History of Early Britain Lecture

**History of Early Britain** The First Men appeared on the territory of the British Isles in ***the Upper Palaeolithic*** (the Stone Age), between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago. Permanent settlements were established in the Neolithic (the later Stone Age), about 6,000 years ago. The first tribes on...

**History of Early Britain** The First Men appeared on the territory of the British Isles in ***the Upper Palaeolithic*** (the Stone Age), between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago. Permanent settlements were established in the Neolithic (the later Stone Age), about 6,000 years ago. The first tribes on the territory of the British Isles were the non-Indo-European tribes of Iberians (about 10,000 -- 3,000 B.C.), who migrated from The Iberian Peninsula. About 2,500 B.C. ***the Beaker culture*** developed, introducing vessels constructed from clay, later bronze and iron tools. From that era date huge artificial constructions such as the massive artificial mound with a flat top Silbury Hill and the great circular earthwork ditch at Avebury. ***Silbury Hill*** is one of the most mysterious and striking ancient monuments in Britain (4000 years old). This prehistoric "cathedral" built layer by layer over 100 years is considered to be the tallest (120 feet) man-made structure in Europe until Middle Ages. The mound contains chalk, stones, wood, gravel and picks. Scientists suggest the flat top was a kind of platform deliberately built to bring people closer to the skies. ***Avebury stone circle*** is the largest henge monument in Britain, which is managed by the National Trust. Unlike Stonehenge you can wander around the stones and experience the mystery and mystique of this prehistoric wonder. Avebury is one of the most important megalithic monuments in Europe and spread over a vast area. Mostly dating to around 2,600-2,500 B.C., Avebury covers approximately 28 acres comprises a huge circular earthwork ditch, originally about 30 feet deep, and bank about a quarter of a mile in diameter which encloses an outer circle of standing stones. It has been estimated that there were originally a minimum of 247 standing stones within the henge, and perhaps 400 more forming the avenue outside. Around 800-700 B.C. the Celts arrived from the continent, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tene cultures. They were called Britons. They spoke Brytonic and Goidelic languages. Around the 75 B.C. another Celtic tribe, the Belgae made their way across the English Channel into southern Britain. They brought with them a ***sophisticated plough,*** introduced ***coinage,*** conducted export trade with Rome and Gaul. In 55 B.C. ***Julius Caesar*** came to Britain and described the mores and morals of Celts in his ***Commentarii de Bello Gallico.*** He mentions that "most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britons, indeed, dye themselves with wood, which occasions a bluish colour, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight." Other Roman travellers who described Britannia were ***Pytheas of Massilia, Ptolemy, Pliny the Elder*** and ***Tacitus.*** According to their descriptions Britons lived in straw-covered huts, had a ditch round several houses and a low wall made of mud, sometimes they built fortresses. They planted little or no corn but had cattle, made boats of twigs covered with the skins of animals, wore very coarse clothes. They had no coins and used metal rings for money. Moreover, Britons had rather developed crafts: made bronze urns and torques, swords of copper, light shields, short daggers, spears. Travellers mentioned that Britons were divided into 20 to 40 tribes. Britons were fond of horses. The standard of Kent was the picture of a white horse. The people taught their horses very well, so that the animals understood and obeyed every word of command. The Britons had a strange and terrible religion -- ***the Religion of the Druids***. The druids were the priests, who also pretended that they were enchanters. They met together in dark woods, which they called Sacred Groves; and they taught there young men who came to them as pupils and who sometimes stayed with them for twenty years. The Druids glorified the pursuits of war, feasting and horsemanship. They controlled the calendar and the planting of crops and presided over the religious festivals and rituals that honoured local deities. These Druids built great temples and altars, open to the sky, the remains of some of them we can see now. The most extraordinary of these is Stonehenge, thought to have been erected c.2500-2000 BC. ***Stonehenge*** consists of 2 circles of stones -- 14 feet high upright stones that support 4 feet long cross stones. In the centre there is a flat stone, called the "altar stone". It is believed that Stonehenge was a temple for the sun worship. **The Romans on the British Isles** In 55 B.C. ***Julius Caesar*** wanted to subdue the Gauls, but when he found that the Britons helped them, he decided to attack the islanders. Julius Caesar with his army landed in Britain one summer day, and the Britons were so frightened, that they fled inland, and Caesar had not so much cavalry as to pursue them. So he returned back to Gaul, but in the following year came back. Again he did not conquer Britain but he described the country to the civilized Roman world, and the Romans knew all the particulars about Britons and remembered well that the warriors on the island painted their faces blue to terrify their enemies, that they had the chariots with scythes on their axles, that they had strong hill-camps fortified with stakes and logs of wood. After some time the Romans could send enough soldiers to meet the British wild warriors and to subdue all the country of the plains. It happened in 43 A.D., when ***the Emperor Claudius*** (10 B.C. -- 54 A.D.) sent his expedition to Britain. Later the Romans built a line of forts between the rivers Clyde and Forth to protect the southern parts from the wild Caledonians (A.D. 84). About forty years later the Emperor Hadrian built a double wall between the rivers Tyne and Solway -- ***the Hadrian Wall***. We can still see the remains of these walls in our days; a railway runs in that direction now. Little by little, as the Roman soldiers gained ground, some Britons went to the west, to the moors of Cornwall, to the mountains of Wales and Cumberland. In these parts we now find the people whose forefathers were Ancient Britons. Most of the Britons settled down among the Romans, from whom they learned many things. They helped the soldiers to drain the marshes and cut down trees, and to make the fine roads which crossed the country, and are still a pleasure to use, so well and straight they are. The early Britons had two brave chiefs who resisted the Roman conquest. One of them was ***Boadicea***, ***the queen of the Iceni***, one of the British tribes. The statue of Boadicea showing her standing in a war chariot with two wild horses, calling to her soldiers to fight, stands on Westminster Bridge in London, facing the Houses of Parliament. In the first century A.D. Boadicea fought the Romans with all her might and led her people in battle, but the enemies were stronger. At last she killed herself because she did not want to become a prisoner. ***Caractacus*** was another British chief. He also lived in the first century after Christ. Caractacus lost everything when he fought to drive out the Romans. The Romans took him to Rome as a prisoner with his wife and children. He did not behave at all as a frightened captive, but proudly, as a free-born man, and he said to the Roman emperor: \"You fight to gain the whole world, and to make everybody your slaves. I fought to keep my own land, and for freedom\". For about four hundred years Britain was part of the Roman Empire. The thousands of soldiers who came during these centuries from every part of the empire left many remains on the soil of the country, especially in the cities founded by the Romans in London, York, Winchester and Bath. There are the altars they set up to their gods, their weapons and armour, the memorial stones put up to honour their memories. They built many beautiful country villas --- in the sunniest and healthiest places, with a fine view, among gardens with fountains and statues. When danger arose, they buried much money and jewellery. In 408 A.D. the legions dislocated on the island were called back to Rome to defend it from Goths. In the year 410 the islanders had to defend themselves against Picts and Scots. The Britons quite forgot by those times how to fight all together, they were used that the Romans took care of them, but now the Romans left them and returned to their own country. There were many a sad good-bye, because often Romans had British wives and relatives, and they felt despair in their hearts going away from those they loved dearly and to leave them in great danger. The Britons were also in despair and even wrote a letter to Rome, asking soldiers to come back and help them; the letter is so sad that it is called \"the groans of the Britons\". \"The barbarians draw us to the sea\", they wrote, \"the sea drives us back to the barbarians. We shall either be killed or drowned\". Many sad relics are found in the caves, where whole families took refuge when their homes were destroyed. **Anglo-Saxon Invasion** At the beginning of the 5th century, ***Vortigern,*** the Romano-British overlord, was assailed on many fronts. Aside from Irish and Pict invaders on his northern and western frontiers, there were Germanic raiders on his eastern coasts, and from within he faced a challenge of his rival ***Aurelius Ambrosius***, who had powerful allies in Gaul. In great despair he called to their strongest enemies --- the Germanic tribe known as Jutes, who came very soon. The Saxons, another Germanic tribe, from the land between the Weser and Elbe, soon followed, and not long after that the Angles came from the European coast of the North Sea. The conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxon tribes (the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) is well described by ***Bede the Venerable*** in his ***"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum"*** and in ***"Historia Brittonum".*** According to them, in 449 AD the Germanic tribes headed by the mercenary chieftains ***Hengist and Horsa*** landed on the island of Thanet in the Thames estuary. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Hengist and Horsa sent word to the Angles describing \"the worthlessness of the Brythons, and the richness of the land\" and asked for assistance. At the same time the Saxon commanders, understanding Vortigern's weakness, recommended to bring in more of their countrymen to help. Vortigern agreed, and nineteen more ships landed. In order to pay these warriors, Hengist suggested they be granted land in Kent. By the time Vortigern realized his control was slipping away, it was too late. The migration of a whole people, bringing its language and customs, began. The Britons under Vortigern resisted and began to win important victories, pushing back their enemies, but the Saxons treacherously deceived them. Hengist sent to Vortigern an offer of peace. Vortigern accepted, and Hengist prepared a feast to bring together the British and Saxon leaders. However, he instructed his men to conceal knives beneath their feet. At the right moment, Hengist shouted \"nima der sexa\", and his men massacred the unsuspecting Britons. However, they spared Vortigern, who ransomed himself by giving the Saxons Essex, Sussex, Middlesex, and other unnamed districts. As a result of this massacre about 300 leading Romano-Celts were slaughtered, and the Celtic command of England never fully recovered from this blow. The survivors gathered together under the leadership of Ambrosius. He was of high birth, and had Roman ancestry; he was presumably a Romano-Briton. It also appears that Ambrosius was a Christian: the 6th-century British cleric Gildas says that he won his battles \"with God\'s help.\" Ambrosius organized the survivors into an armed force and achieved the first military victory over the Saxon invaders. However, this victory was not decisive. Ambrosius Aurelianus is supposed to be either himself a prototype for Artorius, King Arthur, or someone from Arthur\'s entourage. ***King Arthur*** was a legendary British leader who led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries AD according to the medieval stories and romances. The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest through the popularity of Geoffrey Monmouth's 12th century ***Historia Regnum Britanniae**.* Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and Gaul. He also described Arthur's father Utherpendragon, the wizard Merlin, Arthur's wife Guinevere, the sword Excalibur and other elements. The 12th century French writer Chretien de Troyes added Lancelot and the Holy Grail and shifted the narration to other Knights of the Round Table. The transmigration of ***the Anglo-Saxon tribes*** lasted for 150 years and ended in their occupation of most English territory. The Britons fought against the conquerors till about 600. The territory of Britain was divided as follows: the Saxons and the Angles occupied the territories south and north off the Thames (***the Saxons*** in Sussex, Essex, and Wessex, and ***the Angles*** along the eastern coast). ***The Jutes*** who came from the Juteland Peninsula in Europe settled on the Peninsula of Kent and the Isle of White. The Celtic tribes travelled to Brittany (Bretagne) in France or were pushed to the outskirts of the island: to Wales, Cornwall and Cumbria. The language of the Anglo-Saxons was West-Germanic, different from the Celtic language of Britons. The Germanic tribes who settled in Britain in the fifth century originally had no state unity and permanently waged wars. In the sixth century there were nine small kingdoms in Britain: Deira, Bernicia (Angles), East Anglia (Angles), Mercia (Angles in the north, Saxons in the south), Essex, Middlesex, Sussex, Wessex (Saxons), and Kent (inhabited by Jutes). Later Deira and Bernicia were united and named Northumbria. There was no concord among the kings and no peace among the kingdoms. Each ruler desired to gain the supreme power and subordinate the others. At the end of the 6th c. there were seven kingdoms (***The Heptarchy***): Northumbria, East Anglia, Wessex, Essex, Sussex, Kent and Mercia. Later they united into four kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex and Kent. At first the kingdom of Kent was the most prominent of them all. Northumbria, which appeared as a result of the forcible unification of Deira and Bernicia, gained the dominating position in the 7th century. ***Edwin, the King of Northumbria***, enlarged the borders of his kingdom and built the citadel Edinburgh. In the 8th century Mercia became the most powerful kingdom. The zenith of her power is associated with the name of ***King Offa***, who was received in Europe as a respectable ruler and upheld close diplomatic relations with Charlemagne. He was considered by Charlemagne the overlord of south Britain. At the beginning of the 9th century the dominating position passed over to Wessex. This kingdom dominated and united nearly all the territory of Britain, its capital Winchester becoming the capital of Britain. The Wessex king Alfred the Great (849-901), the enlightened monarch, played an important role in the strengthening of the Wessex position, as he increased the fleet, strengthened the army, built new fortresses and forts, set up the England's first school for feudal lords, invited scholars and writers to England and himself translated from Latin. In the 9th AD ***Egbert, the King of Wessex***, defeated Mercia's troops and became the first king of all England (the Kingdom of Anglia). The country was divided into the administrative units, the counties, headed by King's officers -- sheriffs. Several counties were united under the power of earls, who became major feudal lords. **Conversion to Christianity** The Anglo-Saxons, settling on the British Isles, knew only the gods of their forefathers, they were pagans. ***The pagans*** had many gods. There were Woden, the god of war; Thor, the god of thunder; Freya, the goddess of peace, and others. We recall those gods now as we speak of Wednesday (Woden\'s day), Thursday (Thor\'s day), Friday (Freya\'s day). Thus the English knew nothing of Christianity during a long time after Christ was born. ***Christianity*** came at the pagan Anglo-Saxons from two directions. ***The Celtic Church***, pushed back into Wales, Cornwall, and particularly Ireland, made inroads in the north from an early base on Lindisfarne Island. We can still see the crosses in the north of England and in Ireland. ***The Roman Catholic Church*** approached from the south, beginning with the mission of ***St. Augustine*** to ***Aethelbert, King of Kent***, in 597. This king became Christian, following the example of his wife, a daughter of the West-Frankish king. Let us dwell on the second direction. According to Bede, about the year 600 A.D. (in fact, in 597) a monk in Rome was surprised very much when he saw a sad sight of several handsome fair-haired blue-eyed English boys who were sold as slaves at the market. When he learnt the name of their nation he said: "Not Angles but Angels they are!" The monk decided to send news of Christianity to the boys\' country. Later the monk became Pope Gregory the Great and sent a missionary, Augustine, to Britain. It was very important for the development of the country because the people of the island so became nearer to the civilization of the Continent. Kent, following king Aethelbert\'s example, became Christian; but the other tribes remained pagans for some time. **How Danes Settled on the British Isles** Hardly had Egbert of Wessex become the lord of united Anglia at the beginning of the ninth century, when sea-rovers rushed into it. Again dark and bitter times fell upon these lands. The furious rovers were Danes from the north. At first they appeared about 787, but then they only visited England for short periods. Like Anglo-Saxons, they also came in fine boats, often painted in different colours, sometimes black as night, with high coloured figureheads and the dreaded Raven banner at the mast. They came across the North Sea from their homes in the lowlands of Denmark, in Sweden, and along the coast of Norway. All of them were of the same stock: Danes; North, or Norse, men; ***Vikings***, or men of the creeks. All the Northmen particularly hated and despised the religion of the Christians. So, flames went up from the monasteries and churches through the whole robbed land, and the people who tried to save their lives there were killed. London was burnt, and the whole country plundered. Before 855 the Danes came to England only in summer, and for winter they returned home, to the North. Only in 855 they remained on the island for winter and wanted to have a place for living there. The Danes conquered Mercia and East Anglia, and after that they attacked Wessex. By the end of the ninth century, there uprose ***Alfred the Great***, called by the English the Truth-Teller and the Wise. Alfred\'s titles and the stories about his good nature, bravery and industry, which came through the centuries to our times, show how beloved he was by his subjects more than a thousand years ago. In 870 the Danes returned, the storm burst, and the year 871 was called \"Alfred\'s year of battles\". On January 4th Alfred had a brilliant victory of Ashdown. In April of the same year Ethelred died and Alfred became the king. Nine battles were fought against the Danes that year with varying success; but in the end peace was made and the Danes retired northward. Six years later they returned and Alfred had to fight again. As a result of Alfred's victory over the Danes at Eddington England was divided by a line formed by the river Thames: the country north of this line was given over to the Danes and called the Danelaw; the territory to the south fell to Alfred, who became recognised as the champion of the English against the Danes. Alfred, who fought the Danes and made his kingdom very strong and grand, died in 900. His work was carried on by his son and a very brave daughter and three grandsons, and for a time it seemed as if the Danes were going to settle down as part of English nation without further trouble. The name of the ***King Edgar*** is also well known in England (944-975). He was called the Peaceful King, which shows that he lived on good terms with his neighbours. After the Peaceful King\'s death ***Ethelred the Unready*** became the king. He was called \"the Unready\" because that means \"taking no counsel\", and he really did not like to take anybody\'s counsel. Just at that time the Danes once more began to attack the English coasts, and Ethelred the Unready bought them off with money which people called ***\"the Danegeld\"*** (\"the Dane Money\"). The Danes took that money and came away, but soon they returned and required more \"geld\". Ethelred was a weak and cruel man, and the Danes, who understood it very well, used it. Matters became worse and worse, and at last Ethelred fled away through the Channel to Normandy to his wife\'s relations. As a result ***Canute***, the Danish king, who also ruled Norway, added England to his empire. But Canute was wise enough to keep English laws for Englishmen, and the country lived in peace for a time. When the bloodline of Danish kings had dried up, the son of Ethelred the Unready, Edward, was called to be the king. He lived in Normandy, after his father and mother saved themselves there, and was brought up there. He was called the Confessor because he grew in a monastery and cared more for a quiet, learned life, and for attending services at churches than for lighting or looking after business. ***Edward the Confessor*** was not at all fitted to take part in all those fightings in his fatherland during such a difficult and anxious period of time. His greatest pleasure was in building churches, and the most beautiful of all was the Abbey of Westminster which was built after the pattern of the churches he knew and loved in Normandy, with rounded windows and arches. This abbey church in Westminster has been entirely rebuilt by later kings. In 1042 Edward\'s brother died and all the people received Edward to be the king. The king\'s personal tastes inclined much more to foreigners than to Englishmen, and he fell more and more into the hands of those from beyond the sea. He brought many Norman nobles with him, and the people were discontent of it. Edward the Confessor, died in January, 1066. It is said that Edward promised his cousin, William of Normandy, that he should be the king of England after his death.