Info Systems [T1] Notes PDF

Chapter 1 + TG1 + TG2 Information Technology (IT) ● Refers to any computer-based tool that people use to work with information and support an organization’s information and information-processing tools. Information System (IS) ● Collects, processes, stores, analyzes, and disseminates information for...

Chapter 1 + TG1 + TG2 Information Technology (IT) ● Refers to any computer-based tool that people use to work with information and support an organization’s information and information-processing tools. Information System (IS) ● Collects, processes, stores, analyzes, and disseminates information for a specific purpose. ○ Delta - The Ukrainian Situational Awareness and battlefield management system System ● A system is… ○ A set of interrelated components ○ With a clearly defined boundary ○ Work together ○ To achieve a common set of objectives ○ By accepting inputs, and producing outputs ○ In an organized transformation process ● All systems have input, processing, and output System Input Capturing and assembling elements that enter the system to be processed System Processing Transformation process that converts input into output System Output Transferring transformed elements to their ultimate destination Cybernetic System ● A self-monitoring, self-regulating system - adds feedback and control. ○ Monitoring -> Feedback is about the performance of a system ○ Regulating -> Control involves evaluating feedback to determine whether a system is moving towards the achievement Characteristics of a Open Cybernetic System Input / Output Model All systems transfer inputs into outputs Feedback and Control The feedback regarding performance is used to adjust / control performance. Interdependence A system is composed of interrelated parts r elements Holism The system is a whole. Its performance should be viewed as a system. Goal Seeking Interaction between elements results in some goal. Steady State The system seeks a state of equilibrium Differentiation Units perform specialized functions. Entropy Systems exchange information, energy, or material with their environment. Equifinality A given end state can be reached by many means. Hierarchy 1 system contains several other systems within it What’s an Information System? An organized combination of… ● Hardware ○ is a device (processor, monitor, keyboard). Together, these devices accept data and information, process them, and display them. ● Software ○ is a program or collection of programs that enable the hardware to process data. ● Database ○ is a collection of related files or tables containing data. ● Network ○ is a connecting system (wireline, or wireless) that permits different computers to share resources ● Procedures ○ are the set of instructions about how to combine the above components in order to process information and generate the desired output. ● People ○ are those individuals who develop, implement, support, and use the hardware and software, interface with it, or utilize its output. Data vs. Information vs. Knowledge Data ● are raw unprocessed facts - they are stored but have no meaning. Information ● is data converted to be useful to end users - information is data that is subjected to a value-added process. Knowledge ● Information that has been processed/analyzed to convey understanding, accumulated learning, and expertise Ergonomics (Human Factors Engineering) ● ● ● Goal is to design healthy work environments Safe, Comfortable, and pleasant to work in Increases employee morale and productivity What is Hardware? ● Hardware is an invariable part of the computer ○ Hardware consists of… ■ Central Processing Unit (CPU) ■ Primary Storage ■ Secondary Storage ■ Input Technologies ■ Output Technologies ■ Communication Technologies Supercomputers ● Extremely powerful systems designed for scientific, engineering, and business applications. They are designed for massive numeric computations. ● Cost $5 to $50 million Mainframe Computers ● Large, Fast, Powerful computer systems ○ Large storage capacity ○ High transaction processing ○ Handles complex computations ● Widely used as superservers for ○ Large Client / Server Networks ○ High-volume Internet Websites ● Become a popular computing platform for… ○ Data mining, data warehousing, and business intelligence ○ Electronic Commerce Applications Main Types of Input Technologies ● Human Data-Entry ○ Keyboard ○ Mouse ○ Joystick ○ Gesture Recognition ● Source-Data Automation ○ Magnetic Stripe Reader ○ Barcode Scanners ○ RFID ○ Optical Mark Reader (Scantron) Central Processing Unit (CPU) ● ● The CPU performs the actual computation inside any computer Made up of millions of microscopic transistors embedded in a circuit on a silicon wafer chip ○ Parts of a microprocessor include: ■ Control Unit ■ Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU) ■ Registers Throughput ● The ability to perform useful computation or data processing assignments during a given period ○ Speed is dependent on… ■ Size of paths that connect microprocessor components ■ Capacity of registers ■ Use of high-speed cache memory Bit is a (0) or (1) Byte is 8 bits = 1 keyboard character Computer Memory ● Primary Memory ○ Stores small amounts of data that the CPU will use immediately ○ Located on the motherboard as close to the CPU as possible ● Types of Memory ○ Registers - Part of the CPU. Least capacity but the fastest ○ Cache - Temporarily stores data that are frequently used by the CPU ○ Random Access Memory - RAM ○ Read Only Memory - ROM - BIOS Data to boot the computer. Stays even after system crashes ● Secondary Memory (Storage) ○ Stores much larger amounts of data ■ An entire software program ■ Located outside the CPU ○ Non-volatile ○ Slower than RAM ○ Cheaper Systems Software ● A set of instructions that primarily as an intermediary between computer hardware and applications programs ○ Example: Operating System - Manages the computer’s operations, e.g., Windows 11 Application Software ● A set of computer instructions that provide more specific functionality to a user ○ Example: Software package/suit, e.g., MS Office Software Issues Software may be copyrighted ● You don’t buy the software, rather buy a license / right to use the software ● The license projects the vendor’s property rights You can sell the software, and dispose of your rights. However, you cannot duplicate, resell multiple copies, or modify the software. ● Proprietary Software ○ Is purchased software that has restrictions on its use, copying, and modifications. The code is private (closed-code software) ● Open-Source Software ○ The source code for open-source software is available at no cost to both developers and users, source code will always be available. ● Hybrid Software ○ Has an open source software approach, but adds closed source aspects. Systems Software Operating System - a major type of systems software ● ● Supervises the overall operation of the computer by monitoring the computer’s status, scheduling operations, and managing input and output processed The operating system must be loaded and activated before other tasks can be accomplished E.g., MS windows / IOS (closed-source); and Linux / Android (open-source) User Interface - The part of the OS that allows you to communicate with it Chapter 2 Business Process - a collection of related activities that produce a product or service of value to the organization Business processes are measured based on… ● ● Efficiency - focuses on doing things with minimum resources ○ Without delay or without wasting money Effectiveness - focuses on doing the things that matter Cross Functional Business Process - Multiple functional areas collaborate to perform the process Robotic Process Automation (RPA) - Software Bots ● Software system that enables enterprises to automate repetitive, high-volume tasks 2 ways to improve business processes ● Business Process Re-engineering ○ Radical redesign of business processes to increase productivity and profitability ○ IS is a major BPR enabler ■ Extremely High Risk ■ Too Difficult ■ Too long ■ Too many changes ■ High Failure Rate ● Business Process Improvement ○ Incremental Approach to move an organization toward business process centered operations ○ One Small Change at a Time ■ Low Risk / Low Cost ■ Incremental Change ■ Takes Less Time ■ Able to reverse changes ■ 80/20 Rule ● 20% of all sub-processes cause 80% of all problems Business Process Improvement Phases ● ● ● ● ● Define ○ Document the existing “as is” process activities ○ Document the customer’s requirements ○ Document a description of the problem Measure ○ Identify relevant process metrics, such as time and cost to generate an output ○ Develop measures BEFORE the analysis, improve, and control phases Analyze ○ Examine the “as is” process map, and the collected data to identify problems ○ Find the root causes Improve ○ Identify possible solutions ○ Select and implement the most appropriate solution Control ○ Monitor the improved process, and ensure stability ‘ Strategic Information System Strategic IS is any information system that uses IT to help an organization… ● Gain a competitive advantage ● Reduce a competitive disadvantage Strategic Information Architecture is… ● The collection of Strategic IS that support the competitive strategies of a firm Porter’s Competitive Forces Model What creates industry rivalry? 1. Bargaining Power of Suppliers 2. Threat of Substitutes 3. Bargaining Power of Buyers 4. Threat of New Entrants Two Basic Competitive Approaches (Business-level Strategies) ● ● Cost Leadership ○ To outperform competitors by producing goods at the lowest possible cost Differentiation ○ A differentiated product that can satisfy a customer in a way that competitors cannot Four Major Types of Distinctive Competencies Superiority in… 1. 2. 3. 4. Efficiency Quality Innovation Responsiveness to Customers Chapter 5 Difficulties of Managing Data ● ● ● ● ● Data increases exponentially with time Data Silo Data Security, Quality, and Integrity Government Regulations Big Data ‘ Master Data Management ● ● A strategy for data governance involving a process that spans all organizational business processes and applications Provides companies with the ability to store, maintain, exchange, and timely access to the company’s data Master Data ● A set of core data (customer, product, employee vendor) Transactional Data ● Describe the business activities (transactions) ● Generated during routine business processes Database Approach Databases minimize two main problems ● ● Data Redundancy ○ The same data is stored in multiple locations Data Inconsistency ○ Various copies of the data are not the same Databases also maximize three main factors ● ● ● Data Security Data Integrity Data Independence Data Hierarchy ● ● ● ● ● Character ○ A single alphabet, numeric, or other symbol Field ○ Cell in a table Record ○ Grouping of fields to represent information File or Table ○ A group of related fields (Employee Records File) Database ○ Collection of related files / tables Database Management System (DBMS) ● A set of tools to create and manage a database Characteristics of Big Data ● ● ● Volume Velocity ○ The rate of which data flows into an organization Variety Big data is dirty (inaccurate, incomplete, incorrect) Database Warehouse ● ● ● Stores static data that has been extracted from other databases Central source of data that has been cleaned, and cataloged Data warehouses may be divided into data marts Data Lakes ● ● ● A central repository that stores all data of an organization regardless of source and structure No Data Model No Uniform Structure Different Types of Knowledge Explicit Knowledge ● Documents, and written down material (E.g. Reports, Policies, Procedures, Manuals) Tacit Knowledge ● “How-to” knowledge in workers’ mind ● Most of this knowledge is never identified, used, and shared Intellectual Capital ● Human, Relational, and Structural Successful Knowledge Management ● Creates techniques, technologies, and culture for getting employees to share what they know ● Makes better use of accumulated workplace knowledge Knowledge Management (KM) System ● ● ● Manages organizational learning, and know-how Helps knowledge workers create, organize, nad make available important knowledge Makes knowledge available wherever it is needed ○ Knowledge includes… ■ Reports, Procedures, Patents, Formulas, Forecasts Chapter 14 - Artificial Intelligence AI is a subfield of computer science that studies the thought process of humans, recreates it with information systems. AI is designed to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence Strong AI - AI that matches, or exceeds human intelligence Weak AI - Performs functions that once required human intelligence, does a human levels or better Machine Learning - an application of AI that provides systems with the ability to automatically learn and improve from experience without being explicitly programmed. Traditional Programming - Programming where there is an algorithm provided to the system Supervised Machine Learning - System is fed with relationships, to train a supervised MLS Expert Systems (ESs) - computer systems that attempt to mimic human exports by applying expertise in a specific field. False Positive - a result that shows a given condition exists when it does not. Supervised Learning - type of ML in which system is given input data, and expected output results. Then test with unlabelled, never seen data values to ensure accuracy. Binary Classification Classification problems that have only two class labels (Eg. Email Spam Detection [Spam or not] Multi-Class Classification Classification with more than two classes Multi-Label Classification Classification that have two or more class labels Imbalanced Classification Classification problems in which the number of classes are unequally distributed Linear Regression - Supervised ML in which the predicted output is continuous, and has a constant slope. ● Simple Linear Regression - Single Independent Variable is used to predict the value of a dependant variable ● Multiple Linear Regression - Two or more independent variables are used to predict the value of a dependent variable. Semi-Supervised Learning - Type of ML that combines a small amount of labeled data with a large amount of unlabelled data during training. Unsupervised Learning - Type of ML that searches for previously undetected patterns with no pre-existing labels and with minimal human supervision Reinforcement Learning - Type of ML in which the system learns to achieve a goal in an uncertain, and complex environment. Deep Learning - subset of ML in which artificial neural networks learn from large amounts of data. Artificial Neural Network (AKA Neural Network) is a set of virtual neurons, or nodes that work together to simulate the way the human brain works. Neural networks consist of nodes, weights, biases, and functions. Recurrent Neural Network is designed to access previous data. RNNs are used in applications where the decision must be based on previous output. Convolutional Neural Network is designed to separate areas of image inputs by extracting features to identify edges, curves, and color density. Generative Adversarial Network has two neural networks that compete with each other in a zero-sum game in an effort to separate real data from synthetic data. Computer Vision - refers to the ability of IS to identify objects, scenes, and activities in images. Natural Language Processing - refers to the ability of IS to work text the way humans do. To extract meaning from text, and generate text that is readable, and grammatically correct. Speech Recognition - focuses on automatically and accurately transcribing human speech. Chatbot - a computer program that uses AI and natural language processing to simulate human conversation by voice or text