, particularly in Europe and the United States. The impact of the Second Agricultural Revolution, coupled with discoveries to better preserve food, increased the food supply, especially to countries that participated in global trade networks. The net result was that more people had access to a greater variety of food, which increased life expectancies. Property Rights and Farming Advances Paralleling changes in technology were changes in the law. The Enclosure Acts were a series of laws enacted by the British government that enabled landowners to purchase and enclose land for their own use. This land had previously been common land shared by peasant farmers. Similar enclosure movements occurred throughout Europe that allowed for larger farms, more efficient production, and crops sold for profit rather than personal consumption. 5.4: The second agricultural revolution 293 However, the enclosures came at a high cost. Many farmers were forced off their land and lost their traditional way of life. Advances in food production technology—in the mid-19th century through the early half of the 20th century—led to better diets, longer life expectancies, and increased population. These factors, combined with many displaced farmers due to the Enclosure Acts, led to a larger potential workforce for growing factories. Mechanized agricultural technology created a shift in employment as fewer farmers and farm laborers were needed to produce more food. With fewer jobs in farming, workers looked to jobs created in the industrial or manufacturing sector of the economy. Since most of these industrial jobs existed in cities and new factory towns, rural-to-urban migration increased dramatically, which changed the cultural landscape and worldwide population distributions. Agricultural advancements in sowing (planting) and reaping (harvesting), storage, irrigation, and transportation were made during the 19th century. EARLY ADVANCES IN MODERN AGRICULTURE Advancement Date Effect Iron/Steel Plow 1819 Reduced human labor Increased strength to break through harder soils Increased amounts of crops grown per acre Increased size of farms Mechanized Seed 18 century th Planted and covered each seed quickly Drilling Resulted in increased yield per acre McCormick Reaper/ 1831 Increased harvest Harvester Reduced human labor Reduced amount of crops that perished in the field before harvest Grain Elevator 1849 Increased storage space and food supply Protected harvested food from animals and the elements Barbed Wire 1870s Provided inexpensive fencing to keep livestock in grazing areas Demarcated property Mixed Nitrogen and 1903 Increased crop yields per acre Nitric Acid Fertilizer Farming techniques, like crop rotation and irrigation, increased yields and allowed farmers to produce a greater variety of food products. Crop rotation is the technique of planting different crops in a specific sequence on the same plot of land in order to restore nutrients back into the soil. Grains usually extract nitrogen from the soil, while alfalfa puts nitrogen into the soil. A fallow period (ground left unseeded) that allows the land to rest, is also a common technique. 294 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION Farmers significantly develped their understand of proper soil management during the Second Agricultural Revolution. Improved irrigation systems provided a stable and controlled water supply thus increasing yields. Irrigation is the process of applying controlled amounts of water to crops using canals, pipes, sprinkler systems, or other human-made devices, rather than to rely on just rainfall. During the same time period as the Second Agricultural Revolution, transportation infrastructure in Europe, the United States, and core regions improved dramatically with the greater use of roads, canals, ships, steamboats, and railroads. Additional improvements in refrigeration of train cars and trucks further increased the distance goods could be transported, while reducing the time that it took agricultural products to get to domestic urban markets. These transportation infrastructure improvements laid the foundation of a global trade explosion of the Third Agricultural Revolution. (See Topic 5.5.) Agricultural Changes and Shifting Demographics The Second Agricultural Revolution resulted in fewer, yet larger and much more productive farms. This change caused a decrease in the number of farm owners and an even greater drop-off in the need for agricultural laborers. By the late 19th century, a large number of displaced farm laborers migrated to U.S. urban centers. The 1920 U.S. Census showed, for the first time in the country’s history, that more people lived in urban areas than in rural areas. Only 30 percent of the labor force worked in agriculture, less than half what it was in 1840. Today, only 3.6 percent of the U.S. workforce is involved with farming or related industries. REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION Essential Question: What are the advances and impacts of the Second Agricul- tural Revolution? Agricultural Advances Impact on Farming KEY TERMS Second Agricultural Revolution crop rotation Enclosure Acts irrigation 5.4: The second agricultural revolution 295 5.5 The Green Revolution Essential Question: What are the consequences of the Green Revolution on food supply and the environment in the developing world? M.S. Swaminatha, an Indian geneticist and a prominent leader in the Green Revolution, once said, “We should look upon agriculture not just as a food- producing machine for the urban population, but as the major source of skilled and remunerative employment and a hub for global outsourcing.” Throughout much of human history, farms in rural regions have provided the food necessary for people to survive. However, the Green Revolution introduced a wave of advancement in agricultural technology and its effects on food security, jobs, and the environment are still being realized. The Third Agricultural Revolution In the mid-20th century, the Third Agricultural Revolution was born out of science, research, and technology, and it continues today. This revolution expanded mechanization of farming, developed new global agricultural systems, and used scientific and information technologies to further previous advances in agricultural production. Researchers in core countries are responsibile for most of the technological developments of the third revolution, but the benefits and impacts were global. This is most evident in vastly improved varieties of grain facilitated by crossbreeding seedlings in laboratories. These advances are at the heart of the Green Revolution, which is considered the most important aspect of the Third Agricultural Revolution. The Green Revolution The advances in plant biology of the mid-20th century are known as the Green Revolution. Dr. Norman Borlaug, considered the “Father of the Green Revolution,” laid the foundation for scientifically increasing the food supply to meet the demands of an ever-increasing global population. Borlaug’s development of higher-yield, more disease-resistant, and faster-growing varities of grain are his most important contribution to the revolution. His work set in motion an entire movement that created hybrid wheat, rice, and corn seedlings. Borlaug’s research led to the modern method of plant breeding and eventually earned him a Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. Borlaug worked specifically on developing a shorter grain of wheat that was both resistant to disease and capable of a growing in harsher climates in Mexico. His work was successful in turning Mexico from a wheat-importing 296 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION country to one that was self-sufficient and even had a wheat surplus. After his success in Mexico, Borlaug worked with governments in South Asia to deal with food shortages in the face of expanding populations. Borlaug’s work and the resulting transfer of agricultural technology from the United States to Mexico and South Asia would serve as a model for the Green Revolution. Green Revolution scientists also encouraged farmers to double crop, or grow more than one crop in a year in the same field (see Topic 5.6), while increasing the use of fertilizer and pesticides. However, the benefits of increased food production were accompanied by concerns. The increased use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides led to fears about the unforeseen consequences of their use on farm products. Borlaug argued that the alternative of people dying from famine was not acceptable, and his research and methodology are credited with saving millions of lives. INCREASE IN GRAIN PRODUCTION BY REGION 15 East Asia Tons per Acre 10 Latin America 5 Southeast and South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa 0 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Source: “World Development Report 2013: Jobs,” World Bank, 2013. Based on the graph, which regions increased grain production the most? Why did production in Sub- Saharan Africa lag? Hybrids Seed hybridization is the process of breeding two plants that have desirable characteristics to produce a single seed with both characteristics. For hundreds of years, humans created plant hybrids from local varieties available to them. However, Green Revolution scientists focused their attention on grains. Further, living in an increasingly globalized world, these scientists had a much wider range of plants from which to crossbreed than did local farmers. Scientists used hybridization to create a new strain of rice in the 1960s. They used long-grain rice from Indonesia and dense-grain dwarf rice of Taiwan to produce a rice grain that was both longer and denser. The hybrid of these two strains was introduced to rice-growing countries in East and Southeast Asia. Machinery In addition to using hybrids, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, proponents of the Green Revolution encouraged the transfer of mechanical technology as well. Machinery such as tractors, tillers, broadcast seeders, and grain carts were introduced to countries of the developing world. The introduction of these agricultural technologies assisted in production and challenged traditional labor-intensive farming practices that had been in place for thousands of years. 5.5: The green revolution 297 GMOs Hybridization differs from the production of a genetically modified organism (GMO), a process by which humans use engineering techniques to change the DNA of a seed. They have been developed to increase yields, resist diseases, and withstand the chemicals used to kill weeds and pests. (See Topic 5.11 for more about GMOs.) Source: Wikimedia Commons A farmer in India uses a tractor to plow his field, while in the background, another farmer does the same with a pair of oxen. The process of accessing Green Revolution and Third Agricultural Revolution technologies is often unevenly distributed across the world and even within the same community. Positive Impacts of the Green Revolution During the Green Revolution, global food production increased dramatically. The introduction of new seed technology, mechanization, pesticides, chemical (human-made) fertilizers, and irrigation led to increased yields. More food led to reduced hunger, lower death rates, and growing populations in many parts of the developing world. Higher Yields Increased food production in the developing world has prevented millions from starvation. By the mid-1950s, crop yields had increased without cultivating more land. The increased yields have kept up with global population growth, but experts debate whether agricultural production increases or population increases will be greater in the future. Similar to what occurred in Mexico, India went from being an importer of wheat to harvesting a surplus of wheat within a few decades after World War II. India’s increased wheat output helped curb hunger in South Asia. The Green Revolution was also successful in Latin America, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. The worldwide result of the Green Revolution was higher yields on the same amount of land. Despite rapid population growth in many regions during the mid- to late 20th century, the increased crop output helped to stave off hunger and famine. By the second decade of the 21st century, the World Bank estimated 298 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION that 80 percent of the developing world’s population had an adequate diet. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in Rome, Italy, reported the following yield increases from 1960 to 2000: wheat: 208% corn: 157% rice: 109% potatoes: 78% Money for Research and Business The Green Revolution helped to create high rates of investment in both the public and private sectors. Research for seed hybridization, fertilizer, and pesticides was funded by governments and universities in developed countries, led by the United States. This research was then used by for-profit corporations to create and market the products farmers used. While the Green Revolution benefited people in poor regions, it also financially benefited universities and corporations in more prosperous regions. Food Prices Higher yields and increased production led to falling real food prices, or prices adjusted for inflation. The supply of certain crops, mainly wheat, corn, and rice, grew through the mid- to late 20th century and led to lower prices. More food at affordable prices helped to ease the economic stress of hunger and famine on governments and economic systems in the developing world. However, starting in 2005, global food prices began to rise which triggered large-scale protests in many countries and increased concerns about food insecurity. (See Topic 5.11.) Negative Consequences of the Green Revolution Like all large and rapid changes, the Green Revolution had some negative consequences. Some of these were environmental damages, gender inequalities, economic obstacles, and failures in Africa. Much of the success of the Green Revolution hinged on human- manufactured products such as hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and fossil-fuel using equipment. While crop yields increased, they often did so at the expense of the natural environment. The intensive use of land and double or triple cropping, combined with more aggressive irrigation, led to soil erosion and increased environmental pollution. Critics of the Green Revolution argued that it was not a sustainable system. Farming practices during the Green Revolution increasingly drained the soil of its natural nutrients, which led to more use of and dependecny on human-made fertilizers. The introduction of these chemicals to the environment resulted in potentially hazardous runoff into streams, rivers, and lakes, which posed serious consequences to the local ecosystems, habitats, and communities. Hazards included polluted drinking water, species extinction, and health issues for the population. 5.5: The green revolution 299 The transfer of technology from developed countries to developing countries included machinery such as tractors, tillers, and harvesters. These new technologies required vast amounts of fossil fuels, which increased air, water, and sound pollution. In order for the Green Revolution to succeed, it needed mechanization to keep up with crop production, thus resulting in further environmental stress. The Green Revolution’s Impact on Gender Roles Many countries in the developing world that participated in the Green Revolution had traditional economies. In a traditional economy, subsistence farming is the cornerstone of economic activity. Even though much of the farming labor is performed by women, men usually dominate socially, politically, and economically based on many societies’ traditional beliefs. When the Green Revolution and its technologies were introduced to these countries, it was often men who benefited and were given decision-making powers. Men owned the land, had access to financial resources, and were educated on newer methods of farming, while women were often excluded from these opportunities. This further marginalized women and limited their role within many societies. (See Topic 5.12 for more about women and agriculture.) Economic Changes The initial successes of the Green Revolution were a mixture of private and public investments. The transfer of farming technology heavily relied on private investment by corporations and public support by governments. As the amount of research and production increased, so too did the cost. Machinery, seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides became more expensive and the cost was passed on to farmers in the developing world and the organizations that supported them. As profit margins decreased, many corporations began to curtail further investments in the Green Revolution. Without a clear financial incentive, the motivation to invest waned. In addition, the labor markets of less-developed countries changed. As with the Second Agricultural Revolution, the Green Revolution allowed, or pushed, people from rural areas to move to urban areas in search of industrial and service sector jobs. Demographers predict that migration from rural to urban areas in the developing world will continue. In the future, the percentage of people living in cities will continue to increase. People in the developing world had unequal access to Green Revolution technology. Income, accessibility, and government policies played a role in which people and regions of a country had access to or could afford the technologies. The wealthy and transportation-connected core areas have advantages over the outlying, isolated, and poor periphery areas of a country, and resulted in uneven development. 300 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION The Green Revolution’s Struggles in Africa Unlike Latin America and Asia, Africa benefited very little from successes of the Green Revolution. The reasons the Green Revolution failed throughout the continent of Africa are environmental, economic, and cultural. Africa has a greater diversity of climate and soils than other places. Hence, development of the right fertilizers proved to be very expensive. Africa has many regions with harsh environmental conditions. Insects, plants, and viral strains proved to be extremely challenging to the Green Revolution researchers and their technology. Africa is large and lacks a well-developed transportation infrastructure, so the costs of investment in research, development, and transportation were very high. Africa’s staple crops such as sorghum, millet, cassava, yams, cowpeas, and peanuts were not always included in research for seed-hybridization programs. During the Green Revolution, the world’s population more than doubled. Most of this growth was in poor countries on the periphery of the global economy. From the mid-20th into the 21st centuries, Africa had the highest population growth rate of any continent. Since that is where the Green Revolution had the least impact, hunger remains a greater problem there than elsewhere. Today, nearly 30 percent of Africa’s population has been affected by food insecurity. In response to the ongoing food problems in Africa, private foundations and governments are working together. They hope to develop a new Green Revolution there, using updated technology. REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION Essential Question: What are the consequences of the Green Revolution on food supply and the environment in the developing world? Green Revolution’s Consequences on Green Revolution’s Consequences on Food Supply the Environment KEY TERMS Third Agricultural Revolution hybridization Green Revolution genetically modified organism (GMO) 5.5: The green revolution 301 GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVES: AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION Dr. Norman Borlaug contributed to the advancement of humanity by researching and developing methods to expand the food supply, thereby reducing the possibility of famine around the world. His work, and the subsequent Green Revolution, had many positive impacts on the world, but there are also negative consequences. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), a specialized agency of the United Nations, believes that providing safe drinking water to people is among its most important functions. Because the Green Revolution occurred as rapidly as it did, it had the unintended consequence of pollution. Agricultural pollution can be defined as contamination of the environment because of the process of farming or raising livestock. One of the most obvious and critical concerns related to agricultural pollution is the contamination of the water supply by chemical pesticides and fertilizers. The FAO believes that population growth has put undue pressures on countries to produce enough food that, in some cases, regulatory short cuts have been taken in order to achieve food production needs. Chemical contamination of surface and ground water not only endangers the marine life in the water, but also potentially pollutes the supply of drinking water for people. Contaminated water can cause immediate illnesses or long-term diseases, such as cancer or birth defects. Another concern of the FAO is that surface water can be contaminated because of industrial waste or poor water treatment processes. If surface water reservoirs are used to help irrigate farmland, and there are pollutants in those sources of water, disease can spread from the water supply to the crops, and in some cases, even to the agricultural workers themselves. Human beings continue to try to understand the implications, both positive and negative, of their policies and actions regarding agriculture. Agricultural pollution was an unintended consequence of the Green Revolution and remains a concern in the 21st century. 1. What is the FAO’s concern about water use and agriculture? 2. Describe two unintended negative consequences of the Green Revolution. 3. Explain the danger of water pollution to people and the environment. 302 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION THINK AS A GEOGRAPHER: COMPARE THE SECOND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION TO THE GREEN REVOLUTION Understanding how to compare two ideas, concepts, images, or sets of data is critical for geographers. The skill of comparing requires looking for both similarities and differences. Similarities are things the two concepts have in common, while differences are what make each concept unique. When making a comparison, geographers must take into account that the experiences in one country or region may be different than another and even the experiences of people in the same community can be different. Looking for and describing these subtle distinctions with precision is an important skill for geographers to master. 1. O n your own paper, create a Venn diagram like the one below. List character- istics that are individual to the Second Agricultural Revolution and the Green Revolution in the outside portion of each circle. List similarities shared by both revolutions in the center of the circles, where they overlap. 2. A fter you complete your list, circle or highlight those which you consider the most important similarities and differences. 3. D eepen your comparison. Using your most important similarity and difference, find facts, data, details, or examples to support your answers. 4. E xplain how your answers could change if you use different regions, countries, or communities of the world to support your answers. Second Industrial Green Revolution Revolution CHAPTER 12: The Second and Third Agricultural Revolutions 303 CHAPTER 12 REVIEW: The Second and Third Agricultural Revolutions Topics 5.4–5.5 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Which of the following is NOT considered to be a negative consequence of the Green Revolution? (A) Air pollution from farm equipment that use fossil fuels increased. (B) Overfertilization resulted in soil pollution. (C) Gender income inequality worsened as women were frequently not allowed to operate or own farm equipment. (D) Family farms disappeared because they could not compete with the corporate farms and the increased costs of farming. (E) Agricultural yields increased and food prices dropped until 2005. 2. Which statement best explains a result of crop rotation? (A) Maintains soil fertility by restoring nutrients (B) Increases reliance on synthetic fertilizers (C) Extracts nitrogen making fields more fertile (D) Increases the need to mechanize farms and develop new seeds (E) Increases migration of people to cities in search of jobs 3. Though the research and scientific discovery that fueled the Green Revolution occurred mostly in the United States, which of the following regions benefited the most from the Green Revolution? (A) Western Europe (B) Russia (C) South Asia (D) Sub-Saharan Africa (E) North America 4. The greatest impact of the Second Agricultural Revolution was (A) an increase in farm jobs (B) an increase in available food supplies (C) an increase in global conflicts over control of natural resources (D) a decrease in life expectancy (E) a decrease in factory jobs 304 Chapter 12 Review: The Second and Third Agricultural Revolutions Question 5 refers to the following graph. CHANGES IN FOOD SUPPLY IN ASIA AND AFRICA 90 Rice supply in Asia Kilograms per capita 80 70 60 50 40 30 Millet supply in Africa 20 10 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Source: Food and Agricultural Organization. Source: Food and Agricultural Organization 5. Which statement about 1961 to 2011 is best supported by the graph? (A) Food security improved in both Asia and Africa. (B) Green Revolution techniques worked better in Asia than in Africa. (C) Population growth was higher in Africa than in Asia. (D) Green Revolution techniques worked well in both regions but slowed down dramatically. (E) Millet and rice are not very important food sources for either region, indicating that a conclusion about food security is invalid. 6. Which is a characteristic of the Second Agricultural Revolution? (A) Domestication of wheat and rice (B) Increased mechanization of farming (C) Increased number of woman farmers as compared to men (D) Rapid development of genetically modified crops (GMO) (E) Higher percentage of farming jobs in a country’s economy 7. Which of the following is most accurate about agriculture today? (A) Agricultural resources are equally distributed among developed and developing countries. (B) A higher percentage of the population is works in agriculture than the 1800’s. (C) Productivity of land is increasing as are concerns about sustainability. (D) Less land is used for farming and productivity is declining. (E) A much smaller percentage of women are involved in farming compared to the 1900s. Chapter 12 Review: The Second and Third Agricultural Revolutions 305 FREE-RESPONSE QUESTION 1. The Second Agricultural Revolution (mid-1800s and early 1900s) benefitted mostly developed countries. The Green Revolution (1961 to 2011) dramatically changed agriculture in developing countries. INCREASE IN GRAIN PRODUCTION BY REGION 15 East Asia Tons per Acre 10 Latin America 5 Southeast and South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa 0 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Source: “World Development Report 2013: Jobs,” World Bank, 2013. (A) Using the graph, identify the region that had the largest increase in grain production between 1961 and 2011. (B) Explain ONE environmental reason why Sub-Saharan Africa’s grain production did not increase as much as other regions. (C) Explain ONE economic reason why Sub-Saharan Africa’s grain production did not increase as much as other regions. (D) Describe ONE technological change that occurred in agriculture as a result of the Green Revolution. (E) Describe ONE technological change that occurred in agriculture as a result of the Second Agricultural Revolution. (F) Compare ONE demographic impact that occurred as a result of the Second Agricultural and Green Revolutions. (G) Describe ONE environmental impact of the Second Agricultural Revolution. 306 Chapter 12 Review: The Second and Third Agricultural Revolutions CHAPTER 13 Spatial Arrangement of Agriculture Topics 5.6–5.9 Topic 5.6 Agricultural Production Regions Learning Objective: Explain how economic forces influence agricultural practices. (PSO-5.C) Topic 5.7 Spatial Organization of Agriculture Learning Objective: Explain how economic forces influence agricultural practices. (PSO-5.C) Topic 5.8 Von Thünen Model Learning Objective: Describe how the von Thünen model is used to explain patterns of agricultural production at various scales. (PSO-5.D) Topic 5.9 The Global System of Agriculture Learning Objective: Explain the interdependence among regions of agricultural production and consumption. (PSO-5.E) Without agriculture it is not possible to have a city, stock market, banks, university, church, or army. Agriculture is the foundation of civilization and any stable economy. —Allan Savory, biologist and farmer, Zimbabwe Source: Getty Images High-density cattle feedlots often contain a mill to produce feed which increases the efficiency of beef production. (See Topic 5.6 for how feedlots and other agricultural practices are shaped by economic factors.) CHAPTER 13: Spatial Arrangement of Agriculture 307 5.6 Agricultural Production Regions Essential Question: How do economic forces influence agricultural practices? Residents of every continent, except Antarctica, practice agriculture. There are differences in agricultural practices in various regions of the world, and even within individual continents. These differences include the crops or animals raised, level of technology, methods for production, percentage of the population working in agriculture, importance of agriculture to the economy, and gender roles in farming. These variables are important considerations in farmers’ decisions about agricultural practices and land use. Influence of Economic Forces Among the many factors that influence farmers’ decisions are available capital and the relative costs of land and labor. Because of these different costs, farmers balance the use of their resources differently. If land is plentiful and costs little, they use it extensively. If land is scarce and expensive, they use it intensely. In reality, not every farm fits perfectly into one of these two categories. Geographers often refer to the bid-rent theory when discussing land costs for different types of agricultural activities. There is usually a distance- decay relationship between proximity to the urban market and the value of the land, meaning the closer the land is to an urban center, the more valuable it is. The farmer willing to pay the highest price will gain possession of the land. Consequently, the farmer must use intensive agricultural practices to turn a profit on the land closest to market. (See Topic 5.8 for more about bid-rent and von Thünen’s model.) Intensive land-use agriculture involves greater inputs of capital and paid labor relative to the space used. (See Topic 5.1 for more on intensive agriculture.) Intensive practices are used in various regions and conditions: Paddy rice farming in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia is very labor intensive. Commonly used terraced fields makes using machinery difficult. Truck farming in California, Texas, Florida, and near large cities is sometimes capital intensive because it uses expensive machinery and other inputs. In addition to being capital intensive, it is nearly always labor intensive. These large farms produce very large quantities of vegetables and fruit, often relying on many low-paid migrant workers, to tend and harvest crops. 308 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION Factory farming is a capital-intensive livestock operation in which many animals are kept in close quarters, and bred and fed in a controlled environment. The term comes from these operations running like a factory. Instead of cars or computers moving along an assembly line, it is the animals that progress from one end of the “factory” to the other end, where they are eventually processed into meat products. Aquaculture (aquafarming) is a type of intensive farming. Rather than raising typical farm animals in close quarters with a controlled environment, fish, shellfish, or water plants are raised in netted areas in the sea, tanks, or other bodies of water. (See Topic 5.11.) Extensive land-use agriculture uses fewer inputs of capital and paid labor relative to the amount of space used. Extensive practices, such as shifting cultivation, nomadic herding, and ranching (see Topic 5.1) can be found throughout the world and across the entire spectrum of economic development. Increasing Intensity Regions of the world that traditionally relied on extensive agricultural techniques are under pressure because of local increases in demand for food, regional population growth, and global competition to use land more intensely. These demographic and economic forces have placed more stress on the land because they have pushed farmers to use land continuously, rather than allowing land to lie fallow and recover. This shift increases demand for expensive inputs such as irrigation, chemicals fertilizers, and improved seeds. Those who rely on shifting cultivation have found it more difficult to continue these methods as global demand for tropical cash crops, such as coffee, tea, and cacao, compete for more land use. The timber industry has also put an economic strain on shifting cultivation. For subsistence farmers, increasing population and competition—for space to grow timber, rubber, cotton, or products that are not eaten but used in industry—have resulted in food security issues, most noticeably in Africa. Methods of Planting Different methods of planting increase the intensity of land use. Double (or triple) cropping is planting and harvesting a crop two (or three) times per year on the same piece of land. Another technique, intercropping, also known as multicropping, is when farmers grow two or more crops simultaneously on the same field. For example, a farmer might plant a legume crop alongside a cereal crop to add nitrogen to the soil and guard against soil erosion. The opposite of multicropping is monoculture, in which only one crop is grown or one type of animal is raised per season on a piece of land. Monocropping, or continuous monoculture, is only growing one type of crop or raising one type of animal year after year. As a result, these farmers purchase very specific equipment, irrigation systems, fertilizers, and pesticides designed for their one crop or animal to maximize efficiency. 5.6: Agricultural production regions 309 Large scale monocropping farms can be thousands of acres of just wheat, corn, rice, coffee, cacao, etc. This can result in lower per-unit cost of production, higher yields, and more profits. Negative impacts include soil depletion, decreased yields over time, increased reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and increased risk since all of the farmer’s resources are invested in one crop. The Meat Industry The economic structure of livestock raising has changed in the past few decades. Global consumption of meat increased over 50 percent between 1998 and 2018, mostly because of population growth. Growing demand accelerated the trend toward factory farms and centralized processing centers. Today, cattle are less likely to graze on large expanses of land, but instead are raised in feedlots, which are confined spaces in which cattle and hogs have limited movement, also known as concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). The animals grow bigger in a shorter period of time because of their reduced movement. This new practice maximizes the use of space and prepares the animal for slaughter quickly, thus maximizing profit. The global expansion of fast-food operations and the increased demand for meat has led to larger ranching operations in the United States and South America. In the United States, the competition for space, desire for larger animals, and reduced raising time have led to an increased use of feedlots. Some agricultural products combine extensive and intensive phases. Raising cattle in Wyoming is an example of extensive farming. The cattle roam and feed on grass in large ranches that average nearly six square miles in size. As the cattle reach maturity, the intensive phase begins. Farmers transport the cattle to feedlots in northern Colorado to fatten the animals quickly before being processed into meat for market. REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION Essential Question: How do economic forces influence agricultural practices? Economic Factor Influence of Economic Factor KEY TERMS bid-rent theory double cropping capital intensive intercropping (multicropping) labor intensive monoculture factory farming monocropping aquaculture (aquafarming) feedlots 310 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP ® EDITION 5.7 Spatial Organization of Agriculture Essential Question: How do economic forces influence agricultural practices? A number of agricultural trends have changed the agricultural landscape over the past several decades. The most obvious changes involve the decline in small family farms, the development of much larger corporate farms, and the expansion of farmland into what was previously forested or wetland areas. The agricultural landscape has also been altered by the reduction in the variety of crops and the introduction of new crops to a region. Reasons for the evolving agricultural landscape are the growth of agribusiness, farms run as corporations, and the globalization of agriculture. Commercial Agriculture and Agribusiness Agribusiness involves the integration of various steps of production in the food-processing industry such as research and development, processing and production, transportation, marketing, and retail of agricultural goods. Given the enormity of this system, the largest agribusinesses are owned by transnational corporations, or those that operate in many countries. These large-scale operations are commercial, highly mechanized, and often use chemicals and biotechnology in raising crops and animals. The following chart compares farming at the scale of a homeowner and an agribusiness. VEGETABLE FARMING ON TWO SCALES Activity Homeowner Scale Agribusiness Scale Growing food Raising vegetables in a backyard Owning farms of thousands of garden acres that are worked by a large staff of employees Processing Eating fresh, home-grown Canning and freezing products food vegetables for dinner and in factories that are often located preserving vegetables for near the fields future use Selling food Selling vegetables at a local Selling products to wholesale market distributors who ship them regionally and globally Financing the Giving some vegetables to a Borrowing money from banks and food industry neighbor in exchange for using selling stock to raise money for some of their land for a garden operating expenses Researching Growing different varieties of Investing in research and food options tomatoes to see which grow best development of new seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides 5.7: Spatial organization of agriculture 311 Impact of Large-Scale Farms Globalization has accelerated the growth of agribusiness and corporate farms during the latter half of the 20th century. Competition in agricultural products and services encouraged large-scale farms to operate more as a corporation than a family farm. Agribusinesses have often resulted from the consolidation of family f

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