LSAT Flashcards PDF

WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO? Q: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? A: Find the answer choice that is almost certainly true if the information in the passage is true. We call this a Soft Must Be True Question WHAT ARE T...

WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO? Q: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? A: Find the answer choice that is almost certainly true if the information in the passage is true. We call this a Soft Must Be True Question WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO? Q: Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the information above? A: Find the answer choice that would make the argument in the passage more convincing. We call this a Strengthen Question WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO? Q: Which one of the following conforms most closely to the principle stated above? A: Find the answer choice that presents a valid argument, based on the rule in the passage. We call this a Soft Must Be True (Principle) Question WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO? Q: Which one of the following best illustrates the principle illustrated by the argument above? A: Find the answer choice that presents a valid argument, based on the implicit rule the argument in the passage is using. We call this a Parallel (Principle) Question WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO? Q: Each of the following could be true EXCEPT: A: Find the answer choice that must be false if the information in the passage is true. We call this a Must Be False Question WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO? Q: The answer to which one of the following questions would be most helpful in evaluating the argument? A: Find the answer choice that presents a question that’s relevant to determining how convincing the argument in the passage is. We call this a Crux Question WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO? Q: Which one of the following most accurately characterizes the technique of reasoning employed in the argument? A: Find the answer choice that describes how the argument in the passage uses the evidence to reach the conclusion. We call this a Describe Question WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO? Q: The last sentence figures in the argument in which of the following ways? A: Find the answer choice that describes what role (e.g., premise, conclusion, subsidiary conclusion, etc.) the last sentence plays in the argument in the passage. We call this a Role Question LOGICAL REASONING FAMILIES Q: What are the three families of logical reasoning questions? A: Implication, Characterization, Operation LOGICAL REASONING FAMILIES Q: In which family are the statements in the stimulus always accepted as true? A: Implication (Must Be True, Soft Must Be True, Must Be False). LOGICAL REASONING FAMILIES Q: In which family are the answer choices always accepted as true? A: Operation • True • False • Sometimes • Never ARGUMENT STRUCTURE Q: What are indicator words for premises? A: • Since • Because • For • As • After all • Given that • Moreover ARGUMENT STRUCTURE Q: What are indicator words for conclusions? A: • Therefore • Thus • Hence • So • As a result` • Clearly • Consequently • It follows LOGICAL REASONING FAMILIES Q: What is a subsidiary or intermediate conclusion? A: A conclusion that is supported by at least one premise and that itself supports another conclusion. ARGUMENT STRUCTURE Q: What is an assumption? A: A claim that is not explicitly stated but that must be true in order for a conclusion to follow logically from the premises. ARGUMENT STRUCTURE Q: What is a valid argument? A: An argument in which the conclusion must be true if the premises are true. ARGUMENT STRUCTURE Q: What is an invalid argument? A: An argument in which assumptions are required because the conclusion does not necessarily follow, even if the premises are true. ARGUMENT STRUCTURE Q: What is the correct process for evaluating an argument? A: 1. Identify (underline) the conclusion. 2. Identify the premises. 3. Evaluate the validity by identifying any assumptions that are made. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS Q: What is a sufficient condition? A: A condition that is enough to guarantee that another conditions or conditions are met. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS Q: What are words that indicate sufficiency? A: • If • All • Any • When • Whenever • Every • Each • In the event that • As long as • Provided • In order to • People who • Those who CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS Q: What is a necessary condition? A: A condition that is required or must be true for another condition to be met. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS Q: What are words that indicate necessity? A: •Then •Only •If •Only when •Needs •Requires •Must •Depends •Relies •Demands •Always •Is/Are •Will CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS Q: Does the word “only” introduce a sufficient or necessary condition? A: Necessary. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS Q: To diagram an “unless” statement, replace “unless” with what term? A: If not. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS Q: What is the fallacy of the converse? A: Taking a necessary condition to be enough to meet a sufficient condition. i.e., assuming that A > B implies B > A CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS Q: What is the fallacy of the inverse? A: Taking the fact that a sufficient condition is not met to guarantee that a necessary condition cannot be met. i.e., assuming that A > B implies No A > B CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS Q: What is the contrapositive? A: A valid inference in which the fact that a necessary condition is not met guarantees that a sufficient condition cannot be met i.e., A > B implies No B > No A DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: It will B if A. A: A > B (No B > No A) DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: All X are Y. A: X > Y (No Y > No X) DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: H only if G. A: H > G (No G > No H) DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: Only when M does it N. A: N > M (No M > No N) DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: The only C are D. A: C > D (No D > No C) DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: P if and only if R. A: P<>R DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: If it is not V, then X only if Y. A: No V > (X > Y) can also diagrammed as X>V or Y (No V and No Y > No X) DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: If E, then F or G but not both. A: E > (F or G) and (No F or No G) (F and G) or (No F and No G) > No E DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: Must be S for both T and U. A: T and U > S (No S > No T or No U) DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: No H unless I. A: No I > No H (H > I) DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE Q: W is required without X. A: No X > W (No W > X) LOGICAL FORCE Q: What key words that indicate weak modality? A: • May • Might • Can • Could • Possibly • Often LOGICAL FORCE Q: What key words indicate moderate modality? A: • Probably • Likely • Usually • Most of the time • Majority of the time LOGICAL FORCE Q: What key words indicate strong modality? A: • Must • Is • Are • Needs • Will • Does • Do • Always LOGICAL FORCE Q: What key words indicate weak quantification? A: • Some • Few • Several • A significant number • Many LOGICAL FORCE Q: What key words indicate moderate quantification? A: • Most • Majority • More than half LOGICAL FORCE Q: What key words indicate strong quantification? A: • All • Any • Every • Nearly all QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: On a “Must Be True” question without conditional statements in the stimulus, is the correct answer choice likely to be strong or weak? A: Weak QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: On a “Soft Must Be True” question, is the correct answer choice likely to be strong or weak? A: Weak QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: Is it common to diagram a “Must Be True” question? A: Yes QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: Is it common to diagram a “Soft Must Be True” question? A: No QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: Is it common to diagram a “Must Be False” question? A: Yes QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What should you look for on a “Main Point” question? A: Main conclusion; indications of the author’s attitude. QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What are the nine common answers to “Describe” questions? A: •Rejecting alternatives •General principle •Appealing to an authority •Counterexample •Analogy •Alternative explanation •Disagreeing with a line of reasoning •Directly undermining a premise or conclusion •Offering a new consideration •Challenging an assumption QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: Is it common to diagram a “Parallel” question? A: Yes QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: On a “Parallel” question that is not diagrammed, what is the best strategy? A: Make a motto (summarize the reasoning separate from the subject matter). QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What is the first thing to check in an answer choice to a “Parallel” question? A: If the conclusion matches the conclusion in the stimulus in scope and modality. QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: Is it common to diagram a “Parallel Flaw” question? A: Yes QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: On a “Parallel Flaw” question that is not diagrammed, what aspect(s) of the answer choice must be the same as the stimulus? A: Only the flaw and nothing else about the argument. QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What are the four common answers to a “Role” question? A: • Premise • Subsidiary or itermediate conclusion • Main conclusion • Introduction or background QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What type of answer is almost never correct on a “Role” question? A: Assumption (takes for granted, presumes). QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What is the most common way to dismiss an answer choice on a “Disagree” question? A: There is not enough information presented to say whether at least one speaker would agree. QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What are the four most prevalent types Logical Reasoning questions? A: • Strengthen • Flaw • Necessary • Soft Must Be True QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: How often is a causal conclusion on the LSAT valid? Why? A: Never. There always could be an alternate cause. QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What are the three most common ways to weaken a causal conclusion? A: • Alternate cause • Cause without effect • Effect without cause QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What are the three most common ways to strengthen a causal conclusion? A: • Eliminate an alternate cause • Cause and effect in a similar situation • No cause and no effect in a similar situation QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: On “Strengthen” and “Weaken” questions, are the correct answer choices likely to be strong or weak? A: Strong QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What is a sufficient assumption? A: A claim that is not stated but that guarantees that an argument is valid (that the conclusion follows logically from the premises). QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What is a necessary assumption? A: A claim that is not stated but that must be true for an argument to be valid (for the argument to follow logically from the premises). QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What happens to an argument if a necessary assumption is negated? A: The argument is totally invalid (the conclusion does not follow from the premises). QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: On “Necessary” questions, are the correct answer choices likely to be strong or weak? A: Weak QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: On “Sufficient” questions, are the correct answer choices likely to be strong or weak? A: Strong QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What is the easiest way to distinguish a Sufficient question from a Necessary question? A: The prompt on a Sufficient question will make it clear that the argument will be valid with the addition of the correct answer choice (enables the conclusion to be “properly drawn” or to “follow logically”) QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES Q: What are the two requirements for a correct answer choice to a “Resolve” question? A: 1. Resolves the paradox 2. Does not invalidate either part of the paradox QUANTIFIERS Q: What is the most common combination of quantifiers on the LSAT? A: “All” and “Some.” QUANTIFIERS Q: To combine an “all” statement and a “some” statement, where does the shared term have to be? A: The sufficient condition of the “all” statement. QUANTIFIERS Q: A> B A –s– C A: B –s– C QUANTIFIERS Q: D>E E –s– F A: No valid conclusion. QUANTIFIERS Q: G > H No I > No H A: G > I QUANTIFIERS Q: J > No K L –s– K A: L –s– No J QUANTIFIERS Q: M > O M > N A: O –s– N QUANTIFIERS Q: P –m–> Q Q –m–> R A: No valid conclusion. QUANTIFIERS Q: S –m–> T S –m–> U A: T –s– U QUANTIFIERS Q: V –m– Z Z > W A: V –m–> W QUANTIFIERS Q: A > B B –m–> C A: No valid conclusion. QUANTIFIERS Q: D –s– E E –s– F A: No valid conclusion. QUANTIFIERS Q: G –m–> H G > I A: H –s– I QUANTIFIERS Q: J –s– K K –m–> L A: No valid conclusion. QUANTIFIERS Q: What quantity is implied by the word ‘some’? A: At least one (not none). QUANTIFIERS Q: If some X are Y, can it be inferred that some X are not Y? A: No, some X are Y is consistent with all X are Y. FLAWS Q: For an argument to avoid a committing a fallacy of exclusivity, what three requirements must be met? A: 1. The options are exhaustive (no other option is available) 2. The options are exclusive (cannot be both) 3. All but one option is eliminated FLAWS Q: To validly base a conclusion on a poll or sample, what requirements must be met? A: 1. The sample group must be representative 2. Those surveyed must understand the survey and have no motive to misrepresent themselves 3. The conclusions must match the questions in the survey FLAWS Q: What are the two common fallacies of composition? A: 1. Applying a characteristic of a whole to its constituent parts 2. Applying a characteristic of a part or parts to a whole FLAWS Q: When is it a fallacy to use an analogy? A: When the things being compared differed in at least one crucial respect. FLAWS Q: What is a fallacy of equivocation? A: Using a key word or concept in two different senses. FLAWS Q: What are the three common cause and effect fallacies? A: 1. Taking a correlation to imply causation 2. Ignoring an alternate cause 3. Reversing cause and effect FLAWS Q: If an argument’s conclusion is identical its premise, which fallacy has been committed? A: Circular reasoning. FLAWS Q: What is an ad hominem fallacy? A: Attacking the proponent of an argument rather than the argument itself. FLAWS Q: What is an absence of evidence fallacy? A: Taking the failure of evidence to prove a claim as evidence against the claim. FLAWS Q: What are the two common fallacies involving percentages and amounts? A: 1. Taking premises about percentages to justify a conclusion about an absolute amount 2. Taking premises about absolute amounts to justify a conclusion about percentages FLAWS Q: What are the five common category mistakes? A: 1. Perception vs Reality 2. Temporal (Past vs. Present vs. Future) 3. Modality 4. Quantifiers 5. Descriptive vs. Normative FLAWS Q: When is it a fallacy to rely on the opinion of an authority? A: When the subject falls outside of the expertise of the authority. LOGIC GAMES Q: On which type of games should a student look for the opportunity to break a game into scenarios? A: All types LOGIC GAMES Q: What are the three types of games in which it may be necessary to “Play the Numbers”? A: 1. Underbooked or overbooked ordering games 2. In and Out games with subgroups 3. Underbooked stable grouping games 4. Unstable grouping games LOGIC GAMES Q: Once a student identifies a game in which it may be necessary to “Play the Numbers,” how can it be determined whether or not to do so? A: The presence of at least one “principle of distribution” signifies that it is necessary to “Play the Numbers.” LOGIC GAMES Q: What is the proper way to “Play the Numbers”? A: Identify all distributions by working from the most extreme to the most equal distribution. READING COMPREHENSION Q: Which kinds of details in a Reading Comprehension passage do the questions typically ask about? A: Cause and effect relationships, examples, questions and answers, and lists. READING COMPREHENSION Q: Which kinds of details in a Reading Comprehension passage do the questions rarely ask about? A: Analogies, definitions. READING COMPREHENSION Q: Which are the three most common topics on Reading Comprehension passages? A: Science, the law, arts/culture. READING COMPREHENSION Q: True or False: It is advisable to read the questions before reading the passage. A: False. Most questions are vaguely written and will provide you little direction as you read the passage. Plus, a well-prepared test taker can often predict what the questions will ask about after reading a passage. READING COMPREHENSION Q: True or False: The first question usually asks you to identify the main point of the passage. A: True. READING COMPREHENSION Q: True or False: The main point of the passage is the author’s conclusion, if one is provided. A: True. READING COMPREHENSION Q: True or False: It’s better to rely only on underlining and highlighting the passage, and not write notes describing the role of each paragraph. A: False. Underlining and highlighting can be effective tools, provided you don’t overuse them. However, writing notes forces you to comprehend what you’ve read, and can help you answer many difficult questions about the organization of the passage. READING COMPREHENSION Q: True or False: Most questions on a comparative Reading Comprehension passage ask about how the two passages relate to each other. A: True. READING COMPREHENSION Q: True or False: Some comparative Reading Comprehension passages present two passages that have no relationship to each other. A: False. Every set of comparative passages have some shared topic, theme, or point of view. READING COMPREHENSION Q: True or False: The relationship between the two comparative Reading Comprehension passages will always be a shared topic. A: False. Sometimes the passages discuss different topics, but the authors express similar points of view. Sometimes one passage discusses a very general principle or idea, and the other topic applies it to another context.