KIN 150 001 Notes.pdf

KIN 150: Sport Psychology KIN 150: Sport Psychology Motivation & Behaviour Change Chap 1 READING: Introduction Chap 2 READING: Personality Chap 3 READING: Motivation + Behavioural change MIDTERM 2 ONWARDS Chap 4 READING: Stress, Emotion and Coping Arousal & Anxiety Mental Skills in Sport & Exercise...

KIN 150: Sport Psychology KIN 150: Sport Psychology Motivation & Behaviour Change Chap 1 READING: Introduction Chap 2 READING: Personality Chap 3 READING: Motivation + Behavioural change MIDTERM 2 ONWARDS Chap 4 READING: Stress, Emotion and Coping Arousal & Anxiety Mental Skills in Sport & Exercise Physical Activity Across the Lifespan (Part I): Child & Youth Development LECTURE 1: Sep 7 - Include KIN 150 in subject title if youre emailing lectures recorded Readings + lectures are assessed None of the quizzes are worth points, a lot fo the qs in quizzes are similar to exam Textbook: assignments on the app arent necessary. Theres an app you can download to read on phone that syncs to laptop Can redo quizzes whenever The content from remaining chaps wont be tested?? Textbook: focus on theories, key terms, main findings of research area Knowledge translation blog: Whichever you score highr on u get the higher %- 30 or 20% Final exam: more weighting to the last 4 chapters (atleast 55% devoted to last chaps) but still cumulative Blog: only do 1. Non academic audiences. Individual or 2 ppl Long ans: 2 long answer questions, each worth 15 marks. Not rlly an essay structure more so content Put announcements sent by email on canvas LECTURE 2 (sep 12): Intro to Psychology What are the rules of Ethics 1. 2. 3. 4. Respect for dignity fo persons (respect privacy + confidentiality) Responsible caring Integrity in relatnships (beingunbiased as possible, no conflicts of interest) Responsibility to society (share knowledge ?whats a construct idea/ topic being studies e.g. motivation, aggression ?define theory Specifies relos amongst several constructs e.g. self determination thoeyr ?define hypothesis Prediction of relo between constructs ?example of quantitative research Questionnaires (counting numbrs0 rate on a scale 1-10 ?example fo qualitative research E.g. interviews, observations ?deinfe mixed methods research Both quantitative and qualitative research ?define meditator/ mediating variable/ mechanism how/ why does IV impact DV. e.g. exercise → improved body image via improved confidence (MV) ?What are the ABC’s of psychological outcomes (3 main osycholgoical outcomes) and examples Affective: emotions, moods, e..g feel satisfied or angry w how they performed Behaviour: observable actions e.g. Cognition: thoughts, mental processes Lots ofoveralap, if u manipulate one outcome it has carryover effects on another e.g. if someones aggressive probably means theres a change in their affect and or cognition LECTURE 3 (sep 14): Personality and Individual Differences Nature “versus” nurture? Are your thoughts, behaviours, feelings, and outcomes (e.g., performance) a result of your innate individual factors or your environment? Combination of both ?deifn personality Collection fo characteristics that: 1. Make us unique 2. Impact the way we think, feel and behave 3. Stable across time + situations (in diff social, work situations, personality traits will be consistent) ?trait versus states Trait (i.e., disposition): stable, explains thoughts, behaviours and feelings across time and citations e.g. extrovertedness, tends ot be extroverted in all sitautions State: momentary and dynamic; can change depending on situation andd itme e.g. range fo emotions depending on situation like aggression of ice hockey players on field but nice in reality. Aggression is a state not trait The Big 5 ?hoto rmbr the big 5 OCEAN Openness Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism ?whats low on openness to experience Low score = traditional and conventional, routine ?what does conscientiousness mean Hardworking, dependable, organized, self discipline ?whats openness mean Imagination, feelings, curious, ?whats agreableness mean Cooperative, trsuctwohty, helpful, empathetic ?whats neuroticism Anxious, unhappy, pessimistic ?whats low agreeableness Critical, suspicious, uncooperative ?whats low conscientiousness Impulsiv, careless, disrganized Humanistic perspective on development: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ?Whats the Humanistic Psychology perspective on development of personality focused on? - Personal responsibility Striving and development ? defineSelf-actualization: (part fo humanistic psychology perspective) striving for one’s “full potential” (i.e., being the best version of myself) ?Humanistic Psychology: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 1st: physiological needs e..g shelter, food 2: safety needs e.g. personal safety, financial safety 3rd: social needs 4th: esteem needs e..g feel respected, needed, valued, loved 5th: Self actualization ?define maslows hierarchy of needs Each stage needs to be fulfilled ?what does the 5th stage of maslows hierarchy of needs require (needto check off all other 4 boxes to reach self actualization, you wont reach ur full potential if u dont complete previous ?whats internal versus external needs in maslows hierarchy (inertnal: self respect and self satisfaction, external needs: .e.g likes on instagram) ?Additional Perspectives of how personality develops Cognitive-behavioural approach Biological psychology (“50/50”). hereditary , genetic component of personality Interactionist approach ; interaction bw person and environment Humanistic psychology ?what determines your success in sport Not personality, it doesnt affect performance ?Is there a “sport personality”? no In general, weak evidence that personality predicts: Performance in sport Athletes from non-athletes Type of sport people select ?although personality doesnt predict these things, what does it predict It could interctb w other enciornmental/ individual factors e.g. theory of planned behavior, intentions to engage in sports does predict fi we continue to do the sport. Relo w intentions to do sport and following through have to do with personality traits liek conscientiousness ?what personality traits predict in high risk sports Ppl in high risk sports =Higher levels of extraversion + lower neuroticism. No diff for the others ?other traits that affect high risk sport participation - High Sensation-seeking lower sensitivity to punishment low telic dominance ?define high telic dominance Serious minded, goal oriented, avoid excessive excitement ?define sensitivity to punishment lower sensitivity to punishment (=low reactivity to punishing stimuli, means during high risk sport these ppl can keep their cool) ?is there a link bw personality + exercise Yes ?what are the links bw personality types and exercise Positive relationship with: - Extraversion - Conscientiousness - Type A personality ?define type a personality Ambitious, on point, competitive, highly organized people ?negative relationship bw personality and exercise for what type of people? Type D perosnality ?define Type D personality Worry, gloom, lack of self assurance ?whats the mixed evidence bw personality and exercise Negative relo w Neuroticism but MAYBE ?what are the sport specific personality traits that are relevant for sports/exercise - Competitiveness Perfectionism Passion Mental toughness ?define competitiveness Competition is one of the 3 dimensions within achievement orientation trait (a theory) 1. Competitiveness (desire to engage in, strive for success) 2. Win orientation: Focus on beating others 3. Goal orientation: FOcus on personal standards ?what's the evidence of the importance of competitiveness in sport - Athletes score higher on competitiveness than non athlete counterparts Competitiveness considered an important characteristic of canadian olympians Perfectionism ?characterize perfectionism - Extremely high performance standard Extremely critical self evaluations ?2 main dimensions of perfectionism Perfectionistic strivings Perfectionistic concerns ?describe perfectionistic strivings - Self oriented (from within) Very high personal performance standards ?perfectionistic strivigns aka - I.e. personal standards perfectionism (PSP) ?describe perfectionistic concerns - Social element (concerned abt ur reflection to others) Excessive self criticism, concerns over mistakes + doubts about actions ?perfectionistic concerns aka Evaluative concerns perfectionism (ECP) ? how to view perfectionistic strivings and concerns Its a range, not either or ? how to disentangle perfectionistic strivings versus concerns Strivings: Process in pursuit of a task e.g. i have high goals for myself, i strive to be perfect Concerns: focused on the outcome. E.g. if i fail, i feel liek a failure, the way they reflect on their performance ?whats the 2x2 model of perfectionism ?what if youre low on evaluative concerns and low on personal standards Non perfectionism ?what if youre low on evaluative concerns and hgih on personal standards Pure PSP ?what if youre high on evaluative concerns and low on personal standards Pure ECP (High evaluative concerns (feels like lots of ppl are judging) but that doesnt translate into personal drive) ?what if youre high on evaluative concerns and high on personal standards Mixed perfectionism ?effects of perfectionism on burnout Using the profiles, ppl who have highest burnout are Pure ECP, lowest were pure PSP (low eval concerns, high personal standards) ?other outcomes of Perfectionistic Strivings Perfectionistic Strivings associated with better performance, - well-being, - perceptions of control, positive affect (emotions, feelings, e.g. satisfaction, ennjoyment) ?other outcomes of Perfectionistic concerns Perfectionistic Concerns unrelated to performance; associated with poorer well-being - poor motivation - higher perceptions of threat and avoidance coping ?which is the most adaptive form Pure PSP (havign high standards for self) ??which is the least adaptive form Pure ECP ??which is the less adaptive form Non perfectionism + mixed perfectionism. Theyre the same ?can developing ____ be an antidote to the potential negative impacts of perfectionism. self compassion ?More likely to get int flow during what passion ?More likely to get int flow during harmonious passion than obsessive ?More likely to thrive during what passion ?More likely to experienc thriving during harmonious passion than obsessive ? 2 types fo passion Harmonious passion Obsessive passion ?explain harmonious passion Engaging in an activity... • as part of one’s identity • for the pleasure or the activity ?explain obsessive passion Rigid and uncontrolled engagement in an activity because of... • external control • feelings of guilt ?whats the diff bw obsessive and harmonious in terms of other parts of our life Harmonious: Pursue goals/passions in harmony with the rest of the person’s life Obsessive: Often conflicts with other aspects/ responsibilities of a person’s life e..g skipping class to go training ? characteristics of harmonious passion • Experiences of flow. Flow state, immersed in the activity ? theyre both positively related to ____ Performance. They btoh perform the same way ? which ones more likely to experience negative vs positive emotions Harmonious: • Positive emotions (e.g., enjoyment) Obsessive: • Negative emotions (e.g., aggression) ? and well being? Harmonious: higher wellbeing ? and coping? Harmonious: • Task-oriented coping Obsessive: • Dysfunctional/avoidance coping ?and decision making Harmonious: • Effective decision making Obsessive: • Overexercising/training • Burnout and injury risk • Cheating and substance abuse ?define thriving Performance + wellbeing Mental toughness ?define Mental Toughness A set of positive characteristics that allow a person to: cope with pressure and challenging situations (re)focus and rebound from failure Persist in the face of adversity, and.......ultimately, attain their personal goals ?mental toughness is personality trait or state Said to be trait but not really ?When “mentally tough” people encounter difficult situations, they: (4 C’s) • Have control • Appraise the situation as a challenge (opportunity) • Maintain commitment to the pursuit • Have confidence in themselves ?Good support for MT: • Mostly qualitative evidence • Considered important in relation to an array of outcomes e.g., flow experiences, focus, coping, etc ?Less support for MT: • Notable limitations with quantitative evidence (likely due to lackluster measurement) • Is MT truly a personality trait? Focus could be on other characteristics (e.g., resilience, ppl use the 2 terms interchangeably, mt is personality trait but resilience is malleable psychosocial variable )? ?ethical considerations of measuring personality • Informed consent is mandatory • Must NOT breach confidentiality • Must NOT be used for player selection purposes • CAN be used by qualified professionals to help them better understand a client Motivation & Behaviour Change COM-B model (overarching perspective) ?Overarching Perspective: describe the COM-B Model To drive behaviour are 3 things (if u only have 2 ur less likely to engage in that) - Capability: What is required to engage in the behavior? Do I have the abilities to do it? - Opportunity: How do I engage in the behaviour? Are there sufficient opportunities to do it? - Motivation Why should I engage in the behaviour? Do I want to put in the work? ?Behaviour mainly determined by… (diff perspectives on behaviour change) 1. Behaviouralal perspective : reinforcement (to behaviour) or punishment 2. Cognitive: thought patterns and cognitive habits 3. Cognitive-Behavioural: ...an interaction between affect, behaviour, and cognitions explain behavioral perspective Negtauve punishmen: taking smthg away as punishment explain the cognitive perspective Behaviour mainly determined by thought patterns and cognitive habits. Not external things like biological - Stimulus → response (for biological) - Stimulus → internal events (thought patterns and internal cognitive habits ) → response (for cognitive) - Its about are appraisal (our response) of the situation, nt the situation itself (stimulus) whats the cognitive-behavioral perspective Behaviour mainly determined by: cognitions influencing emotions and behaviours AND vice versa ABCs of psych: thoughts, feelings and behaboirs, they interact Transtheoretical model (TTM) ?what’s the aim of TTMp How to get someone engage in a specific behaviour. ?according to TTM: change: - Occurs Over time (its about starting + maintaining behaviour) Not always linear (theres fluctuations, sometimes go forwards sometimes relapse) ?Behaviour largely determined by: a) Self-efficacy b) Decisional balance c) Processes of change ?define decisional balance Ppl weigh advantages with disadvantages in engaging in a behaviour (e.g. exercise is good for health BUT im tired after work) ?what are all the stages First 2 stages; getting someone to start behavour ?define pre - contemplation - Behaviour is not considered in the next 6 months “I don’t plan on exercising between now and end of the year.” ?what are the Key processes of change: (move people in pre contemplation onto next stage) - Increase awareness of the importance of changing behaviour (e.g. doctors visit to get them scared) Give personalized information on the risks and benefits of behavior ?whats stage 2 Contemplation - “I will start exercising sometime this semester.” - Behaviour is considered in the next 6 months ?whats Key processes of change : (contemplation to preparation) - investing in the behavior (e.g. financial, time, gym pass) incentivize the behavior (e.g. cheaper for them) ?whats the 3rd stage Preparation • “I have bought a gym pass and am ready to start my program!” - Intend to partake in a behavior and begin taking small steps towards following through ?whats Key processes of change : (preparation → action) - goal development social support (e.g. group physical activity) ?whats the 4th stage Stage 4: Action Behaviour has begun within past 6 months • “I have been going to the gym and following my program for a few months now.” Not yet habit, risk of relapsing ??whats Key processes of change : (action → maintenance) • Key processes of change: (to reduce likelihood of relapsing) - Feedback (u have the goal set, but u need to be abel to monitor progression towards goal - Reinforcement (psoitive, having incentives for reaching goal) - Self efficacy ( ?biggest influencer for self efficacy Previous experience e..g remind people of their past success/ progression ?explain 5th stage Stage 5: Maintenance “Exercise is a regular part of my life.” Behaviour has become habitual for over 6 months habit ?• Strategies for maintenance: Assist with coping (tweaking the plan if u still have goals, variety is good) Ongoing social and environmental support ?Sample Evidence Supporting the TTM • TTM used by many healthcare practitioners - Good evidence • Regular physical activity increases through stage progression • Associated variables (e.g., self-efficacy, mental wellbeing) also increase through stage progression Theory of planned behavior ?explain the theory of planned behavior End goal is behaviour. To get there u need behavioural intention (strongest predictor of behaviour). 3 determinants fo intention: - Attitudes (+ve or -ve attitud to behaviour) - Subjective norms (social pressures to perform a behaviu, more ppl think u should perform it = more liely to do behaviourr) - Perceived behvioural control (PBC) ?Evidence Supporting the TPB • high support BUT questions about the theory’s continued use • Predicts a range of health behaviours with many populations • Subjective norms is a weaker determinant of behavioural intentions than theorized ?define the intention behavior gap Intention only predicts about ⅓ of the variance in actual behaviour. Just knowing smeones intentions, doesnt necessarily mean theylll do it. Only one in three people will do it ?define perceived behavioural control (PBC) - if u have choice in beahviour ?whats the diff bw PBC from the other determinants It also has a direct affect over behaviour, not just indirect through behavioural intention ?how to affect peoples “attitudes” (as a determinant) Target peoples “behavioural beliefs” (affective attitude, and “instrumental beliefs” e.g. why its good for u, improves body image) how to affect peoples “subjectvie norms” (as a determinant) Target ppls “normative beliefs”. Why this behaviour should be a social norm = makes outliers feel left out how to affect peoples “perceived behavioural control” (as a determinant) Target peoples “control beliefs” (their ideas about how much they can control e.g. environmental sources (gym pass access, location ) and individual sources (self-efficacy) ?other factors involved int he theory - Habit formation Identity Affective judgments Social Cognitive Theory ?describe social cog theory Reciprocal determinism: Interaction bw 3 variables; - Personal factors (esp. Self efficacy) - Behaviour (the effort we put in, individual - Environment(coaches, parents) ?behavior is determined by a range of (behavioral) constructs: 1. Goals (what am I trying to obtain?) 2. Outcome expectations (if I engage in X, will it result in Y?) 3. Outcome expectancies (likelihoof, how likely is that I’ll achieve outcome Y?) 4. Behavioural capacity (do I have the knowledge and skills to do X?) 5. Observational learning (how do others do it?) 6. Self-regulation (am I progressing towards Y? what needs changing? What needs to be tweaked) 7. Self-efficacy (Confidence ) ?confidence as a trait versus state Trait: Degree of certainty that we usually have about our abilities • E.g., “I’m naturally confident” State: Belief of certainty that we have about our abilities in a particular situation/task (self efficacy) • E.g., “I’m confident in Science and Math class but not PE” ?is confidence a trait or state Ppl think its trait, but we’re focusing on confidence as a state ?define self efficacy E.g. bandura - Self-confidence that is specific to tasks/situations - Belief in one’s capabilities to execute the actions required to produce desired effects • “I believe I can exercise 3 times per week for an hour each day” • “I simply cannot quit smoking” • “I know that if I perform to the best of my potential, I have a good chance of winning the competition” ?how to breakdown self efficacy further Can Have varying levels of self efficacy within a activity. ?Self-efficacy varies along three dimensions… 1. Magnitude 2. Strength: 3. Generality ?define “magnitude” within self efficacy the number of levels of increasing difficulty that I believe I am able to perform e.g. walking 1km, 5km, 10km etc define “strength” within self efficacy the firmness of the convictions that I have to perform a behavior/obtain an outcome (how confident you are, 100% confident u can do the task, 70% etc) define “generality” within self efficacy the extent to which my confidence in one task predicts my confidence in another tasks (when u have more similar tasks, more generalizabiity e.g. walking → jogging vs walking → pushups) ?people with low self efficacy: - Avoid challenging tasks Believe difficult situations are beyond their capabilities Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities ?people with high self efficacy - View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered Develop deeper interest in the activities in the face of difficulties Become more committed to their activities following failures Recover quickly from setbacks ?outcomes of self efficacy Affective: idnivudlas emotions, feelings. High self efficacy = lwo anxiety, more satisfaction, enjoyment Behavioural: Individuals’ physical responses, observable actions. E.g.can see ppl put more effort, persistence and performance Cog: Individuals’ mental processes, thoughts, intellect, beliefs, etc. e.g. more confidence = better focus (flow), and decision making, pursue more challenging goals ?Overconfidence (arrogance) can lead to: • reduced motivation and work ethic; • unrealistic/inaccurate predictions and expectations; • complacency; and • ultimately, poorer performance. ?Sources of Self-Efficacy (How do we enhance self-efficacy??) Performance experiences: Clear success or failure experiences are the most powerful sources of Vicarious experiences: Imaginal experiences : self-efficacy information Verbal persuasion Physiological + emotional states ?how does confidence affect performance (in a graph) ?whats the most powerful source of self efficacy Performance experiences: Clear success or failure experiences are the most powerful sources of self-efficacy information ?how to build self efficacy using performance experiences Coaches create opportunities for mastery of skills (make playing games easier). E.g. lowering the basket hoop Break it down into little goals instead of 10→ 40 pushups= more opportunities to master skills = feel accomplished. ?define vicarious experiences/ observational learning using this information to make assessments about one’s own capabilities. Observe what others do (=check if thats successful or not and tweak your approach) Ensure the model is similar (age, gender, competition level, position) to the individual bc if theyre too good= harms self confidence be the discreprancie in levels are huge. ?define imaginal experiences Visualizing yourself performing the behaviour = pl generate beliefs about personal (in)efficacy in previous or future situations (e..g viewing previous games of yourself, or writing notes on what worked previously fo me) ?define verbal persuasion - Important others telling you they are confident in you. E.g. coach, We can be our own source of verbal persuasion by learning self-talk ?the effects of verbal/social persuasion depends on… • Effects depend upon the expertise and trustworthiness of the source. ?define Physiological + emotional states Aversive states can reduce self-efficacy, pleasant states can increase it ?diagram for self efficacy ? whats the interactionist perspective of motivation ?whats the similarity between self determination and achievement goal theory Motivation is a product fo 2 things: individual and environmental factors (e.g. parents etc) ?define individual factors Intrapersonal Within us E.g. innate needs Individual dispositions ?define enviro factors Interpersonal factors E..g social influences How parents, coaches impact our motivations Self determination theory ?describe self determination theory Motivation is collection of diff reasons why we participate in a task There are multiple reasons for why u participate in it Motivational regulations: competence, autonomy, relatedness Based on type of motivation can create certain consequences e..g burnout, performance consquences, wellbeing ?define motivational continuum • Motivation is not binary/dichotomous (i.e., something that we either have or don’t have) • Motivation exists on a continuum (not 0 to 100) • We can engage in activities for different reasons ?what impacts the type of motivational regulation we select We have 3 psychological needs (competence, autonomy, relatedness) which determine why we participate in a certain activity. ?how to target the 3 psychological needs (bc we know if it changes the type of motivation we have = diff consequences) Social factors ?motivational continuum diagram We have diff motivational regulations form least self-determined/ autonomous/ least controlled to most self determined. ?define intrinsic motivation Performing behaviours voluntarily, without external pressure, and for its own sake • e.g., “Exercise makes me feel good”; “I play sports because I love it!” ??define extrinsic motivation • Extrinsic Motivation: Behaving to achieve external outcome • e.g., “I play my sport because I am paid”; “I exercise to look good to others” define amotivation • Amotivation: Complete lack of motivation, no desire/ intent to participate in activity • e.g., “I don’t exercise because I hate it!”; “I’m not musical and that’s OK” ?describe extrinsic motivation 1 Extrinsic Motivation 1: External Regulation • The least self determined form of extrinsic motivation (i.e., controlled) • Behaviour is controlled by, and undertaken for, some external demand (e.g., to appease other people) • I exercise because my parents force me to • I am only playing on this team to win a trophy ?extrinsic motivation 2 Extrinsic Motivation 2: Introjected Regulation • non self determined form of extrinsic motivation • Individual internalizes (i.e., ‘takes in’) a value but does not accept it as their own • Behaviour is carried out to avoid negative emotions(e.g., shame, guilt) Examples • I feel bad about myself if I don’t exercise • I play sport because my teammates need me— I’d feel terrible if I left them hanging Describe extrinsic motivation 3 Extrinsic Motivation 3: Identified Regulation • A self determined from of extrinsic motivation • Behaviour is valued, deemed important, and done out of choice but is still done for extrinsic reasons (therefore, not intrinsic motivation) • I want to exercise to look good for others • I hate training but I choose to do so because I know that’s how I’ll improve ?describe extrinsic motivation 4 Extrinsic Motivation 4: Integrated Motivation • The most self determined form of extrinsic motivation • Behaviour is valued and a core part of a person’s sense of self (though they might not necessarily enjoy it) Examples • I exercise every day because being active is an important part of who I am • I train because I am an athlete and that’s what good athletes do ?consequences of being least self determined Illbeing Anxiety • Burn-out • Boredom • Drop-Out ??consequences of being most self determined • Positive Well-being • Vitality • Enjoyment • Self-esteem • Effort & persistence • Intention & actual PA behaviour ?How do we foster motivation that is self-determined?? 3 psychological needs - autonomy: The need to feel that one has choice and is in control of one’s behavior (“My trainer lets me decide which exercises to do”) - competence: The need to feel able to achieving desired outcomes (“I am able to complete my rehabilitation program”) Relatedness: The need to authentically connect with others and feel involved in the social context (“My teammates care about me”) ?examples for providing autonomy • Goal choice, strategy choice • Encourage task interest/learning • Task involvement (AGT!) (relates to achievement goal theory) ?examples for providing competence • Optimal challenges • Positive feedback & reinforcement • Informational rewards (you reward them bc u did smthg well, not dangling a carrot like ill give you money if you win the game) ?examples for providing relatedness • Social support, warmth, empathy • Secure attachment (attentive to you, attention to them not only based on an outcome) Achievement Goal Theory ?describe its core tenet • People motivated to demonstrate competence • Motivation determined by one’s perceptions of success and failure ?• Perceptions of competence determined by two key components: 1. Individual goal orientations (internal) 2. Motivational climate (external factor) ?Within “individual goal orientations”: How do I define success/failure Task Orientation • Self-referenced goals - Growth mindset • Focus on learning, improvement, and reaching personal potential • E.g., I’m proud of the personal best that I set because it resulted from all my hard work and development (success)! Ego Orientation • norm-referenced goals • Focus on outcomes and comparisons to others (i.e., outperforming peers) • E.g., I may have set a personal best but that doesn’t matter because I still didn’t win (i.e., failure) ?define “motivational climate” How do others define success/failure? - Motivational climate: Our perceptions of achievement goals promoted by important people in our life (e.g., coaches, parents, personal trainers, teammates, colleagues, etc.) - Our task orientation can → ego orientation when ppl around you have that mindset - interacts with dispositional goal orientations ?describe Mastery Climate • Promote cooperation • Focus on (and reward) learning, development, effort, and mastery • E.g., “Focus on the process!”, “control the controllables” Performance Climate • Promote (unhealthy) competition • Focus on (and reward) social comparisons and outcomes • E.g., “Win the game!”, “I’ve got to do what [opponent] is doing” ?Consequences of Motivational Climate Approach goals: individual actively engages in task Avoidance goals: Avoid negative outcome e.g. failing, ?describe mindset for ego versus task orientation Task orientation: growth mindset. Low in task orientation = less likely to engage in new activity Ego orientation Fixed mindset- Doesnt matter how hard i work, i just dont have innate ability ?define goal profiling 2 x d model of goal orientations. Can have both ego and task oreintnations ?How do coaches foster motivational climates (instead of performance climates) TARGET Tasks (diverse + suitably challenging tasks, not too difficult) Authority (individual gets choice on what task they do) Recognition (Private + based on individual progress, DONT do social comparison of others) Grouping (Co-operative learning and peer interaction promoted, don't form groups based on ability) Evaluation (Based on mastery of tasks and individual improvement, NOT based purly on outperforming others) Time (Time requirements adjusted to personal capabilities, not uniform time for all students) Chap 1 READING: Introduction ?a ____ is oepationally defined by a measure that captures specific thought/ behaviours construct ?3 things to determine causality 1. Co variation bw IV and Dv 2. Temporal precedence. IV comes before DV 3. Eliminate other alternative explanations (often difficult to control these extraneous variables) Theoretical model versus theory Theory: specifces relos across various scientific constructs + explains phenomena A model: purposeful representation of reality ?most common data collection method in sport exercise interviews ?whats it called when u have a study w both quantitative and qualitative approaches Mixed methods research Chap 2 READING: Personality ?whats the belief that personality predics sport success Credulous-skeptical argument ?define disposition Broad, pervasive, encompassing ways of relatign to particular types of people, or situations e.g. a teammeber has cheerful disposition ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Chap 3 READING: Motivation + Behavioural change Stress response: physiological, cog, emotional, behabioral reactions when were faced w heavy demands e.g. increased heart rate, perspiration. Adaptive for humans = adrenaline + peak performance MIDTERM 2 ONWARDS Chap 4 READING: Stress, Emotion and Coping Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory • Stress is a process (Not an outcome, not the stimulus itself) It’s an interaction bw the Person and Environment: Varies from person to person and from environment to environment • What is stressful for one person may not be for another • What is stressful for you in one environment may not be in another Stress define: a relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources (amt of energy u have, ability to cope) of the person, and endangers their achievement of optimal outcomes (performance of wellveing) Stressor DOESN’T have direct resulting in a negative outcome ACTUALLY: situation + Reaction = outcome (+ or -) Stress is Context Specific E.g., ... - Exam for KIN150 vs exam for KIN110 Model of Stress The stress process involves a dynamic relationship between the person and the environment Cog appraisal: Is the situation harmful to me? + what can be done in the situation (interpretation of the stressor) Interaction bw appraisal and coping strategies. Response affects all three previously. If ur result fo a big game is bad= you change your coping strategy, if u have an exam and every time u get very stressed but u have a good coping mechanism —> eventually u have a diff cog appraisal when walking into an exam (u understand its difficult, but u know you can deal w it). Stress response can impact stressor itself bc if ur constantly in negative situations, u can avoid the stressor alltogether. Stressors vs Stress Response Stressors: Events, forces, or situations interpreted as stressful - can be positive (eustress) or negative (distress) Stress response: physiological, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions to demands - Can be positive (e.g., ideal level of stress high performance) or negative (e.g., excessive, or too little, stress poor performance) Types of stressors Three Groups 1. acute (e.g. mistake in competition, running to class bc ur late, quick) vs chronic stressors (longterm, chronic condition, emotionally abusive coach) 2. expected (you expect to have long commute= usually we can work w it a bit easier) vs unexpected stressors (long traffic made your 1.5 hr commute → 2.5hr commute = late for exam) 3. competitivce (close to around/ during the competition e.g. trashtalk from oppoennt) vs non-compeitive stressors (outside of competition, not during comp e.g. social media clowns talking abt u as an athlete) Can be a mixture of all these things Stress Responses Includes emotional reactions Typically acute and quick in onset Subjective feelings we experience Associated with neurophysiological changes (can observe emotions through neurophysiological states e.g. changes in brian chemistry)) • Emotions can have a substantive effect on thoughts, behaviors, and, ultimately, performance • Which emotion has received the most research attention in sport and exercise? anxiety Cognitive Appraisal Our interpretation of a situation ▫ Is the situation significant to me? Could it impact my performance and/or well-being? ▫ Can I deal with the demands of this situation? (not the stressor itself, its our appraisal of it) Primary and secondary appraisal Primary Appraisal • What is at stake? • is the situation relevant? important? risky? Leads to….. Secondary Appraisal • What can be done? • do I have the ability/resources to manage the situation? (taking control of the situation) Harm/loss appraisal and threat or challenge appraisals Harm/Loss Appraisal • Stressor resulted in irreversible psychological harm (e.g. getting a bad grade, now you cant do anything to change it, we can change future appraisals but in terms of that specific course, its game over) (generally always been done) Threat or Challenge Appraisals • Anticipate harm OR an obstacle that can be overcome (often upcoming situations Threat Appraisal Situational Demands:anticipate harm/loss coudl occur. Interpret situation as vv stressful, high situational demands = no capacity to deal w demands. The higher the discrepancy = the more threatening it is Not necessarily a huge situational demand, it just focuses on the fact tat u cannot deal w the demand Capacity to Deal With Demands: low Challenge Appraisal Low Situational Demands but similar Capacity to Deal With Demands Reappraisal • Stress can help our bodies prepare to take action • Neurophysiological changes occur in response to stressors • These can be interpreted as threatening... or as useful! We can learn to reinterpret stress (Stress-is-Enhancing mindset) Coping strategies • Cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage the appraisal-response process • Can be used to help facilitate more adaptive stress responses (chnnge coping strats to change stress response) The dynamic nature of coping • Efforts to manage stress are complex and often changing • Depends on available resources (if we think were able to handle the stress e.g. fatigue) • Efforts shift based on a strategy’s effectiveness Integrated Model of Coping Task versus avoidance: Task: engage in task (stressor). Going directly to source of stressor. Problem or emotion focused coping Problem focussed: - effort (working harder) - Logical analysis: (rethinkig your planning/ strategizing ) - Seeking support (social support, teammate, coach) is a proble focused strat Emotion focused (cant always control problem, can control emotion) - Thought control: improving self talk - Relaxation e..g deep breathing imagery Avoidance (not necessarily getting up and quitting sport, could be cognitive/emotional withdraw from situation, e..g delivering speech not just getting up halfway, could be disengaging someway like rushing through the speech, way of escaping) Dristaction oriented coping: short term removal front he situation Mental distraction: distracting and thinking of smthg else (short term Disengagement oriented: e..g if tennis players losing, they don't put effort anymore in the game Alternative: Gross’ Emotion Regulation Model 5 strategies within the model Situation selection: seek situations that result in + emotions, avoid negative emotion situations (ideally, some situations u dont have control over) Situation modification; similar to problem focused coping. Engage w situation and focus on our effort + changing our strategies. = better emotional regulation. (basically vv high preperation and just having a good strategy for the situation) Attentional deployment: we can influence our emotions by focusing on smthg. E.g. stressful sitch, coach says nto to think about it doesnt work, instead redirect our attention on another stimulus = calms us down and our emotions (replace negative emotions w positive ones) Cog change: change the emotional significance of the situation. Downplay the situation, realize its not the end of the world (reappraise ti to some extent) Response modulation: change our physical responses e.g. having good body language, but if ur emotions aren't where u want them to be u can directly target emotions (attentional deployment) OR can direct target physical behavior = help w emotional regulation, fake it til you make it Effectiveness of Coping Strategies (task vs avoidance) TASK More strongly related to: • Positive affect, (greater enjoyment in sport) • Perceived coping effectiveness (according to athletes, task is more effective at dealing w stress) • Objective performance outcomes (e.g. during losses, task focused is more strongly linked to more positive outcomes) AVOIDANCE More strongly related to: • Negative affect (dissatisfaction w sport) • Increased burnout Limitations of Research to Date… - - Other (more contemporary) stressors? (kinda outdated e.g. social media and stress coping in sport, r there other stressors) Has not adequately examined the dynamic nature of coping (we can shift our coping strategies, sometimes we have more emotion then problem focused then disengagement style coping, in research its always just generally what have u donewhat coping strats have u generally used) Influences of coping choice and effectiveness - Many Individual and enviro influences e.g. gender, sport type, yeam vs individual sport. Its not one size fits all, shouldnt only engage in one coping style at all times. What works for u, what doesnt, some ppl should leave a game to recollect thoughts but for some people that doesnt work Coping interventions • Range of intervention programs appear effective - ‘Multimodal’ stress management interventions (equip ppl w all sorts of coping strats) - Action planning (get ppl to plan ahead for what stressors they could face) - Emotion regulation interventions (reappraise their beliefs about things causing negative emotions e.g., Rational emotive behavior therapy) Self-compassion (for high performance athletes that are perfectionist e..g common humanity- theyre not alone for experiencing stress, e.g. mindfulness) Arousal & Anxiety Arousal is NOT the same as anxiety. Arousal A state of activation from deep sleep to extreme excitement • Includes cognitive/mental and somatic/physiological dimensions • Can be appraised as negative (causing anxiety) • Or it can be appraised as positive Anxiety (arousal thats appraised as negative) a negative emotional state • Cognitive anxiety: mental component (e.g., nervousness, apprehension, worry about performance or possible failure, etc.) • Somatic anxiety: physiological elements (e.g., racing heart rate, muscle tension/tightness, respiration rate, blood pressure, frequent urination, etc.) State vs Trait Anxiety Trait Anxiety General predisposition to experience anxiety in a variety of situations. Stable, regardless of the situation, these ppl tend to have high anxiety for all these situations and persists over time, not smthg that outgrows State Anxiety (situational anxiety) Anxiety experienced in certain situations/times but not others State Anxiety is Context Specific - Social Anxiety: Anxiety in social situations - Competitive Anxiety: anxiety occurring in competitive sport situations. Sport specific. - Social Physique Anxiety: anxiety about receiving negative evaluations from others about one’s body. Exercise specific. Some sports exceptions e..g gymnastics, swimming. Personal Sources of Anxiety Interaction bw person and environment 1. Gender • Research is inconsistent • In sport: evidence does not currently conclude any gender differences • In exercise: women tend to experience greater social physique anxiety 2. Traits Increased STATE ANXIETY = increased trait anxiety, neuroticism, ego orientation (focusing on how i compare w other people) 3. Skill Level • The intensity of anxiety does not seem to differ across skill levels • But... the interpretation of anxiety does (higher skill= better able t o reappraise it as facilitative to their performance) 3. Competitive Experience • Experienced athletes tend to: • have lower intensity of anxiety • be more likely to view anxiety as facilitative 4. Confidence & Self-Presentation • Confidence: Belief in one’s abilities negatively related to state anxiety • Self-presentation: individuals who are overly concerned with controlling others’ impressions of them are more likely to experience anxiety 5. Stress Appraisals & Coping • Loss and Threat Appraisals associated with greater anxiety compared to Challenge Appraisals: (first things we can do w ppl experiencing high state anxiety is changing their appraisals even before we get to coping strategies. ) • Use of coping strategies associated with lower anxiety • self-handicapping: athletes creating situations that provide an excuse in case failure occurs (if they fail, its nto bc of themself, itss bc of so and so) • These athletes tend to have higher anxiety levels Environmental Sources of Anxiety 1. Situational Importance (more critical moment= more anxiety) • Choking: acute and significant decrements in performance under instances of high pressure High performer hits a high pressure situation = significant/acute decrease in performance Reasons for choking: - Distraction theories: athletes become distracted by task-irrelevant cues poorer information processing - Self-focus theories: increases in self-consciousness and reinvesting (athletes have mastred sport so well, its intuitive, but reinvesting makes u think about the step by step process like when u first started learning the sport) occurs 2. Sport Type • Individual sport athletes have been found to experience higher levels of state anxiety than team sport athletes 3. Physical Environment • Exercise: presence of gym mirrors, revealing clothing, other very fit patrons, etc. • Sport: novel venues (home advantage = lower anxiety), new environment, disorganized event, intimidating crowd, etc. 4. Role Perceptions • unclear roles on team elicit higher anxiety levels • Some team roles provoke more anxiety than others Theories of Anxiety & Performance 1. Drive Theory 2. Inverted-U Model 3. Cusp Catastrophe Theory 4. Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) 1. Drive Theory Physiological arousal specifically (blood flowing, feeling awake) Increased physiological arousal = improved performance Some valdiity but for only vv basic tasks, disproven for complex theories liek sport. 2. Inverted-U Model Early studies supported this, but still to simplistic. Sport is more complex Cons: Does Not take into diff anxiety.arousal e.g. cognitive arousal/anxiety Also individual differences 3. Cusp Catastrophe Theory Pros: looks at both cog and physiological Focus on physiological AROUSAL and cog ANXIETY Low physiological arousal, as cog anxiety increases, improvement in performance. E.g. if youre nto warmed up (lwo physioogcaol arousal), icnreasing cog anxiety (getting in the zone, mentally firing up) = improved performance High physiological arousal is high. Dont get cog anxiety too high (calm down) bc if its too high, then performance decreases Cog anxiety is low (basically U theory but only when cog anxiety is low): Cog anxiety is high, theres a catstrophe taking place. As physiological arousal increases its good up till the middle bc any higher youll plummet Evaluation of model Some research supporting model, but difficult theory to test Mixed evidence for theory, fallen out of favour (no rlly new research on this theory) bc theres an interaction bw person and environment (this theory addresses the enviro but theres another theory (individual zone of optimal functioning that explains this interaction better0 Optimal performance when: a) Cognitive anxiety is high AND b) Somatic arousal is moderate Dramatic decrease in performance (catastrophe) when: a) Cognitive anxiety is high AND b) Somatic arousal is high 4. Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Athlete struggling with anxiety. Some need some lebel of anxiety, some need higher levels. Everyones different in terms of levels of cognitive anxiety/arousal and somatic arousal/anxiety. Get athletes to think of their best performances: - - Ask them their ideal level of cognitive arousal (thinking calm or intense before performance) (does not depend on the type of sport u play on lvl of cog arousal e.g. someone in rugby may want to be vv calm before Ask them ideal lvl of somatic arousal (physiological) (high heart rate, muscles etc) How difficult is it to ger into and stay in IZOF (usually pretty difficult) Therefore everyones got a diff level of cog arousal/physiological. If athlete says they have anxiety, don't just immediately do deep breathing, goal setting etc, first get them to think if its debilitative or useful (reappraisal, if its useful, then maybe they dont rlly need to reduce the anxiety) (sometimes it helps them improve by being in the zone) Arousal & Anxiety Regulation Is anxiety always a bad thing? Ideal level of cognitive and somatic anxiety is different from athlete to athlete (IZOF) - - Therefore everyones got a diff level of cog arousal/physiological. If athlete says they have anxiety, don't just immediately do deep breathing, goal setting etc, first get them to think if its debilitative or useful (reappraisal, if its useful, then maybe they dont rlly need to reduce the anxiety) (sometimes it helps them improve by being in the zone) What type of arousal needs to be targeted: somatic or cog arousal Ideal level: sometimes we wanna increase anxiety levels if u feel flat durign an event. Arousal Regulation Decreasing Arousal • Controlled breathing (somatic anxiety psecifically als cog bc geivs them smthg to focus on. Tempo of breathing is important: 1:2 ratio of inhale:exhale. 3sec inhale: 6 sec exhale. • Music (having diff playlists,melow) • Progressive muscle relaxation (for ohsyioogical anxiety, esp if ur feelign tight/ tense, get ppl to squeeze as hard as they can for 10 seconds and releasing • Meditation (calm, headspace, being more present) • Autogenic training, biofeedback (similar to identifying how HR, sweat rate, muscle tension is doing → using biofeedback techniques to try and relax) Increasing Arousal • Controlled breathing (compared to decreasing arousal, quicker tempo, slower deep bretahs e.g. 1:1 ratio) • Music (gets you hyped up) • Light exercise (physiological arousal) • Motivational self-talk, verbal cues, imagery Mental Skills in Sport & Exercise 4 mental skills used in sports and exercise Goal setting Imagery Self-Talk Attentional Control Introduction to Psychological Skills Training (PST) Model of Stress Stressor Cognitive Psychological skills training programme: - Macro level strategies (problem or emotion based coping or more distraction oriented coping) - Theyre flexible e.g. imagery can be emotion focused or task focused strategy Key Points about Mental Skills • Athletes have reported that psychological factors are key to fluctuations in performance (not a replacement of physical training though lol, u still have to train for sport, its just one [art of athletes training prgrame) • Mental skills should be considered one part of an athlete’s training • Traditionally, athletes spend very little time training and practising mental skills Myths about Psychological Skills Training (PST) • PST is only for athletes with “issues” • PST is for elite training only • PST provides quick-fix solutions • PST is not useful In reality….. • Any athlete can benefit from PST • PST also useful for devleoping athletes • Should be practiced over the long-term • Evidence suggests the opposite Three Phases of PST (structuring a PST program) 1. Education: • Importance of psychology and PST (removing stigma) • What are the athlete’s needs? (individual needs: focus, arousal regulation etc…, if its serious mental illness = sports psychologists arent qualified ) 2. Acquisition: • Developing the “recipe” • Trial (various) mental skills 3. Practice: • Overlearning skills (turn mental skills into a habit, automation) (perfectign the recipe) • Integrate into competition Research on PST PST interventions have been shown to: • improve athletic performance in the short- and long-term • enhance confidence and motivation • create more positive coping appraisals • improve focus and anxiety/arousal regulation Goal Setting • Goal: “The object or aim of an action” • The most commonyl used mental skill among athletes • One of the first steps in a PST program (e.g., performance profiling) Uses Performance profiling: visual to have athletes asses the big skills/ characteristics that make an excellent e.g. rugby player + rate themselves on where theyre at. Athlete identifies whats important and what to focus on. Types of Goals 1. Outcome: Focus on competitive results and social comparison 2. Performance goals: Focus on improvements and attainment of personal standards (not social comparison, 3. process: Focus on developing and executing specific behaviours (what can you control to improve your scores e.g. analysign where youre at atm in certain aspects of the sport and identifying wat needs improvement) Goal Setting Theory Why do goals help? • Direct attention to important elements (to what matters int he sport) • Mobilize action/effort • Encourage persistence (if you have a goal in mind, easier to have discipline) • Assist with monitoring/evaluation: high performance cycle (Locke & Latham’s) Setting goal -> plan -> execute -> monitor goal (goals help w monitoring how its going e..g if u wanna deadlift 150kg, and youre at 100kg) “SMART” Goals Specific: Clear-cut targets vs. vague “do your best” goals (be clear about how much exercise youll do) Measurable: Use numbers to assess progress Adjustable: Should be flexible and modified as necessary Realistic: Set attainable but moderately difficult goals Timely : Identify target dates Evidence for Goal Setting? • Overall, meta-analyses show that goal setting enhances: • sport performance • athlete self-efficacy • exercise behavior Evidence for SMART Goals? Sport • Specific goals not more effective than non-specific goals ( • Process goals have larger effect on performance compared to performance and outcomes goals (outcome goals still important but also add process goals) • mixed evidence regarding goal difficulty and proximity/ Timeframe ( Exercise • Specific goals not more effective than non-specific ones • Timeframes: Daily or daily-plus-weekly goals more effective than weekly goals (“mon, tues wed gym, thurs: yoga and overall exercising 4 times this week” is more effective than having a weekly goal) • Better outcomes when goals were adjusted over time Imagery • “Using multiple senses to (re)create experiences in one’s mind” • E.g., what do you see when you do A, B, and C? what does it sound like? how does it feel? etc • Two potential perspectives: • internal: View from your own vantage point • external: View from an observer’s vantage point Why Does Imagery Help? • Motivational (enhance/matintian engagement, manage stress/arousal levels, drive, determination) and cognitive functions (rehearsign eprfornamce of task to improve skill) Five Functions of Imagery Function: Motivational • Motivational-general (mastery) imagery: • Images relating to feeling confident, mentally tough, and in control • Motivational-general (arousal) imagery: • Images relating to arousal levels, stress, and emotions • Can help athletes practice regulating their arousal (Visualisign how well stay relaxed in the situation, internal enviro, tend to be focused on emotions) • Motivational-specific imagery: • Images related to an individual’s goals (performance goals/outcome goals) • Can help athletes persist during difficult tasks/situations (e..g early mornings and visualising their goals in their mind can motivate them Function: Cognitive • Cognitive-general imagery: • Images of strategies, game plan, or routines • Helps athletes prepare for situations that may occur during competition (big picture ideas) • Cognitive-specific imagery: • Includes images of specific sport skills • Can help athletes learn and master a skill (more like process goals, more specific, visualzing yourself doing the actual kicking of the ball) Sport Imagery Questionnaire Which function of imagery (CG, CS, MS, MG-M, MG-A) does each of the following questions assess? Motivation specific Motivation general mastery Motivation general arousal Cognitive general imagery i. I see myself as a champion: motivation specific ii. I imagine myself feeling relaxed in competitions ____ iii. I can usually control how a skill looks in my head: cog specific iv. I see myself being confident in a tough situation: v. I make up new game plans/routines in my head ____ Guidelines for Effective Imagery (PETLEP) P= Physical The physical nature of the imagery is dependent upon the task. Determine whether relaxation or increased arousal is helpful prior to imaging. E= Environment The image should be as “real” or close to the actual environment as possible. Video footage or pictures can potentially enhance the imaging process. T= Timing The timing of the image should be equal to that of your physical performance (e.g., if a routine takes 3 minutes to execute, ideally so too should the imagery). L= Learning The content of the image should change based on your current level of learning of the skill (e.g., start with simpler images, then work up to more complicated ones. E= Emotion Images will be more effective if you attach emotions to them (provide meaning). If imaging winning a gold medal, feel the excitement and joy that is a part of it. P= Perspective Depending on the task your imagery perspective may vary (consider both). Skills that rely heavily on form benefit most from an external imagery perspective. Final Points Regarding Imagery • Imagery is a skill that requires deliberate practice • Athletes from all ages and expertise levels can benefit • Imagery has been shown to benefit a range of outcomes including: - Performance - Self-efficacy - injury recovery - goal development - anxiety regulation Self-Talk • “Verbalizations or statements that we say to ourselves” • Can be overt (syaing out loud) or covert (saying in your head) • Easily combined with other mental skills (pre performance routine) E.g. positive affirmations Two Functions of Self-Talk Instructional Self-talk to enhance... • Skill development (e.g., “arm straight” in golf) • Skill execution(e.g., “laser”) • Strategizing (e.g., “wide, kitchen”) (visualizing yourself executing the skill) Motivational Self-talk to enhance... • Mastery • Arousal regulation • Drive/effort • Confidence (e.g., “I got this”) • Focus (e.g., “podium”) • Relax (e.g., “breathe”) • Energize (e.g., “push!”) Recommendations for Self-Talk: SPORT S: self-determined: personally meaningful P: Positive: focus on what you aim to do (approachign a task- what youre trying to do, istead of task avoidance- trying not to do e.g. “doont drop the ball”) O: Overt: at least some self-talk should be said aloud (depends on what you prefer, but saying things out loud enhance strength of self talk) R: Repeated: employ frequently T: Triggering: create a (motivating) response (more for motivational self talk, triggering yourself to create a response) Attentional Control • Attention: “the information and stimuli that an individual focuses on” e..g distracting fans - Attention is a limited resource Errors in selective attention: • Too broad: Focus on too many cues (quarterback in football most difficult bc so much for them to