Cartographic Design PDF

Cartographic Design  Introduction to Cartographic Design  Cartographic Design Is a partly mental, partly physical process in which maps are conceived and created (a verb) – The word design can also be a noun – A map can have a particular design, but design in th...

Cartographic Design  Introduction to Cartographic Design  Cartographic Design Is a partly mental, partly physical process in which maps are conceived and created (a verb) – The word design can also be a noun – A map can have a particular design, but design in this sense is only the end result of the design process  Cartographic Design cont. Successful cartographic design – Results in maps that effectively communicate geographic information An ineffective An effective communicator communicator  Cartographic Design cont. Cartographic design involves – Conceptualization of the map – Visualization of the map – Construction of the map A partly mental, partly physical process  Cartographic Design cont. Is driven by two goals – To create a map that appropriately serves the map user and the map’s intended use – To create a map that communicates efficiently, with simplicity and clarity  Cartographic Design cont. Is directed by rules, guidelines, and conventions, but is relatively unstructured – A single, optimal solution to a given mapping problem generally does not exist – Several acceptable solutions are possible – “Good design is simply the best solution among many, given a set of constraints imposed by the problem” (Dent 1999)  Cartographic Design cont. Cartographic design is difficult! – If it were easy, expert systems would be used to design most maps – Expert systems are applications that make decisions based on rules and guidelines obtained from cartographic experts – Cartographic expert systems are currently limited to narrow aspects of cartographic design, and lack the ability to completely and consistently design top-quality maps  Cartographic Design cont. Build a foundation of cartographic design skills by following the specific rules and guidelines presented here – Consider alternative approaches once you master these rules and guidelines – Always be prepared to explain or defend your design decisions Map Design Research  Map Design Research Map design research has guided many aspects of cartographic design – Arthur Robinson (1952) sparked enthusiasm for this research with The Look of Maps  Map Design Research cont. In The Look of Maps, Robinson – Emphasized the importance of a map’s function over its form – Called for objective experimentation with regard to map design  Map Design Research cont. Two schools of though emerged The “behaviorist” view – Focused on determining which mapping techniques are most effective, without regard for why they are effective The “cognitive” view – Focused on why certain techniques are effective by applying knowledge structures to the ways that people perceive maps  Map Design Research cont. Results of eye-movement studies performed by George Jenks (1973) – These studies remain as seminal examples of map design research  Map Design Research cont. Results of eye-movement studies performed by Sarah Fabrikant (2005) – Modern eye-movement study Circle sizes indicate the amount of time the map user’s eye was fixated at a given location  Map Design Research cont. Hans Meihoefer (1969) performed studies related to circle sizes – Helped determine the minimum size differences required for map users to distinguish one circle from another Art and Graphic Design  Art The “art” of maps plays an important role in cartographic communication – The artistic aspect of maps is guided less by experimentation, and more by intuition – A map that embodies an artistic sensibility has a greater chance of communicating information than a “non-artistic” map  Art cont. The overt aspect of art – Maps can be beautiful The less obvious aspect of art – There is an “art” to good map design – The cartographer synthesizes a wide variety of factors and produces a map – Human artistic abilities make this synthesis possible  Graphic Design The link between cartographic design and graphic design is strong – Graphic design emphasizes communication through graphical means, but is oriented toward advertisements and packaging, as opposed to maps – Graphic designers are responsible for a significant proportion of maps produced for print and on-line publication  Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization  Gestalt Principles Gestalt is a theory of visual perception developed in the 1920s – It attempts to describe how humans see the individual components of a graphical image, and organize them into a unified whole – These principles represent the theoretical underpinning for many cartographic design rules, guidelines, and conventions  Gestalt Principles cont. Gestalt principles include the following – Closure – Common Fate – Continuity – Figure-Ground – Proximity – Similarity – Smallness/Area – Symmetry  Gestalt Principles cont. Closure – Allows us to complete an image even when parts are missing  Gestalt Principles cont. Common Fate – Allows us to group elements that share the same moving direction  Gestalt Principles cont. Continuity – Allows us to move our eyes from one object to another  Gestalt Principles cont. Figure-Ground – Allows us to perceive certain objects as being closer to us (and more important)  Gestalt Principles cont. Proximity – Allows us to view objects that are close together as a group  Gestalt Principles cont. Similarity – Allows us to group objects that are similar in size, shape, color, etc.  Gestalt Principles cont. Smallness or Area – Allows us to view the smaller of overlapping areas as figures  Gestalt Principles cont. Symmetry – Allows us to view symmetrical objects as whole figures (forming around the center) The Image Pool  Image Pool Is a mental inventory of designs and design possibilities – Taken from maps, graphics, and images Build it by critically viewing art, graphic design, and maps Many examples of well-designed maps appear in the lectures and textbook – Use these to help build your image pool The Design Process  The Design Process Map Communication Model – List of the basic steps involved in communicating geographic information – Design process encompasses the entire model, but is most concentrated in Step 4 – I will focus on Step 4, assuming that Steps 1-3 have been completed  The Design Process cont. The design process can be distilled into a list of procedures – These procedures are iterative, and need to be repeated until the map is complete – These procedures will sometimes need to be executed simultaneously, or out of the prescribed order  The Design Process cont. 1. Determine how the map will be reproduced – Reproduction considerations, such as the printing method to be used, will impact almost every aspect of the design process, and need to be resolved first 2. Select a scale and map projection that are appropriate for the map’s theme – This will form the foundation of your map  The Design Process cont. 3. Determine the most appropriate methods for data classification and symbolization – This will allow you to craft your message 4. Select which map elements to employ, and decide how each will be implemented – You must also decide how to implement type  The Design Process cont. 5. Establish an Intellectual Hierarchy – A ranking of symbols and map elements according to their relative importance – The following is a general hierarchy for thematic maps Most Thematic symbols and type labels Important Title, subtitle, and legend Base information (boundaries, roads, etc.) Scale and north arrow Data source and notes Least Important Frame and neat lines  The Design Process cont. 6. Create one or more sketch maps – A sketch map is a rough, generalized hand drawing that represents your developing design  The Design Process cont. 7. Construct the map – Place, modify, and arrange map elements according to your sketch map, and in the order that was previously recommended Print rough drafts to evaluate and refine the evolving map Visual Hierarchy  Visual Hierarchy Graphical representation of the intellectual hierarchy – Thematic symbols are graphically emphasized and base information is deemphasized – More important map elements (title, legend, etc.) are graphically emphasized, and less important elements (bar scale, data source, etc.) are deemphasized  Visual Hierarchy cont. An effective visual hierarchy – Attracts the map user’s eyes to the most important aspects of the map first, and to less important aspects later – Results in a map that clearly reflects the relative importance of symbols and map elements – Results in maps that are easier to interpret, and are more attractive  Visual Hierarchy cont. Implemented by altering the visual weight of map features – The visual weight refers to the relative amount of attention that things attract – Visual weight can be manipulated to emphasize or deemphasize features Visual Hierarchy cont. Inverted (incorrect) Visual Hierarchy Based on an Inverted Intellectual Hierarchy Frame and neat lines Data source and notes Scale and north arrow Base information Title, subtitle, and legend Thematic symbols and type Visual Hierarchy cont. Correct Visual Hierarchy Based on a Correct Intellectual Hierarchy Thematic symbols and type Title, subtitle, and legend Base information Scale and north arrow Data source and notes Frame and neat lines Contrast  Contrast Visual differences between map features that allow us to distinguish one from another Contrast adds interest to a map by providing graphical variety – It can be used to differentiate features (qualitative) – Or to imply their relative importance or magnitude (quantitative)  Contrast cont. Can be achieved through manipulation of the visual variables – Qualitative Contrast can be used to differentiate features Qualitative Visual Variables  Contrast cont. Can be achieved through manipulation of the visual variables (cont.) – Quantitative Contrast can be used to imply relative importance or magnitude Quantitative Visual Variables  Contrast cont. Map on the right represents appropriate contrast Map on the left lacks appropriate contrast in four respects – Lightness and size of thematic symbols – Size of lines (line width) – Type size – Difference between the mapped area and the background  Contrast cont. Inappropriate Contrast Appropriate Contrast Figure-Ground  Figure-Ground A special type of contrast – Has already been introduced… A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization – Refers to methods of accentuating certain objects over others by making them appear closer to the map user  Figure-Ground cont. Map design research has not produced guidelines for figure-ground that are guaranteed to work in every situation – The following guidelines work well in most cases Separate approaches – To accentuate points and/or lines – To accentuate areas  Figure-Ground cont. To accentuate points and/or lines – Make the points or lines darker than their surroundings Base information has been lightened through “screening”  Figure-Ground cont. To accentuate areas – Make the area lighter than its surroundings The surrounding area has been darkened  Figure-Ground cont. Land-Water Contrast – A special case of figure-ground accentuating a lighter area – The “ground” is water  Figure-Ground cont. Making an area lighter than its surroundings is not always appropriate – When the mapped area is dense with areal thematic symbols (esp. when color is limited to shades of gray) Areal thematic symbols provide enough contrast between the mapped area and its surroundings Gray background might be confused with thematic symbols  Figure-Ground cont. Multiple layers of importance can be represented – Features can be assigned relative importance, based on relative proximity to the map user Circles act as figures in relation to countries (which act as ground) Countries, while subordinate to circles, act as figures in relation to water (which acts as ground) Countries appear further away than circles, yet closer than water  Figure-Ground cont. Alternative methods of establishing figure-ground that accentuates areas – Imposition on a graticule – Vignette Balance  Balance The organization of map elements and available space, resulting in visual harmony and equilibrium The map elements in a well-designed map tend to complement one another – Those in a poorly-designed map appear to compete for space, resulting in visual disharmony  Balance cont. Before attempting to achieve balance, the initial available space needs to be identified – Initial available space is the area the map will occupy—as defined by the frame line Frame Line  Balance cont. Identify the initial available space Initial available space is defined by the frame line  Balance cont. Place larger map elements Mapped area is as large as possible Mapped area is visually centered (horizontally and vertically) Title is placed at top center  Balance cont. Reevaluate available space and place Map elements that are intermediate in size, such as the legend Legend is visually centered within larger portion of available space  Balance cont. Reevaluate available space and place The smallest map elements, such as the data source and bar scale Map elements are visually centered within appropriate areas of available space Available space still remains  Balance cont. The addition of each map element alters the preexisting balance and available space – Map elements typically need to be rearranged several times to achieve good balance – Certain individuals are intrinsically better at judging balance, but experience improves one’s skills  Balance cont. Evaluating balance Does the map look left-heavy, right- heavy, top-heavy, bottom-heavy? – Top-heavy designs are of particular concern Do certain areas appear cramped or barren? – Are map elements competing for space? – Are too many “heavy” objects concentrated in one area?  Balance cont. Evaluating balance (cont.) Poorly Balanced  Balance cont. Evaluating balance (cont.) Well Balanced  Balance cont. Evaluating balance (cont.) Do the best you can, given the constraints! Thank you!