LSAT Prep Guide PDF

LSAT Stimuli falls into two categories 1. Arguments 2. Sets of facts What is my primary objective? Determining what the stimuli is: an argument or a set of facts. In regards to how I personally think about it: this is your main job. In order to do this, I absolutely must be able to determine...

LSAT Stimuli falls into two categories 1. Arguments 2. Sets of facts What is my primary objective? Determining what the stimuli is: an argument or a set of facts. In regards to how I personally think about it: this is your main job. In order to do this, I absolutely must be able to determine and understand if a consclsuion is present. Premise: - Because - Since - For example - For the reason that - In that ‘ - Given that - As indicated by - Due to - Owing to - This is seen from - We know this by/ because Conclusion: - Thus - Therefore - Hence - Consequently - As a result - So - Accordingly - clearly - Must be that - Shows that - Concludes - Follows that - For this reason Note that conclusions and premises can be in any order of presentation: order of presentation does not effect the logical structure - If there is a conclusion, identify it before identifying the question stem  - Primary objective #2 - if the stimulus contains an argument, identify the conclusion, if it conations a fact set- identify each fact and closely examine it. - Note that “ conclusion premise form” os when the premise is held by commas after the conclusion indicator - “Therefore, Since, Premise” Additional premises: sometimes an author will make an argument and then add in another premise for good measure. It is possibly non essential to the conclusion. Additional premise indicators: - Furthermore - More over - Besides - In addition - Whats more - Counter Premise: These points can be brought up to compare and contrast as to minimize the damage of a counter point Counter Point Indicators: - But - Yet - However - On the other hand - Admittedly - Although - In contrast - Even though - Still - Where as - Afterall - In spite of - Despite Recognizing conclusions without indicators: Tip #1 you can try to turn an argument into a conversation - Not my favorite way Tip#2 Conclusion identification method Take the statements and place then in order so one is a conclusion. Then add indicators=. Do This until it logically makes sense Example: the best way of eliminating traffic will not be easily found/ There are so many competing solutions that it will take millions to study the options. Because black, we can conclude blank Simple conclusion: Premise -> conclusion Complex conclusion: Premise > conclusion/premise> conclusion Primary Objective #3 If the stimulus contains an argument: determine if it is strong or weak. Ask if the premise is justifying the conclusion Inferences Vs. Assumptions Inference: what follows from an argument (conclusion) [after argument] Assumption: what is taken for granted in an argument [before argument] Primary objective #4: read Closely and know precisely what the author said DO NOT GENERALIZE Quantity indicators: - All - Every - Most - Many - Some - Several - Few - Sole - Only - Not all - None\ Probability Indicators: - Must - Will - Always - Not always - Probably - Likely - Should - Would - Could - Not necessarily - Rarely - Never Chapter 3: The Question Stem and Answer Choice - Primary Objective #5: Carefully read and identify the question stem. Do not assume that certain words are automatically associated with certain question types. The Thirteen logical Question Stems are: 1. Must be true/ most supported 2. Main Point 3. Point of issue 4. Assumption 5. Justify the conclusion 6. Strengthen support 7. Resolve the paradox 8. Weaken 9. Method of Reasoning ‘ 10. How in the Reasoning 11. Parallel Reasoning 12. Evaluate the argument 13. Cannot Be true Family 1 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 11 Stimulus to answer Must be true/ most supported Main Point Point of issue Method of reasoning How in the Reasoning  Parallel Reasoning Family 2 4, 5, 6, 7 Answer to stimulus Assumption Justify the Conclusion Strengthen Support Resolve the Paradox Family 3 8 Weaken Family 4 13 Cannot be true Stimulus to not answer Primary Objective #6 Prephrase! After reading the question- take a moment to mentally formulate your answer to the stem. Primary objective #7 ALWAYS READ ALL FIVE ANSWERS \ Primary Objective #8 Separate Answers into contenders and losers Primary Objective #9 If all five seem to be losers return to stimulus and re-evaluate Chapter 4: Must be true The fact: the correct answers to a MBT? Can always be proven by facts stated in the stimulus.. Question STEM: Stem will usually indicate the stimulus. Should be taken as true. If the statements above are all true Will usually ask you to identify A single answer choice that is proven/supports. Wrong answers ypes: 1. Could be true/likely top be true 2. Exaggerated 3. New information 4. Shell game (similar concept but wrong) \ 5. Opposite answer 6. Reversed answer When the MBT stimulus only had opinions of authors, any answer not referencing the source of the opinion is wrong. CHAPTER #5 MAIN POINT Questions Question stem: Main Point of Conclusion Two incorrect answer types: 1. true , but not the main point 2.Premise of the argument - Use the conclusion identification methods if you are unsure about it: Fill in the blank questions - Mostly will be a Main Point question but can RARELY be a must be true The Rules of Logic 1. Start by looking at the ends of chains 2. The vast majority of additive inferences require an ‘all” r “none” in the chain 3. When looking to make inferences do NOT start with a variable in a close double not 4. There has to be am arrows leading away from a some to combine 5. Most train som,e as some but most is not bi-directional and must follow an arrow  6. Am arrow followed by a double not will yield on inference and a combo of 2 double not arrows doesn't add 7. Use inherent inferences 8. Sure to keep relevant negatives 9. Two some wait yield and neither w8ill 10. Analyze compound statements 11. Once an inference is built you don't need to rebuild it. Chapter 6: Conditional Reasonings If sufficient then necessary Contrapositive negates both and flips the arrow Conditional indicators: Sufficient: - If - When - Whenever - Every - All - Any - People who - In order to Necessary: - Then - Only - Only if - Most - Required - Unless - Except - Until - Without The unless equation: arrow point in the LSAT, either/or equals at least one but maybe both! contrapositives with multiple conditions If you are talking a contrapositive switch AND for OR and vice verssa To graduate you must be smart and resourceful aka : to graduate you must be both, these are the conditions set by the prompt If you lack either conditions then you do not graduate Chapter 7: Weakening Questions Weaken question stems: - Weaken - Attack - Undermine - Refute - Argue against - Call into question - Cast doubt - Challenge - Damage - Counter Mostly the correct answers will weaken the conclusion, not the premise (sometimes RARELY the premise can be weakened if its a sub conclusion) Three most common flaw types of weakened questions: 1. Incomplete information 2. Improper correlation 3. Out of scope To weaken a conditional; statement attack the necessary and then term Chapter 8: Cause and Effect Reasonings How to recognize causality: the cause must male the effect happen cause/effect indicator: - Caused by - Because of - Responsible for  - Reason for - Leads to - Induced by - Promoted by - Determined by - Produced by - Product of - Played a role in - Was a factor in - Is an effect of Causal is usually active and powerful wors white conditions are usually not Note: iif the conclusion is a causal statement, there is a flaw Situations that lead to causal errors: 1. One event happens first and people wrongly assume it is causal 2. It leaves out a third thing causing the relationship because two things happen at the same time. In the LSAT, if causality is defined it ,eamns the cause is the ONLY possible cause for that effect. The cause will always cause that effect. How to attack causal relationships: 1. Find an alternate cause for that effect 2. Show that even if the cause happens the effect does not 3. Show that the effect happens without the cause present 4. Show that stated relationships are reversal 5. Show a statistical error with the data used to make the causal relationship Chapter 9: Strengthen and Justify the conclusion and assumption questions RULES: 1. There will be an argument; understand its structure. 2. Focus on the conclusion 3. The stimulus is suspect 4. Try to prephase answers Strengthen- make it any more true Justify- make it 100% true Assumption- what MUST be true Strengthen Stem Questions: Which of the following, if true, ______? strengthen/ support/helps/ most justifies Rules of Strengthening: 1. Identify the conclusion 2. Personalize the arguments 3. Look for weaknesses 4. Strengthen any surveys or stats 5. Remember- it doesn't need to be 100% true to prove it Three most common wrong answers: 1. Opposite answer 2. Shell game 3. Out of scope Strengthen Causal; Statements: a. Eliminate alternate cause b. Show that when the cause occurs, the event also occurs c. Show that when the cause does not occur, the effect doesn't either. d. Eliminate the possibility of a reversed relationship. e. Validate that goddamn data/ Justify the conclusion: Stem: allows conclusion to be properly drawn or enables the conclusion to be properly/ Use Justification formula: Premise + answer = conclusion The most justifying= the most strengthening justify= 100%. Not most. Justifying the stimuli will usually be CONDITIONAL: reasongings will probably contain numbers or statistics to allow you to fully justify. Solving Justifying problems: 1. Any ‘new’ element in the conclusion will be in the answer 2. Elements common in the conclusion and at least one premise usually will not be in the answer 3. If in the premise but not the conclusion it will be in the answer Assumption Questions: 2 Stem 1. Assumption Presupposition or a variation 2. Never uses ‘if’ The answer will either support (link present ideas) or defend (debunk other ideas) You can check your answer by negating i. It should disprove the conclusion Negation: Logical oppositions: all/not all – some/none always/not always – somewhere/nowhere sometimes/never – everywhere/ not everywhere Negation is A -> * B Three Assumption Answer Quirks: 1. No response but the “at least one/at least some”answers are likely to be correct 2. “The most important” = usually wrong 3. Negative Answers #STAY SAFE - For conditional; concl;usions it will usually close a link or deny a sufficient condition occurs without a necessary conditions Assumptions and Causality: The assumption will either 1. Eliminate alternative causes 2. Cause “cause and Effect” validation 3. Cause doesn't happen, effect won't happen 4. Eliminate reversed relationship 5. Strengthen Data Chapter 10: Resolved Paradox stimulus will usually have no conclusion and contradictory language. The correct answer will prove how both can happen; it won't disprove one. Chapter 11: Method of Reasoning If an answer describes an ecent that didn’t happen then it is WRONG Incorrect answer types: 1. New elements added 2. Half right Half wrong 3. Exaggerations 4. Opposite answers 5. Reverse Answer Chapter 13: Flaw in reasoning Common types of erosion reasoning: 1. Uncertain use of eros in reasoning - equivocals with respect is central concept - fails to define term,s 2. Source argument/ ad hominem - Attaches the person/source of org - Includes: - Attaching the person and or actions - Attaching the motive of the source 3. Circular reasoning: - Answer as true. What is being proved - Conclusion -. Premise 4. Conditional Reasoning errors - ,mistaken negotiation - Mistaken reversal - You must be able to see if it is mixing up necessary or sufficient terms 5. Mistake Cause and effect Assumes causal because of sequence of events - Mistakes temporal for causal or mistakes one thing happening first as causal - Assuming causal because of complication - confusing coincidence - Failure to consider alternative cause for the effect or both cause and effect - Failure to consider reversal relationship 6. Straw Man - Distorts or misinterprets argument  7. Lack of relevant evidence 8. Internal contradiction 9. Appeals to Fallacies - Appeal to authority - Appeal to popular opinion/ numbers - Appeals to emotion 10. Survey errors - Surveys can be flawed if: - Biased sample is used - Survey questions are improperly constructed - Respondent are lying 11. Exceptional Case/ Overgeneralization 12. Errors of Composition and Division - Involved assigning individual judgements to the group as a whole or vice versa 13. False Analogy - Analyses compares two things and iis applied to different things 14. False EDilemmas - Assumes only two options exist when there are none 15. Errors in use of evidence: - Lack of evidence tries to justify why its false - Lack of evidence tries to justify why its true - Things something is proven just because it is weakened 16. Time Shift error: - Assuming future things because of past events 17. Numbers and Percentage errors - Confuse percentage with whole Chapter 14: Parallel Reasoning - The order of premises/conclusions in the answer does not matter Things that must be parallel : a. Method of reasoning b. Validity of argument c. The conclusion type and certainty - Look for words like always, some, never d. Same with premise Take your time on these and make sure to read every question or else you will fail- like a big virgin loser Chapter 15: Numbers and Percentages Misconceptions: 1. Increasing % = Increasing # 2. Decreasing % = Decreasing # 3. Increasings # = Increasing % 4. Decreasing # = Decreasing % 5. Big # = Big % 6. Small # = Small % Rules and Tips: 1. If stimulus has any % info avoid numeric answers (declined does not equal smaller) 2. If only numeric avoid % (fewer does not mean lower) Numeric: - Amount - Quantity - Sum - Tidal - Tally - Count Percentage: - Percent - Percentage - Proportion - Fraction - Ratio - Incidence - Likelihood - Probability - Share - Segement Chapter 16: Evaluate the Argument The variance test: use to polar opposite answers to the question and see if one proves it or if one disproves it Chapter 17: Cannot Be true  1. Accept the stimulus 2. If answers have new information or a combination of information from teh stimulus, it is WRONG Chapter 18: Point of Issue 1. Facts to fix ( ethical disagreement) 2. Facts agreed upon 3. View of speaker is unknown The agree disagree test: One speaker would say “ i agree and this is correct” where another will say A” i disagree and this statement is incorrect” Chapter 19 : Principles questions Apply the principal- in can be broad