General Psychology Module 5 PDF

MODULE 5: INTELLIGENCE, THINKING AND CREATIVITY LESSON 1: INTELLIGENCE Learning Objectives At the end of this Module, you should be able – 1. understand clearly the meaning of intelligence, problem solving and decision making; 2. identify the classifications of intelligence; 3....

MODULE 5: INTELLIGENCE, THINKING AND CREATIVITY LESSON 1: INTELLIGENCE Learning Objectives At the end of this Module, you should be able – 1. understand clearly the meaning of intelligence, problem solving and decision making; 2. identify the classifications of intelligence; 3. describe the different measurement of intelligence; and 4. identify their levels of intelligence through the intelligence tests Keywords and Phrases  Intelligence  Fluid intelligence  Crystallized intelligence  Emotional intelligence  Artificial intelligence  Multiple intelligence  Intelligence test  Theories of Intelligence INTRODUCTION Intelligence is one of the major differences among people that affects academic and job performance. Intelligence is not a pure characteristic but a specialized aptitude that contribute to problem solving ability. The studies conducted by noted psychologist, Han Eysenck cited by DuBRIN, (1989) indicates that highly intelligent people also deal quickly with elementary problems. Among the most important human intelligence are verbal comprehension, numerical comprehension, visualization, inductive reasoning, word fluency, and syntactic evaluation. Intelligence may be defined in several ways. According to Buskist (1990), intelligence is the capacity to acquire knowledge and to use that knowledge to solve problems. David Wechsler, a well-known student of psychology as cited in Crider (1989), believes that intelligence is the capacity to understand the world and the resourcefulness to cope with its challenges. Further, Wechsler has also suggested that intelligence is the capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment. Other psychologists see intelligence as “a cluster of relatively distinct abilities such as memory, reasoning, and verbal fluency”. Some psychologists believe that the limit of intelligence is fixed by heredity, others think that experience plays an important part in its development (Sevilla, 1998). Robert Sternberg and William Salter cited by Myers (1989) reports that most experts view intelligence as a person’s capacity for goal-directed, adaptive behavior- that by learning from experience, solving problems and reasoning clearly, successfully meet challenges and achieve its aims and objectives. Primary Factors of Intelligence Cattell cited in Buskist, (1990) claims that intelligence consists of two primary factors, namely: 1. Fluid intelligence is the ability to perceive complex relations and engage in short-term memory, concept formation, and reasoning and abstraction. 2. Crystallized intelligence is influenced more heavily by education and experience. Therefore, fluid abilities are those that require the kind of abstract reasoning while crystallized abilities are those learned in school for solving verbal and quantitative problems (Buskist, 1990). Further, there is no single test that measures both fluid and crystallized intelligence. Moreover, fluid intelligence is generally thought to peak in adolescence and crystallized intelligence is believed to increase or remain stable during adulthood. It can be seen that intelligence can be defined in several viewpoints and all are acceptable to the researchers and psychologists. In spite of the diversity of viewpoints, several topics recur again and again in expert definition of intelligence such as: 1. The capacity to learn from experience; 2. The capacity to adapt to one’s environment; and, 3. The ability to solve problems. It can be concluded that all learning, adaptation and solving problems are significant to intelligence (Santos and Pastor, 2008). Classifications of Intelligence 1. Social Intelligence. According to Edward Thorndike as cited in (http://en.wikipedia.og/wiki/ Social IQ Retrieved January 08, 2009) It is the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human relations. Social Intelligence is equivalent to interpersonal by Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence. It is also defined as the intelligence that lies behind group interaction and behavior. In 2005, Karl Albrecht, a business writer, proposed in his book, Social Intelligence: The New Science of Success, presented an Acronym S P A C E, which means Situation Awareness, Presence, Authenticity, Clarity and Empathy. Further, he defined social intelligence as the ability to get along well with others while winning their cooperation. It is a combination of sensitivity to the needs and interest of others. Social Intelligence therefore, provides a highly accessible and comprehensive model for describing, assessing, and developing social intelligence at a personal level (http://as.Wilely.com?WileyCDA/Wiley Title/productcd/html Retrieved January 8, 2009). Daniel Goleman, a popular science writer has drawn on social neuroscience reach to propose that social intelligence is made up of: a. Social Awareness such as empathy, attunement, empathetic accuracy and social cognition; b. Social facility which includes synchrony, self-presentation, influence and concern. Social intelligence is a measure of social intelligence compared to other people of their age. Social IQ is based on the 100 point scale in which 100 is the average score. Scores of 140 and above are considered to be very high social intelligence quotient. 2. Emotional Intelligence. Salovey and Mayer(1990) defined Emotional Intelligence as the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action. Later, Salovey and Mayer revised their definition to the ability to perceive emotzion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotion and to regulate emotion to promote personal growth and development. Emotional Intelligence has three (3) models a. Ability Emotional Intelligence Model. It proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process information of an emotional nature and in ability to relate emotional processing to a wider cognition. This model includes four (4) types of abilities: 1. Perceiving emotion is the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices and cultural artifacts, including the ability to identify one’s own emotion. 2. Using emotion is the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive abilities such as thinking and problem solving. 3. Understanding emotion is the ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate complicated relationship among emotions. 4. Managing emotion refers to the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions even negative ones and manage them to achieve intended goals. Measurement of the ability-based model. Different models of emotional intelligence have led to the development of various instruments for the assessment of the construct. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test is based on a series of emotion-based problem solving items. This instrument could measure the ability to solve problems  b. Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence. It is concerned with the emotional competencies. The Emotional Competencies Goleman Model was introduced by Daniel Goleman. It focuses on Emotional Intelligence as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance. The Goleman’s model outlines four (4) Emotional Intelligence constructs namely: 1. Self-awareness is the ability to read one’s emotion and recognize their impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions; 2. Self-management involves controlling one’s emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances; 3. Social awareness is the ability to sense, understand and react to other’s emotions while comprehending social networks; and, 4. Relationship management is the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while managing conflict. Measurement of Emotional Competencies. There are two tools to measure the Goleman Model: 1. The Emotional Competency Inventory which was created in 1999 and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory which was created in 2007. 2. The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal which was created in 2001 and which can be taken as a self-report or 360-degree assessment. The other instrument used to measure emotion and social skill is the Bar-0n Model of Emotional-Social Intelligence. The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) measures the mental ability to be successful in dealing with the environment demands and pressure. This test measures the interpersonal, intrapersonal, general mood, adaptability, stress management, positive impression, and consistency.  c. The Trait Emotional Intelligence Model. Petrides (2007) proposed a conceptual distinction between the ability based- model and a trait-based model of Emotional Intelligence. The Trait Emotional Intelligence model refers to individual’s self- perception of his emotional ability. The measurement of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Model. The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) encompasses 15 subscales organized under four factors namely; well being, self control, emotionality and sociability (Petrides, Fumham and Marroveli, 2007). 3. Artificial Intelligence is a field of study concerned with designing and programming machines to accomplish tasks that people accomplish using their intelligence. It also attempts to understand how human beings think, by studying the behavior of machine design and programs that model current hypotheses and conjectures about some aspect of the human cognitive process (Schutzer, 1987).. 4. Physical Intelligence focuses on the mind and body- muscles coordination. It is related to sport-based activities. In winning in any game competition, you need to use your mind in order to work effectively and win the game. Other Psychologists classified intelligence into nine (9) types: 1. Factual intelligence. People who enjoy the games belong to this type. It is also called the “Human Encyclopedia.” 2. Analytical Intelligence. People who thrive on solving puzzles and problems; 3. Linguistic intelligence. People who can speak several languages and can learn easily new things; 4. Spatial intelligence. People who can see pattern in things, artist, and mathematician. 5. Musical intelligence. People who can create music and can easily identify the music keys; 6. Practical intelligence. People who can dismantle gadgets and can put it back;  7. Physical intelligence. People who have the mind and muscles coordination; 8. Intuitive intelligence. People who can see things which others cannot; and, 9. Interpersonal intelligence. People who can easily get along with others. The following are the different theories of intelligence 1. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Intelligence. Researchers in the field of intelligence have realized that people have a variety of different intelligence. Gardner has proposed a theory of multiple intelligence and identified seven (7) components of intelligence: a. Bodily kinesthetic is the ability to use one’s physical body well; b. Interpersonal refers to the ability to see other’s feelings and be in tune with others; c. Intrapersonal is a self-awareness concept. It is the ability to know your own body and mind; d. Linguistic is the ability to communicate well both orally and in the written form; e. Logical/mathematical is the ability to learn higher mathematical and the ability to handle complex logical arguments; f. Musical is the ability to learn, compose and perform music; g. Spatial is the ability to know where you are relative to fixed location. It is the ability to accomplish tasks requiring the three dimensional visualizations. h. Further, Gardner (1999) concluded that there are still three types of intelligence added to the original seven intelligences, they are: i. Natural is the ability to understand, relate to, categorize, classify, comprehend and explain the things we encountered in the world of nature; j. Spiritual/moral. It refers to the ability to search for meaning. According to Wiggleworths, spirituality is the innate human need to connect with something larger than ourselves. She defines spiritual intelligence as the ability to behave with  compassion and wisdom while maintaining inner and outer peace regardless of the circumstances. 2. David Perkins Theory of Intelligence. According to Perkins (1995) as cited in (http://uoregon.edu/ ~moursund/Books/PS- Expertise/Chapter 3.htm) that intelligence has three (3) major components or dimensions: a. Neural intelligence refers to the efficiency and precision of one’s neurological system; b. Experiential intelligence refers to one’s accumulated knowledge and experiences in different areas; and c. Reflection intelligence refers to one’s based strategies for attacking problems, for learning and for approaching intellectually challenging tasks. 3. Robert Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence. He focused on just three main components: a. Practical intelligence refers to the ability to do well in formal and informal education settings, adaptive to and shaping one’s environment; b. Experiential intelligence is the ability to deal with new situations, the ability to effectively automate ways of dealing with new situations so as to handle easily the future; and, c. Componential intelligence. It is the ability to process information effectively and strongly. Sternberg believes that intelligence can be increased by study and practice. If you will analyze all the theories, there are similarities in the components or dimensions. The Gardner’s theory indicates specific potentials that an individual has (http://uoregon.edu/~mpursund/Books/PS-Expertise/Chapter 3.htm). Factors Affecting Intelligence 1. Biological. Genetic variation has a significant impact on IQ. Genes have been found to have a substantial effect on intelligence. It is a product of interaction between multiple genes. 2. Environment. Evidence suggests that family environmental factors may have an effect upon childhood intelligence. A  school is also a major influence on a child’s sense of competence and achievement. 3. Culture. It plays an important role in intelligence. Culture is a way of life. Language is part of culture. All human languages are of equivalent value and represent the crowning achievement of evolution: the capacity for reflexive thought (Hess, 1992). 4. Health. Several studies have been conducted and concluded that developed nations have implemented several health policies regarding nutrition and toxins known to influence cognitive functions; 5. Gender. Men outperform women on average by 3-4 intelligence quotient points. Studies illustrate consistently greater variance in the performance of men compared to that of women; 6. Age. Older children do not just think faster on more than younger children. They also think in entirely different ways, employing cognitive abilities and structure that enable them to understand some problems and concepts beyond the grasp of younger children. In short, intelligence develops qualitatively with age as well as quantitatively (Fancher, 1996, http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=levels + intelligence el.=UTF Retrieved, December 20, 2008). 7. Ethical Issues is the ability to influence intelligence raises on ethical issues. Transhumanist theorists study the possibilities and consequences of developing and using techniques to enhance abilities and aptitudes 8. Experience is the ability to learn from past experiences. We learn so much from travelling. As the old saying goes “Experience is the best teacher.” 9. Training is the ability to practice the mental skills for effective performance. 10. Nutrition - eating a well-balanced meal is important in learning. It helps the brain to work faster if proper nutrients are taken by the learner. Levels of Intelligence The levels of intelligence could be attributed to the score of a person in the intelligence tests. Psychologists vary in identifying the levels of intelligence. Morgan on the distribution of intelligence quotient based on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales as cited in Sevilla (1998): A score of 90-109 is the average performance on most common intelligence tests. However, because every individual obtains this exact score, it is important to consider variations around the average. For example, on the above distribution of scores, the scores of 50 percent of the population fall between 90-109. Almost the entire population (100 percent) receives a score between 70 and 130. Beyond these two extremes lies a small number of people who represent two distinct groups: the mentally retarded and the intellectually gifted. In practical terms, the retarded people may be deficient in their academic skills however; they are capable of holding simply tasks and can deal adequately with many social situations. The Measurement of Intelligence In 1884, Sir Francis Galton first explored the measurement of intelligence. Galton held two strong convictions about intelligence:(1) that intelligence was largely a matter of superior perceptual and physical attributes, and that intelligence was inherited from some members of the family showing clear biological superiority over others (Crider, 1989). Galton claims he could determine which physical measurement such as the head size, muscular strength and visual acuity that corresponds to intelligence; he could demonstrate the intelligence that was passed from generations to generations. Galton had taken these measurements on more than 9,000 subjects and discovered that the head size, muscular strength and other physical attributes were not related to intelligence. Thus by the end of the 19 century, psychologists leave the idea that perceptual and physical th skills were the best indicators of intelligence. Modern tests of intelligence emphasize the measurement of mental abilities such as reasoning, remembering, abstract, and imagining. These abilities were first identified in the work of Alfred Binet, with a strong interest on how mental abilities differ from one person to another. Binet was a French psychologist who was interested to study individual differences. In 1905, Binet was commissioned by the French government to devise a test that would distinguish children of average intelligence from those who were below normal. The government wanted to establish special classes for retarded children but afraid that teachers would be unable to evaluate their students objectively. Thus the Ministry of Education called on Binet to develop an objective assessment procedure. Binet and his collaborator Theophile Simon responded with a 39 question test that becomes the forerunner of all modern tests of intelligence. The Binet-Simon test successfully distinguished retarded from normal children thus confirming Binet’s idea that abilities such as memory, imagination and reasoning were better indicators of intelligence than were perceptual- physical measurement developed by Galton (Crider, 1989) Binet and Simon revised their test. They began to learn about the average performance of children of different age. Binet and Simon created a concept of mental age (MA), an index of the child’s problem-solving ability that is independent of the child’s actual or chronological age (CA). Lewis Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University was the principal author of the first major revision of the Binet-Simon test in 1916. The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was then further revised in 1837, 1960, 1972 and most recently in 1986 (Crider, 1986). Although, Terman was responsible for a number of major changes in the Binet-Simon test, his greatest contribution was to institute a numerical index that express intelligence as a ratio of mental age to chronological age. This index was first suggested by the German psychologist, William Stern which became known as intelligence quotient or IQ, the formula of which is IQ = MA/CA x 100. Example, there were two boys who took the Stanford-Binet intelligence test, Billy”s Mental Age is 14 and his Chronological Age is 12 while John’s Mental Age is 14 and his chronological age is 14. Which of the two boys got a higher mental score, Bill got a mental score of 116.6 or 117 and John got 100 mental score. Therefore Billy has above average IQ while John has an average intelligence. Later the intelligence test was converted individual’s score into percentile that indicates how much an individual deviates from the average. David Wechsler is also one of the most prominent psychologists in the field of psychological testing. He had a different idea about the measurement of intelligence. He believed a test developer should acknowledge explicitly that intelligence is a complex trait composed of a number of different abilities. He constructed a test that divided questions into subscales measuring specific abilities. He then classified the test into verbal and performance scale. The performance scale deals with non- verbal measurement of intelligence. He developed two types of intelligence test, one for the adults and the other one for the children. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for adults and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children for children (WISC). The following standardized instruments are presently used to measure intelligence: 1. Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test 2. Culture Fair Intelligence Test 3. Purdue Non-Language Test 4. OLSAT Multi - Level Norms 5. MD5 Mental Ability Test 6. Kaufman Assessment Battery 7. For Children Slosson IQ Test Revised 3 These testing instruments are therefore, could determine the levels of intelligence of an individual. These psychological tests can be used in educational, industrial as well as the clinical setting. Summary Today, there are two major schools of thought on the nature of intelligence. The first, supported by the following psychologists Eysenck, Galton, Jesen and Spearman believe that all intelligence comes from one general factor known as “g”. While other psychologists such as Gardner, Sternberg, and Thurstone think that there are more than one general type of intelligence. Further, there is a consensus that there are different levels of intelligence, and different individuals have different capacities of intelligence. It cannot be denied that individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles by taking different ways to solving the problems (Neisser, et. Al.,1996). The study of intelligence is one of the most interesting and controversial subjects. Psychologists have conducted several studies on the nature of intelligence and have developed many programs aimed at improving intellectual performance. Psychologists also pioneered in the development of intelligence tests. It was in the 1900’s, when the first intelligence test was developed, and has laid claim to the empirical study of intelligence. In fact, the measurement of intelligence is one of the most important functions that psychologists perform. It is difficult to find an all-encompassing definition of intelligence. Satisfactory academic performance may be one expression of intelligence while interacting effectively with others is another form of intelligence. As cited by Thorndike in Crider (1989) in a conference, there were seventeen (17) leading scholars who were invited to attend the conference to express their opinions on the nature of intelligence, it came out that seventeen (17) different definitions of intelligence emerged from the conference. Therefore, it can be observed that psychologists have different ways and approaches in defining the word “intelligence” based on their understandings. Suggested Readings Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology. Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. http://research.yahoo.com/research?p=levels+intelligence el=UTF Exercises/Written Assignment 1. Define intelligence according to your own understanding and knowledge. 2. Identify the classifications of intelligence and give example of each. 3. Discuss the different theories of intelligence. Among the theories, which do you think is the best? 4. Discuss the factors affecting intelligence. 5. How is intelligence measured? Identify the different types of measuring intelligence and how it is administered, scored, and interpreted. References/Bibliography Buskist, William, Gerbing, David W. 1990. Psychology: Boundaries and Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education Crider, Andrew B.; Goethals, George R.; Kavanaugh, Robert D.; Solomon,Paul.; and William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition, Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, illlinois, Boston, London Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology, Second Edition, Worth Publishers, Inc. New York. http;//as Wiley,com?WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productcd html Retrieved1-08-09. http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Social IQ Retrieved 01-08-2009 LESSON 2: THINKING Learning Objectives At the end of this Module, you should be able – 1. understand the meaning of thinking; 2. describe the importance of thinking in our daily life; 3. identify the things involved in thinking based on a given statement; and, 4. determine the relations of problem solving with decision making. Keywords and Phrases  Thinking  Problem solving  Decision making  Thinking process INTRODUCTION Thinking may be defined in two main ways, one is through introspection method, by observing and reporting your own cognitive processes. Another method is by objective observation of other people. In other words, we can learn about thinking by observing how people solve and make decisions that requires thinking. Thinking plays a role in many psychological functions. A clue to the vast range of things involved in thinking can be seen in different ways we use the word. Morris (1991) states the following statements: “I’ve given it some thoughts” implies reflection or meditation. “I think this town is like the one I grew up in” indicates coceptualization”. “What does she think of all this?” is a way of asking for an evaluation. “Aha! I think I hnave the answer,” reflects problem solving and insight. “I think I’ll buy the red one,” indicates a decision. These are all examples of thinking. Therefore, thinking includes the processing and retrieval of information from memory and requires manipulation of information in various ways. Thinking like all other behaviors is motivated. It is a fact that motivation is quite apparent when we have a problem to solve. Not only do we think in a way of trying to solve problem but we may think for the enjoyment of the process. Many times we get enjoyment out of trying to solve a puzzle or explain an unusual event. Some of us get real satisfaction from putting order into our experiences, even where such order has no apparent use. In other words, thinking itself may be enjoyable. Some of our thinking is more undirected in nature. Thus, we might review in thought the pleasant and unpleasant features of our past experiences. We daydream about what happened to us in the past events. A large amount of thinking is of a wish-fulfilling character. We daydream about our success in our profession and business is wish-fulfilling. Such thinking serves the purpose of self-enhancement. Daydreaming is the product of thinking. Thinking is the most important skill in human activity. Thinking is so much part of our everyday life that it is difficult to imagine a moment when we are not thinking. We can say that “a person who does not think is a dead person.” Even a retarded person has his/her own story to tell and it is related to thinking. Thinking as defined by Crider (1989) is a mental process that involves organization, categorizing, planning, reasoning and problem solving. Thinking is for everybody but what is really the definition of thinking? The information approach to cognition or thinking provides us with a basis for viewing thinking as a form of computation that is not necessarily restricted to humans (Buskist,1989). Thinking, therefore, is the manipulation or construction and modification of internal symbolic representation. Also thinking involves a series of process that can be observed directly by anyone. So, thinking involves the mental manipulation, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reasoning and making decisions. Process of Thinking The process of information includes the representation of information or encoding. Specifically, information must be encoded into the language of the cognitive system. One way in which this encoding is accomplished is through symbols or mental construction that represent an event, object, and person. An information processor, the human being builds symbolic representations that are then manipulated in various ways. To think is to process symbols. Using language involves symbols to communicate with others. Symbol manipulation is the key to the computational metaphor both people and computer programs process information by manipulating symbols. One of the most basic assumptions made by cognitive psychologists is that understanding how people manipulate symbols is crucial to understanding human behavior (Buskist, 1989). Steps in the Thinking Process There are a number of different aspects to the complex process of thinking. One of these involves organizing objects and events into specific mental categories known as concept. Concept is very important in the process of thinking. Concept means grouping of similar objects, events or people into categories. Concept allows us to simply representation of the world by organizing our knowledge and they serve as building blocks. Standards in the thinking processes domain are organized in three dimensions, namely: 1. Reasoning, process and inquiry dimensions; 2. Creativity; and 3. Reflection, evaluation, and metacognition 1. Reasoning, Process and Inquiry Dimensions. It encompasses the knowledge, skills and behaviors required to enable individuals to inquire into the world around them, and to use critical thinking to analyze and evaluate information they encounter. The Individual learns to assemble and question information and develop opinions based on informal judgment. It also develops the capacity to transform information into coherent knowledge structures. 2. Creativity. The capacity to think creatively is the central component of solving problems. Be innovative. In creativity dimension, the individual learns to seek innovative alternatives and use his imagination to generate possibilities. 3. Reflection, Evaluation, and Metacognition. Learning is enhanced when the individual develops the capacity to reflect on, and refine his existing ideas and beliefs. In reflection, evaluation and metacognition dimension, the individual learns to reflect on what he knows and develops awareness that there is more to know.  He learns to question his perspectives and those of others. He evaluates the validity of his own and other’s ideas. He also develops his metacognition skills in planning, monitoring and evaluating his own thinking processes and strategies. (http://cels.vic.edu.au/essential/interdiscipline/thinking/index.html Retrieved 01-11-09). Problem-Solving All of us like to be more efficient in using our cognitive processes in order to solve problems better. Although there is no simple formula in solving problems, however, it is very important to know or learn the effective ways in solving problems. The way we formulate the problem determines how readily it may be solved or whether it can be solved at all. A problem solving situation ranges from relatively simple tasks to difficult tasks that require detailed planning and a thorough consideration of alternatives. Problem solving, which involves thinking, begins with a problem as perceived. A problem is a situation in which there is a goal that is not solved immediately but instead involved in a series of stages that lead to an eventual solution. Further, a problem is experienced as a state of tension, a feeling of incompleteness and frustration. Problem-solving involves processing of information about the situations. It is also a form of learning in which thinking processes play an important role. Stages in Problem Solving Although different psychologists have different notions about the stages involved in a problem, Newell and Simon as cited in Crider (1989) proposed three distinct stages in problem solving: 1. Try to divide the problem into smaller, manageable segment; 2. Look for a rule of hypothesis that will solve the particular segment they are considering; and, 3. Evaluate the hypothesis Strategies for Problem-Solving (Morris, 1991) There are different approaches used to problem solving: 1. Trial and Error approach. When the possible solutions to a problem are few, we may use the trial and error approach.  This is a haphazard problem solving in which one solution follows another until success is achieved. We normally try to solve a problem and if it does not work then we try another approach. Even when we are faced with a more complicated problem, trial and error may be useful. 2. Hypothesis Testing approach. Sometimes, however, the problem we are faced with may have a large number of possible solutions. In this instance, hypothesis testing may be the best strategy. Hypothesis is an intelligent guess based on the problem. Trial and Error approach, for example, if the program in my computer manual is unclear in the direction on how to exit from a program, I could start hitting keys hoping some combination might produce the desired effects. If Trial and Error approach is not effective, utilize the hypothesis testing, form a hypothesis and just try or test it. There are eighty-five (85) keys on the keyboard. Knowing what keystrokes normally work to exit from a program and knowing how this particular program operates, I would conclude which alternatives might be most likely to work. 3. Information Retrieval Approach. People use this approach when solution to a problem may be as simple as retrieving information from long-term memory (Crider, 1989). Information retrieval is an important option when a solution must be found quickly. 4. Algorithms. Some complex problems require more complex methods, if this is the case, then use the algorithm approach. Algorithms are problem solving methods that guarantee a solution if they are appropriate for the problem and are properly carried out (Crider, 1989). It is also a step by step method of problem solving that guarantee a correct solution (Morris, 1991). For example, an algorithm for solving anagram, (a group of letter that can be rearranged to form a word) entails trying every combination of letters until we come up with the right word. Suppose you are given four letters akbc. You try kabc, cabk, acbk, and finally come with “back” whereby the problem is solved. 5. Heuristic. It is a rule of thumb that help us solve problems. Some heuristic methods work better in some situations than in  others. Some have special purpose only such as those applied to word puzzles and chess. But other general heuristics can be applied to a wide range of human problems. There are two types of heuristic approach as follows: a. Hill-climbing method. It is the process whereby we try to move continually closer to the final goal without turning aside from the main subject or going backward. b. Create a sub-goal. In setting sub-goals, we can often break a problem into smaller more manageable pieces, each of which is easier to solve than the problem as a whole. Example: A student whose goal is to write a thesis paper, he might set a sub-goal by breaking down the work into a series of separate tasks: choosing a topic, doing the research, preparing an outline, writing the first three chapters, editing and rewriting. Sub-goals make problem solving more manageable and easy to solve. Knowing and learning the stages of problem solving and the strategies used in solving the problems, everyone could benefit from this topic. Decision Making Decision making differs from other kinds of problem solving because we already know all the possible solutions or choices. The only task is to select the best alternative by using some predetermined criteria. There are two basic aspects of decision making, namely: 1. Factors that influence the choices people made. A person is assigned to the choices involved in decision. Example, If you feel to go out for a vacation and enjoy being with friends or start you research paper. If you think that vacation is a necessity and you will enjoy rather than doing your research paper. 2. Factor that interfere with decision making. You prefer to have a vacation but you do not have enough money, this will interfere with your plan of having a vacation. So you might choose doing a research paper. There are cases that we have to juggle a fairly large and complex set of criteria. As this set grows, so do the difficulties in reaching a goal decision. We use some kind of compensatory model to arrive at a decision. Compensatory model is a rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria (Morris, 1991). For example, you are planning to buy a house, certain criteria must be considered like the location, pleasing environment, wider garden, and the price of the house. It can be observed that for every problem there is a corresponding decision to make or solution be it effective or not effective. Summary Thinking is the most important human activity and so much a part of our everyday life. We think as we read and comprehend the words on the material that we are reading. We think during classess and examination. Yet, on most occasions, thinking is not simply a contemplating process but a goal- directed activity like when we have a problem to solve or a decision to make. Suggested Readings Sevilla, Consuelo G.; Punzalan, Twila G.; Rovira, Luz G. Vendiel, Jr. Fortunato G.; General Psychology with Values Development Lessons, Third Edition, 1998, Rex Book Store, Inc. DuBrin, Andrew J.; 1985 Effective Business Psychology. Second Edition, Reston Publishing Company, A. Prentice-Hall Company. Exercises/Written Assignment 1. Discuss briefly the nature of thinking; 2. Explain “Why is thinking the most important human activity?”; 3. Discuss the process of thinking; and, 4. Discuss the steps in the thinking process and discuss each step. References/Bibliography Criders, Andrew B.; Goethals, George R.; Kavanaugh, Robert D.; Solomon, Paul R.; and William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition, Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London. Morris, Charles G. 1991, Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Buskist, William, Gerberg, David W. Psychology Boundaries and Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education. Lesson 3: Creativity Learning Objectives At the end of this Module, you should be able – 1. describe the characteristics of a creative person; 2. identify how to improve creativity; 3. identify the relationship of creativity and intelligence; and, 4. synthesize the different studies on Filipino ingenuity Keywords and Phrases  Creativity  Internal motivation  Creative thinking skills  Intrinsic motivation  Imaginative thinking skills  Extrinsic motivation INTRODUCTION Some evidence shows that people who frequently find creative solutions to problems rely more on the right side of the brain. The right brain works with emotion, picture, wholes and relationships while, synthesis (putting together), simultaneous and holistic thinking, time free, a sense of time together, governs the left side of the brain. While the left brain works with logic, words, parts and specific, analysis, sequential thinking, time bound, sense of time and goals and your position in relation to goals govern the right side of the brain (http://www.1000advices.com/guru/creativity_vk.html Retrieved 01-11-09). Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both new and valuable. Results from an intelligence test and creativity suggest that a certain level of intelligence is necessary but not sufficient for creativity. In general, people with high IQ scores tend to do better on creativity test and in their professions than people with low scores. Further, people with high IQ scores can be more or less creative hence; intelligence is but one component of creativity. Sternberg as cited in Myers (1989) studies of creative people suggests three (3) components of creativity: 1. Expertise. It is a well-base of knowledge. People who are experts in their own field of interest are more creative than those who are not expert in their area of specializations; 2. Imaginative thinking skills. It is an ability to see things in new ways, to recognize patterns, to make connections; and, 3. Intrinsic motivation. It is a principle of creativity. People will be most creative when they feel motivated by the interest, enjoyment, satisfaction and challenge of the work itself. Amabile’s experiments cited in Myers (1989) states that a creative person focuses not so much on meeting the deadline, impressing people or making money but on the pleasure and challenge of their work. Moreover, Amabile’s experiment illustrate the point: social conditions that free people from concern about social approval enhance creativity. Therefore, to foster creativity is to provide a conducive and stimulating environment that allows individuals to freely set their talents while at the same time eliminating potential barriers. There are three (3) components of creativity in individuals: 1. Creative thinking skill is composed of capacity to think outside the box and put existing ideas together in new combinations; 2. Internal Motivation. It is motivation from within, your need or passion to be creative; and, 3. Resources. Your knowledge, expertise and access to relevant information (http://www.1000advices.com/guru/creativity_vk.html,Retrieved 01-11-09). Personality Characteristics and Behaviors of a Creative Person 1. A creative person tends to be bright rather than brilliant; 2. A creative person tends to have a positive self-image, he feels good about himself; 3. A creative person is emotionally expressive and sensitive to the world around him; 4. A creative person is original and imaginative in his thinking; 5. A creative person tends to be interested in the nature of the problem itself; 6. A creative person does not judge immediately without enough data on hand; 7. A creative person is frequently non-conformist; 8. A creative person leads a rich, almost bizarre, fantasy life; 9. A creative person tends to be flexible and not authoritarian; 10. A creative person is more concerned with meanings and implications of problems; 11. A creative person tolerates ambiguity and complexity; and, 12. A creative person has a youthful curiosity even when he is in his seventies and eighties (DuBRIN, 1985). Ways on How to Improve your Creative Thinking 1. Break out of self-imposed limitations; 2. Look for wider solutions; 3. Think sideways, explore the least likely directions, abandon step by step approach, master the lateral thinking; 4. Sharpen your brain by communicating and exchanging ideas with other creative people as often as you can; 5. If you are thinking along a certain line and nothing happens, stop for a while, analyze the problem again and see if you can come up with a new approach; In the Philippines, there are numerous studies on Filipino ingenuity: (http://www.geocities.com/benign/org.disagr/8- 3filpride.htmlRetrieved 01-13-09) 1. Aberlardo Aguilar, a Filipino doctor who created the drug “Erythromycin (Illosone) from Iloilo soil. 2. Gonzalo Catan Jr. invented the water-based insect buster called Household Insecticide (HI) won the Silver Medal at the 27 th International Exhibition of Inventions in Geneva, Switzerland. The Filipino innovation makes use of 21 useful microorganism, among other material to kill flies, mosquitoes, termites, ants, roaches, as well as dog ticks, fleas and lice. 3. Doroteo Gaerlan developed patented system on safe oil retrieval operations on sunken vessels that was adapted in case sea tragedies that occur in the premier Freeport Zone  (http://www.globalpinoy.com/news_inside.php?newsnum=5940 Retrieved 01-12-09. 4. Diosdado Banatao, an engineer from Cagayan, Philippines, made graphical user interface (GUI). 5. Dr. Rafael F. Guerrero III demonstrated that tilapia’s fry feed with sex hormones can turn female potential fry into male. (http://www.geocities.com/benign/org.disagr/8-3filpride.html Retrieved 01-13-09) 6. Eng. Cornelio Seno of Los Banos, Laguna and Rolando de la Cruz garnered gold for their inventions called Pressure Fluid Machine and Topical Formulation in Removing Warts, Moles and the like using Cashew nuts (Annacardium Occidentale). De la Cruz spent 25 years of research for his winning cashew nut preparation known as Denart and Denale. 7. The University of the Philippines developed an Anti-Cough medicine (Ascof) and diuretic (Releaf) from Phil Herbs lagundi and sambong respectively which won a silver in 1997 International Inventor’s Fair in Switzerland. The research papers were organized by Fr. Francis Gomez. 8. Maria Carlita Rex-Doran produced an ampalaya (bittermellon) concoction for diabetes mellitus and HIV infection. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) conferred on her the Gold Medal in 1989 four years after another Filipino inventor, Olympia Gonzales, achieved the same award. 9. Maria Ylagan Orosa of the Philippines, who first made the banana catsup and the pineapple vinegar. 10. Ramon Barbar discovered that spraying mango trees with potassium nitrate induced flowering all year round. This technology made the Philippines a leading exporter of mangoes and mango products such as candy, puree and juice. 11. A team led by Emerita de Guzman made the first makapuno (coconut mutant for delicacies) harvest from a test tube in 1971. 12. Milagros Ramos invented the submerged method of cultivating edible mushroom mycelium (the vegetable stage of mushroom) in liquid medium in 1969. Her concept departed from the traditional bed-culture method.  13. Dr.Rodolfo Aquino, the Philippine foremost rice breeder was one of the scientists who developed IR8, the 1966 strain of the rice variety that launched Asia’s Green Revolution. 14. Marc Loinaz, inventor of the one-chip video camera, a Filipino resident of New Jersey who works with Lucent Technologies. 15. Dr, Jose B. Cruz used engineering and mathematics to device the comparison sensitivity matrix for evaluating changes occurring in different components- from the parts of an ordinary flashlight to the automatic control and feedback of a Patriot missile from the University of the Philippines. 16. Eduardo Sanchez, a mensan, nagged the grand prize in the first Philippine Search for Product Excellence in Information Technology. 17. Filipino Astronomers Edwin Aguirre and Imelda Joson discovered Asteroid 6282 (called Edwelda after their first names) an asteroid orbiting the sun between Mars and Jupiter. 18. Eduardo San Juan, a Filipino employee of Lockhied, created the Lunar Rover or moon buggy used in 1969 by American Astronauts who first landed the moon. From the above-mentioned inventors, we can say that Filipinos are very creative and talented. Summary DuBRIB (1989) defined creativity as a process of information in such a way that the result is new, original and meaningful. A person should be aware of his/her creative potentials in comparison with other people. People have different ways in solving problem and making decisions because of our creativity. Moreover, creativity helps us to consider options and ultimately to progress in our personal and leadership growth and development. Suggested Readings DuBRIN, Andrew J. 1985. Effective Business Psychology, Second Edition, Reston Publishing Company, A Printice-Hall Company. Sevilla, Conuelo G.; Punsalan, Twila G.; Rovira, Luz G.; Vendivel, Jr. Fortunato G. 1998. Generak Psychology with Values Development Lessons, Third Edition, Rex Book Store, Inc. Exercises/Written Assignment 1. Discuss the differences of the following terms: 2. Give some suggestions on how to improve creativity. 3. Research on the contributions of Filipino inventors to uplift the Philippine Society. 4. Discuss the three components of creativity in an individual. 5. From you own observation and experiences, what are the characteristics and behavior of a creative person? References/Bibliography Buskist, William, Gerbing, David W.; 1990, Psychology: Boundaries and Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education. Crider, Andrew, B; Goethals, George, R. Kavanaugh, Robert D; Solomon, Paul R. and William Collge, 1989, Psychology, Third Edition. Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London. DuBRIN, Andrew J., 1985, Effective Business Psychology, Second Edition, Reston Publishing Company, A Prentice-Hall Company. Hess, Beth, B., Markson, Elizabeth, W., Stern, Peter J., 1992, Sociology, Brief Edition, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York. Morris, Charles G., 1991, Understanding Psychology. Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Myers, David G. 1989, Psychology, Second Edition, Worth Publishers, Inc. New York. Neisser, Boodoo; G. Banchard, T. J. Jr. Baykin,; A. W. Brody; N. Ceci; S.J. Holpen, D.F.Lochlin; J. C., Perloff; R.Sternberg; R.J. and Urbina, S. C. 1996, Knowns and Unknowns, America Psychologists. Paik, Hans S. One Intelligence or Many Alternative Approaches to Cognitive Abilities, (http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/Paik.html). Petrides, K.V. and Fumham A.2000a, The Dimensional Structure of Emotional Intelligence. Santos, Zenaida C.; Pastor, Gloria N., 2008, Psychological Measurement and Evaluation, Rex Book Store, Manila. Schutzer, Daniel, 1987, Artificial Intelligence: An Application-Oriented Approach, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company NewYork. Sevilla, Consuelo G., Punsalan, Twila G., Rovira, Luz G., Vendivel, Jr. Fortunato G., General Psychology With Values Development Lessons, Third Edition, 1998, Rex Book Store, Inc. http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Social-IQ, Retrieved January 8, 2009. http://uoregon.edu/~moursund/Books/PS_Expertise/Chapter3htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_IQ, RetrievedJan.8,2009 Salovey and Mayer,http://en.wikipedia org./wiki/Emotional_IQ RetrievedJan.8,2009. http://as.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/Productcd-0787970384.html, RetrievedJan.9.2009, Karl Albrecht. http://www.Feu.edu/~adult_ed/jenny/learning.html,RetrievedJan13.2009. http://research. yahoo.com/ research? p=levels+intelligence $el.=UTF. http://www.geocities.com/benign/org.disagr/8-3filpridehtml, Retrieved Jan.13, 2009 http://www.globalpinoy.com/newsinside.php?newenum=5940, RetrievedJan.12,2009. Fancheer,1996,http://search/yahoo.com/search?p=levels +intelligence el=UTF Retrieved, December20, 2008. http://www.1000advices.com/guru/creativityvk.html, Retrieved January 11, 2009. http://cels.cic.edu.au/essential/interdiscipline/thinking/indexhtml Retrieved January 11, 2009.