IGCSE Physical Education - Anatomy & Physiology PDF

[ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY ] =================================== Chapter 1 -- The Skeletal and Muscular System --------------------------------------------- **SKELETON** **Skeleton --** The internal framework of the body made up of 206 bones **Bones --** A hard, whitish, living tissues that makes up...

[ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY ] =================================== Chapter 1 -- The Skeletal and Muscular System --------------------------------------------- **SKELETON** **Skeleton --** The internal framework of the body made up of 206 bones **Bones --** A hard, whitish, living tissues that makes up the skeleton; bones are lightweight **FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON** - **Shape and Support:** The skeleton provides shape and support for the body. It forms the frame to which our muscles can attach and in which our organs can sit. - **Muscle Attachment for Movement:** Muscles are attached to the skeleton. Movement occurs when muscles contract and pulls on bone making them move about a joint. - **Protection for Vital Organs:** Internal organs are soft, delicate and easily damaged. These vital organs are protected by the skeleton. - **Blood Production:** The centre of some large bones contains bone marrow, which creates red blood cells. **TYPES OF BONES** - **Long Bones:** These act as levers to produce a large range of movement. *Examples: femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, radius, phalanges & clavicle* - **Short Bones:** These are about as wide as they are long. They provide stability and support, with little movement. *Examples: carpals &tarsals* - **Flat Bones:** These provide a large surface area for muscles to attach to as well as protection for organs. *Examples: pelvis, cranium & scapula* - **Irregular Bones:** These bones provide protection and support. They are suited to their specific job. *Example: Vertebrae* **TYPES OF JOINTS** - **Fibrous Joints:** These joints are fixed and cannot move. They are joint by fibrous connective tissue. *Example: Cranium* - **Cartilaginous Joints:** They are slightly moveable. They are joint by ligament and cartilage. (Which absorbs movement) *Example: Vertebrae* - **Synovial Joints:** These joints can move a great amount, and have many different parts. *Example: Elbow, shoulder, knee & hip* **SYNOVIAL JOINTS** Parts of a Synovial Joint - **Synovial Membrane:** Surrounds the joint capsule with a synovial fluid - **Synovial Fluid:** Acts as a lubricant that reduces friction in the joint; allows for smoother movement and reduces wear and tear. - **Joint Capsule:** The structure that surrounds and protects the joint, holding the bones together; made up of an outer fibrous membrane and an inner synovial membrane. - **Ligament:** The strong, elastic fibres that hold the bones together and keep them in place. - **Cartilage:** A strong but flexible material found at the end of the bones that acts as a cushion to stop bones knowing together - **Tendon:** A tough band of fibrous tissue that connects muscle to bone and enables joints to withstand tension Types of Synovial Joints - **Ball and Socket Joints** **--** They provide a large range of movement in every direction. One bone has a bulge that fits into a socket in another a bone. They are found at the hips and shoulders - **Hinge Joints --** They provide movement in one direction (like a door hinge). They are found at knees and elbows. **Note: more motion = less stability = more wear and tear = more susceptibility to injury** **MOVEMENTS AT JOINTS** - **Flexion & Extension:** - Flexion involves bending a part of your body *Example: Bending your elbow* - Extension means straightening a part of your body. *Example: Straightening your elbow* - **Abduction & Adduction:** - Abduction is a sideways movement away from the centre of the body. *Example: Lifting your arm from the side* - Adduction is a sideways movement towards the centre of the body. *Example: Moving your hands towards the centre of your body* - **Rotation & Circumduction:** - Rotation is a turning point around an imaginary line. Example: Turning your head left from right - Circumduction occurs when the end of a bone moves in a circle. Example: Swinging your arms in a circle at your shoulder - **Plantar flexion & Dorsiflexion** - Plantar flexion is the movement in the ankle joint that points the foot away from the leg. Example: When you plant your foot to the ground while running - Dorsiflexion is the movement in the ankle and where the toes are brought closer to the shin. *Example: When you lift your foot off the ground while running.* **MUSCLES** Main Actions of Muscles (with examples) - **Trapezius:** Holds and rotates your shoulders. Moves your head back and sideways. *Example: swimmer turning their head to breathe.* - **Deltoids:** Raises each arm forward, backwards and sideways at the shoulder. *Example: Overhead clear in badminton.* - **Pectorals:** Moves the arm at the shoulder through adduction. *Example: Forehand drive-in tennis* - **Biceps:** Bends your arm at the elbow. *Example: Drawing a bow back in archery.* - **Triceps:** Straightens your arm at the elbow. *Example: Releasing a javelin* - **Latissimus Dorsi:** Pulls your arm down at the shoulder. *Example: Swimming strokes* - **Abdominals:** Flexes your spine so that you can bend forwards. Create a pull in the abdomen. *Example: Rowing* - **Hip Flexors:** Supports movement of the leg and knee upwards. *Example: Lifting the knees during a sprint.* - **Gluteals:** Pulls your leg back at the hip. Raise it sideways at the hip. *Example: Moving the leading leg and trail leg when hurdling.* - **Quadriceps:** Straightens the leg at the knee. Keeps the leg straight to stand up. *Example: Getting elevation in a high jump* - **Hamstrings:** Bends the leg at the knee. *Example: Pulling back of the knee before kicking a ball.* - **Gastrocnemius:** Straightens the ankle joint so you can stand on your tiptoes. *Example: Take-off for a layup in basketball* - **Tibialis Anterior:** Helps with dorsiflexion. *Example: Walking & Running* **Tendons --** A tough band of fibrous tissue that anchors muscles to a bone and allows movement to happen **ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLE ACTION** **Agonist --** The muscle that contracts to create movement\ **Antagonist --** The muscle that relaxes during a movement\ **Insertion --** Where a muscle joins a moving bone**\ Origin --** Where a muscle joins a stationary bone [Main Notes] - Muscles attached to the skeleton only pull in one direction - Muscles come in pairs - Voluntary muscles are the muscles that create the action - Muscles are attached to bones by tendons - When a muscle contracts in usually moves one bone. ***Example of Antagonist Muscle Action**: The biceps contracts to bend the arm at the elbow. The biceps are attached to the scapula at the origin (in the shoulder) and to the radius at the insertion (the elbow). In this the action the radius moves, but the scapula does not.* Muscle Origin Joint Insertion Joint ------------------- --------- ---------- ----------- ------- Biceps Scapula Shoulder Radius Elbow Triceps Scapula Shoulder Ulna Elbow Hamstring Femur Hip Tibia Knee Quadriceps Femur Hip Tibia Knee Tibialis Anterior Tibia Knee Tarsals Ankle Gastrocnemius Femur Knee Heel Ankle **MUSCLE CONTRACTION** - **Isotonic Contractions:** muscle change length as they contract - *Concentric --* muscles shorten when contracted - *Eccentric --* muscles lengthen when contracted - **Isometric Contractions:** muscles do not change length as they contract **MUSCLE FIBRE TYPES** **Muscle Fibres --** The cells of the muscle - **Slow Twitch Fibres:** - Contracts slowly - Produces little force - Higher fatigue tolerance -- do not tire easily - Good for endurance - Associated with aerobic exercise -- Heart rate increases to supply oxygenated blood to the muscles so they can keep performing at moderate levels over a long period of time *Example: walking, swimming* - **Fast Twitch Fibres:** - Contracts quickly - Produces a large amount of force - Lower fatigue tolerance -- Tire quickly - Good for Strength and Power - Associated with anaerobic exercise - short periods of high-intensity activity when the body needs more oxygen than supply available so the body uses stored energy which can cause a buildup of lactic acid in the muscles *Example: sprints, weightlifting* Chapter 2 -- Respiratory System ------------------------------- **THE PATHWAY OF AIR AND GASEOUS EXCHANGE** **Respiratory System --** The series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide, in the human body. Oxygen is needed for respiration in cells **Pathway of Air\ ** - Oxygen enters the respiratory system through the **nasal passage** and the **mouth** - It then travels down the **trachea** and divides into the right and left **bronchi** (the main pathway into the lungs) - The airways begin to narrow and branch off into smaller airways called **bronchioles** - Oxygen then reaches the **alveoli** where gaseous exchange happens  **Gaseous Exchange -** The process in the lungs whereby oxygen is delivered to the bloodstream, while carbon dioxide is removed from it; takes place in the alveoli Diagrams of Gaseous Exchange: **MECHANICS OF BREATHING** Breathing is a process created by the movement of the ribcage and the diaphragm. The rib cage is made out of the ribs and intercostal muscles. **Diaphragm --** Muscular 'sheet' at the base of the chest cavity dividing it from the abdomen.\ \ **Intercostal Muscles --** The muscles between the ribs that raise and lower the ribs. Mechanic Inhalation Exhalation ------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------- Ribcage Moves outward and upwards as the intercostal muscles contract and lengthen Moves inwards and downwards as intercostal muscles relax Diaphragm Contracts to become flatter Relaxes and domes upwards Volume of Lungs Increases Decreases Pressure in Lungs Reduces Increases Effect The lungs draw in air containing oxygen Air containing carbon dioxide is forced out of the body **Submaximal exercise:** An activity with a steady increase in workload or intensity, working at 85% of the maximum heart rate. **Maximal Exercise:** An activity where the intensity is constant throughout a short period of time. **BREATHING VOLUMES AND MINUTE VENTILATION** **Tidal Volume --** The volume of air you inhale with each breath during normal breathing **Minute Ventilation --** The volume of air, in litres, that you breathe in per minute **Minute Ventilation *(L/min)* = Number of breathes *(/min)* x Tidal volume *(L)\ *** **Vital Capacity --** The maximum volume of air you can breathe out **Residual Volume --** The volume of air left in your lungs after breathing out Exercise can increase your lung volume. As breathing increases tidal volume and minute ventilation also increases. Therefore, becoming more efficient. Chapter 3 -- Circulatory System -------------------------------- **Circulatory System --** The body's transport system that consists of the lungs, heart, blood vessels and blood **Blood --** A liquid containing four components each with a specific function **COMPONENTS OF BLOOD** **Plasma:** mainly consists of water to allow substances to be dissolved and transported easily **Red Blood Cells:** Contains haemoglobin which reacts with oxygen from the lungs to form oxyhaemoglobin **White Blood Cells**: defends the body against pathogens by engulfing them or clearing antibodies to attack them **Platelets:** Contains an enzyme that causes blood to clot when there is damage to blood vessels or if they are exposed to air. **Arteries** - Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart - Muscular, elastic tubes - They have small internal lumen - Blood is pumped at high pressure **Veins** - Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart - Thin tubes and contain valves - They have large internal lumen - Blood is pumped at low pressure **Capillaries** - Carries out gas exchange between tissues and blood vessels - Forms a network throughout the body - Has thin walls and is only one cell thick **HEART STRUCTURE & FUNCTION** **Double Circulation --** The heart has a double pump and circulation: the *pulmonary circuit* (right side) pumps blood to the lungs and back to the heart. The *systemic circuit (*left side) pumps blood to the body and back to the heart. **Parts of a heart**  **Pathway of blood** Deoxygenated blood from the body flows through the vena cava into the right atrium. The right atrium contracts forcing blood through the valve into the right ventricle. The right ventricle contracts forcing blood through the valve into the pulmonary artery, to the lungs.  Oxygenated blood from the lungs flows through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium. The left atrium contracts forcing blood through the valve into the left ventricle. The left ventricle contracts forcing blood through the valve into the aorta, to the body. **CARDIAC OUTPUT** **Cardiac Output --** The amount of blood expelled from the heart each minute; it is usually expressed in litres per minute.\ \ **Stroke Volume:** The volume of blood ejected from the heart per beat **Heart Rate (HR)   x   Stroke Volume (SV)   =  Cardiac Output (Q)** **How different levels of activity affect...** **Heart Rate:** Increases or decreases proportionally to intensity of exercise  **Stroke Volume:** Increases at the beginning, but then does not change with the level of intensity  **Cardiac Output:** Increases at high levels of intensity until it's reached a plateau Chapter 4 -- Energy Supply and the Effects of Exercise on the Body ------------------------------------------------------------------ **AEROBIC & ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION\ ** **Aerobic Respiration** The process of converting glucose into energy with the presence of oxygen **Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide (+ Energy)** - Provides little energy slowly for long periods - Heat is produced - Water molecules are created which are used by the body or expelled as urine - Carbon dioxide is created and removed by the blood and exhaled though the lungs **Anaerobic Respiration** The process of converting glucose into energy without the presence of oxygen **Glucose → Lactic (+ Energy)** - Provides a lot of energy quickly for short periods - Lactic acid creates muscle fatigue and soreness and needs to be removed. - Oxygen breaks down the lactic acid into carbon dioxide and water, which is then removed from the body. - The extra oxygen needed for this process is called **oxygen debt** **RECOVERY** **Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC) --** The process of taking in additional oxygen to remove the lactic acid created by anaerobic respiration" **Lactic Acid + Oxygen → Water + Carbon Dioxide + Glucose** Oxygen converts lactic acid to: Water -- which can be used elsewhere in the body or excreted Carbon Dioxide -- which is carried to the lungs by blood and exhaled Glucose -- which can be re-used as energy by the muscles Factors that affect recovery Factor Explanation ---------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- Overall fitness & strength Stronger muscles absorb oxygen quicker to remove lactic acid Genetics Some people can recover faster due to genetics Age Younger people require shorter recovery periods Gender Physically fit women recover faster than men Sleep Good amount and quality of sleep allows quicker and better recovery **SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE** - **Oxygen demand increases** - Heart rate rises -- more oxygen is delivered to working muscles to turn glucose into energy. Adrenaline is produced, causing the heart to beat faster. Stroke volume also increases cardiac output - Breathing rate gets faster -- Enables more oxygen to enter the bloodstream via lungs to meet demands in the muscles - Tidal volume increases -- creating a greater minute ventilation - **Temperature regulations** - Temperature increases -- due to contractions and respiration in muscles - Reddening of skin -- blood vessels close to the skin become enlarged which allows heat to be lost through radiation. - Sweating -- Sweat evaporates from the skin, taking body heat with it - **Fuel Depletion/Anaerobic Respiration** - Fatigue -- Occurs quickly during anaerobic activities due to lactic acid production. Only happens in aerobic activities when the body begins to run out of glucose - Lactic Acid Accumulation -- happens when there's a lot of lactic acid in muscles from anaerobic respiration - **Changes in blood flow** - Nausea -- feeling of sickness because blood is diverted away from the digestive system, dehydration, or drinking too much water - Light-headedness -- Blood vessels work harder to pump blood during exercise, afterwards when returning to normal size blood flow to the brain can be affected. **LONG TERM EFFECT OF EXERCISE** **Cardiac Hypertrophy --** The process whereby the muscle walls of the heart get thicker and stronger as a result of training **Bradycardia --** A slower heart rate (typically less than 60 beats per minute) **Tolerance to Lactic Acid --** Lactic acid is removed faster from the muscles **Increase Stroke Volume --** The heart can pump out more blood in one beat. Chapter 5 -- Simple Biomechanics -------------------------------- **PRINCIPLES OF FORCE** **Force -** A push or a pulling action applied upon an object. Measured in Newtons (N)**\ ***Examples:* - ***Force can be applied in large quantities:*** - *A rugby player making a tackle* - *A sprinter driving out of the blocks* - ***Force can be used in a more controlled way:*** - *A golfer playing a chip onto the green* - *A badminton player playing a delicate drop-shot* - ***Force can be a push or a pull:*** - *Pushing against the opposition when scrummaging in rugby* - *Pulling the oars when rowing* **Newton's 1^st^ Law:** **The Law of Inertia** An object in motion stays in motion at the same speed and in the same direction and an object at rest stays at rest, unless acted upon by an external force. **Inertia:** The resistance of an object to changes in motion Force is required to cause: - An object/body at rest to move. - A moving object/body to change direction, accelerate or decelerate. - An object or body to change shape. Formula of Force: **Force (N) = mass (kg) x acceleration (m/s^2^)** **F=ma** **Mass --** The quantity of the matter in a body regardless of its volume or of any forces acting on it **Acceleration --** The rate at which an object changed speed **Newton's 2^nd^ Law** An object will accelerate when acted upon by an external force. The acceleration of the object is proportional to this force and is in the direction by which the force acts. **Newton's 3^rd^ Law** For every action there exists and equal and opposite reaction. **APPLICATION OF FORCE** **Gravity --** The force that attracts a body towards the centre of the earth. **Muscular Force --** Push or pull applied to an object provided by a muscular contraction. **Air Resistance --** The frictional force that air applies against a moving object **Ground Reaction Force --** The reaction the force that the body exerts on the ground. *Example: A moving performer* Muscular force exceeds air resistance, causing the runner to accelerate Gravity pulls the runner down, but is balanced by an equal and opposite ground reaction force. *\ *  As the runner speeds up, air-resistance increases If muscular force and air resistance are balanced, the runner will maintain a constant speed. Muscular force lessens as the runner begins to fatigue If air resistance exceeds muscular force, the runner will begin to decelerate **LEVERS** All movements that an athlete performs are produced by using levers within the body **3 Components of a lever:** **Fulcrum --** A fixed point about which the lever can turn *(aka axis/pivot)* **Effort --** The force required to move the load *(applied by the muscles)* **Resistance --** The load/weight that the lever must move *(a person's mass, gravity. Air resistance)* **Types of Levers:** **First Class Levers --** Effort / Fulcrum / Resistance *Example: Nodding the head* **Second Class Levers** - Fulcrum / Resistance / Effort *Example: Standing on your toes* **Third Class Levers** -- Fulcrum / Resistance / Effort *Example: Bicep Curl* [HEALTH, FITNESS & TRAINING ] ========================================= Chapter 6 -- Health and Well-Being ----------------------------------- **HEALTH & WELLBEING** **Physical Health & Well-being --** Being well in the body and free from injury and illness\ *No sickness, physically fit, no injury* **Mental Health & Well-being --** Feeling well in the mind, with a positive outlook and a sense of your own value\ *Having high self-esteem, able to cope with stress, feeling motivated, able to control emotions\ * **Social Health and Well-being --** A positive sense of involvement with family, friends and others in the community\ *friendships with others, gaining and giving support, confidence to mix with others, feeling valued in society\ * **FITNESS** **Fitness --** The ability to cope with (or meet) the demands of the environment **How components of Everyday Life are connected** **Health:** A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not simply the absence of disease or infirmity ↓ ↓ **Exercise:** A form of physical activity that maintains or improves health and fitness ↓ ↓ **Fitness:** The ability to cope with (or meet) the demands of the environment ↓ ↓ **Performance:** How well a task is completed **DIET & ENERGY SOURCES** **Nutrients --** The substance in food that our bodies process in order to survive and grow +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Nutrients** | **Source** | **Function** | **Energy | | | | | Provisions** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Carbohydrates | Breads and | 1\. Main | Up to 55% of | | | grains, starchy | source of | energy intake | | | vegetables | fuel for | | | | (potatoes), | physical | | | | sugars, rice, | activity and | | | | pasta, fruits | organ | | | | | operation | | | | | | | | | | 2\. Fibres | | | | | that help | | | | | regulate | | | | | digestion | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Fats | Red meat, | 1\. Supplies | Up to 30% of | | | butter, cooking | highly | our energy | | | oils, cheese, | concentrated | intake | | | bacon | source of | | | | | energy that | | | | | can be stored | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Proteins | Low-fat meat | 1\. Helps | Up to 15% of | | | (chicken), | cells grow | our energy | | | dairy, beans, | | intake | | | eggs, fish | 2\. Repairs | | | | | cells and | | | | | muscle tissue | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Water | Drinks, fruits | 1\. Transports | | | | (watermelon), | nutrients to | | | | foods, (soup) | cells | | | | | | | | | | 2\. Assists in | | | | | removing | | | | | waste | | | | | products | | | | | | | | | | 3\. Helps | | | | | maintain body | | | | | temperature | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **Why balanced diets are different for everyone?** - Kids require more protein than adults (because they are growing) - Pregnant women need more iron (to create blood cells for the baby) - Health conditions ( diabetes or allergies) - Personal decision or health related issues such as: - Religious or cultural reasons - Regime in sport - Weight gain or loss **Energy Balance for Physical activity** - **Carbohydrate Loading Diet:** Used for endurance athletes. Eating excess carbohydrate food one week before the event to increase glycogen stores in the muscles - **High Protein Diet:** Used by Bodybuilders. Helps gain muscles and lose fat. However, it doesn't directly add muscles, makes it easier to gain muscles and can be difficult to digest. - **Low Food Intake:** Used by gymnasts, divers, horse riders. Reduces calorie intake to lower body weight before a performance. **10 COMPONENTS OF FITNESS** **Health Related:** **Cardiovascular endurance (stamina) -** "The ability to exercise the body for long periods of time without tiring" *Examples: Marathon running, triathlon*  **Muscular endurance -** "The ability of your muscles to work continuously without getting tired" *Examples: Rowing, Rock-climbing * **Flexibility -** "The range of movement around a joint" *Example: gymnastics, bowling* **Strength -** "The ability to exert the maximum amount of force in one go" *Example: weightlifting, scrummaging in rugby* **Speed -** "The ability to perform a movement quickly" *Example: 100m sprint, sprint cycling * **Skill Related:** **Agility -** "The ability to change the body position quickly under control" *Example: dribbling in football, gymnastics floor routine * **Balance -** "Being able to maintain a position, either static or dynamic" *Example: gymnastics * **Coordination -** "The ability to use two body parts at the same time" *Example: Racquet sport, throwing and catching* **Reaction (time) -** "The time it takes to respond to a stimulus" *Example: Volleyball, football (goal keeping)* **FITNESS TESTING** **Reasons for fitness testing:\ ** -  Motivation - Comparison to others - Assessing someone's ability,  **Multi- Stage Fitness test** *(cardiovascular endurance) \ * - Perform continuous shuttle runs between two lines, 20m apart - Pace is established by a recording that sounds a 'beep' at the end of each shuttle run - The time between the beeps gradually gets shorter and a level is indicated - When three beeps in a row are missed, your fitness level has been established - You can compare your score with established [norms] **12-minute cooper test** *(cardiovascular endurance)\ * - The test is performed on a running track or a circuit can be marked and measured - You run and/or walk as far as you can in twelve minutes - Fitness level is established by comparing the distance covered with established norms **Multi-stage abdominal conditioning test** *(muscular endurance)\ * - To set up the test you require: 1. 1. 1. - Over a 30-second period perform as many sit-ups as you can  - Your partner will time you and keep count - Fitness level is established by comparing the number of repetitions completed with established norms **Sit and reach test** *(flexibility)\ * - This test measures flexibility in the hamstrings and lower back - Sit on the floor with legs fully extended and feet flat against the 'sit and reach box' - Stretch forward, sliding both hands along the box - The distance your fingertips reach relative to your toes is the measurement - You can compare your score with established [norms] **Hand grip dynamometer test** *(strength)\ * - A hand grip dynamometer is used to test hand and forearm strength - Check that the scale is set to 0 - Grip and squeeze as hard as you can - Measurement is displayed on the dial - Test is repeated three times and for each hand - You can compare your score with established norms **1 rep max test** *(strength)\ * - Measures the greatest weight an individual can lift for a single repetition - After a warm-up, choose a weight you know you can lift - If successful, rest for several minutes, increase the weight and attempt - Continue until you are only able to complete one full repetition **30-meter sprint test** *(Speed)* - This test measures how fast you can run over a short distance - Accurately mark a 30m distance - A stopwatch is used to measure the time take/ timing gates should be used to gain accurate results - Compare your scores with established norms **Vertical Jump test** *(power)* - Facing a wall, stretch both arms above your head to measure your standing height - This can be marked on the wall or a jump board - Turn sideways to the wall and with both feet together, jump as high as you can - Touch the wall or jump board with the fingertips of one hand - Measure the distance between the two marks to calculate jump height - You can compare your score with established norms **Illinois agility test** *(Agility)* - Set up the preset course with cones - Start by laying face down behind the start line with your chin on the floor - On 'go', stand up and run around the course as quickly as possible - Your partner stops the timer as you cross the finish line - Your time can be compared with established norms **Standing stork test** *(balance)* - Stand on one foot and place the other foot against the inside of the knee - Hands are placed on hips - Your partner starts the timer when both eyes are closed - The timer is stopped when you open your eyes, lose balance or your foot parts from your knee **Anderson wall toss coordination test** *(Coordination)* - Stand two metres from a flat wall - Toss a tennis ball underarm against the wall with one hand, catching it with the other - Immediately throw the ball back against the wall, catching it in the initial hand - This action is repeated continuously - Your partner times you for a 30 second period and counts the number of successful catches **Ruler drop test** *(rection test) * - A metre rule is held by your partner in a vertical position - Your thumb and fingers are placed alongside, but not touching the 0 cm mark - Without warning, your partner releases the ruler - You catch it by gripping between the thumb and index finger - A measurement is taken from above the index finger **VO~2~ MAX** **VO~2~ Max --** The volume of oxygen that can be consumed while exercising at a maximum capacity" **How to test:** - Bleep Test - 12-minute Cooper Test **How to improve: ** - Continuous training  - Exercising the body for a full 20 minutes  - Exercising at an intensity of 65 - 85% of maximum heart rate. **Influences:** - Training  - Lifestyle - Age - Gender - Genetics Chapter 7 -- Training --------------------- **PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING & OVERLOAD** Principles of training: +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **S** | **Specificity-** Training must | | | focus on a specific type of | | | activity to improve | | | | | | - Type of fitness needed | | | | | | - Particular muscle group | +===================================+===================================+ | **P** | **Progression --** This happens | | | when the body adapts to the | | | training and moves to a new level | | | of fitness. Progress is achieved | | | through an increase in intensity | | | leading to overload. | | | | | | Note that: Most progress is made | | | early on | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **O** | **Overload --** This occurs when | | | the level of training is raised | | | to a level higher than normal. | | | Your body adapts to these demands | | | | | | Can be achieved by an increase | | | in: intensity, frequency or | | | duration | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **R** | **Reversibility --** Training | | | effects are reversible. If | | | training intensity is reduced or | | | stopped, there can be muscle | | | atrophy (loss of muscle tone) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **T** | **Tedium --** Signs are boredom | | | are an important indicator that | | | training needs to be more | | | interesting and useful | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Principles of overload: F **Frequency** of the activity. How often you should train. Increase the frequency by training more often --- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I **Intensity** of the activity. How hard you should train. Increase the intensity by aiming to run faster, lift heavier, etc. T **Time** spent on the activity. How long you should train for. Increase the time by training longer. T **Type** of training/activity. Choose targeted activities and vary them to avoid tedium **METHODS OF TRAINING** **Continuous Training** - Consists of continuous activities - Max heart rate between 60 -- 80% - Examples: Swimming, cycling, running, rowing **Aim: Cardiovascular Endurance** Advantages: - Doesn't require much equipment - Good for aerobic fitness - Burns fat Disadvantages: - No anaerobic fitness - Requires motivation Safety: - Correct footwear - Safe environment **Weight Training** - Involves using free weights, kettle bells, resistance weights - Repetitions are the number of times the weights are lifted - Sets are the number of times a weight activity is carries out **Aim: Muscular endurance, speed, power, strength** Advantages: - Improves muscular strength - Easy to show progression - Muscle size and power increases Disadvantages: - Can be expensive - Prone to injury - Specialist equipment may be needed Safety: - Correct use of equipment - Use of a spotter to prevent injury - Risk of overtraining **Fartlek Training** - Also known as 'speed play' - Involves fast and slow activity over a variety of terrain or hills - Uses the Borg scale for intensity **Aim: Aerobic & Anaerobic Fitness** Advantages: - Easily adapted for different sports and fitness levels - Good for sports that have a change in pace Disadvantages: - Difficult to monitor effort - Easy to avoid challenging parts Safety: - Correct footwear and equipment - Safe environment **Plyometric Training** - Eccentric muscle movements - Methods: squat jumps, box jumps, etc. **Aim: Power, explosive strength** Advantages: - Over time a greater force is created when muscles contract - Provides more energy - Provides fast, powerful movements Disadvantages: - High amount of stress on muscles - No benefit to aerobic fitness Safety: - Correct use of equipment - Need to prevent injury **Circuit Training** - Complete exercises for different muscle groups at stations - Exercise over time or repetition - The muscle groups should be on alternate stations - Useful for team sport **Aim: Anaerobic fitness, strength, Muscular endurance, cardiovascular, speed** Advantages: - Varied, so doesn't get boring - Easily adapted - Can include all skill stations Disadvantages: - Requires a lot of equipment and time to set up Safety: - Correct use of equipment - Risk of overtraining - Time limitation **High-Intensity Interval Training** - Involves periods of intense work followed by rest periods - Can be short or long intervals - Allows rest time to remove waste products, such as lactic acid and CO~2~ **Aim: Speed, muscular endurance, anaerobic fitness** Advantages: - Benefits game players - Combines aerobic and anaerobic exercise - Can be adapted for activities or fitness levels - Specialist equipment not required Disadvantages: - Can become boring - Needs to include rests Safety: - Correct use of equipment - Risk of overtraining - Time limitation **High-altitude Training --** Specialised training at over 5000ft above sea level that helps the body improve the production of red blood cells Advantages: - Increases red blood cell production - Improves endurance - Increases VO~2~ max - Increasing oxygen carrying capacity of red blood cells Disadvantages: - Training places more stress on the body - Can lead to overtraining because intensity cannot be as high - Can have a negative effect on immune system - Loss of muscle mass - Can cause dizziness and nausea - Many people don't have access to high altitudes **WARMING UP & COOLING DOWN\ ** **Physiological --** To do with the body; physical activities that get the body ready for exercise or wind-down afterwards **Psychological --** To do with the mind; activities that stimulate the mind and help the performer prepare mentally for exercise/competition or to relax afterwards **WARM-UP** Physiological Benefits: - Raises body temperature and heart size - Increases blood flow (oxygen supply) to the muscles - Stretches the muscles and get them ready for action - Gets joints moving and increases the range of motion - Helps avoid sprains and strains - Gives practice in skills and techniques to be used in game/session Psychological Benefits: - Focuses the mind on the exercise - Helps prepare mentally for competition - Parts of the build-up to "match readiness" 3 phase warm-ups: 1. Pulse Raiser: increases your heart rate. Example: running, skipping, jumping 2. Dynamic Stretches: engages the muscles to increase flexibility. Example: lunges, hurdle steps, heel flicks 3. Skill familiarisation: Imitates actions/performance of sport. Example: dribbling a ball in basketball **COOL DOWN** Physiological Benefits: - Helps reduce the oxygen debt and clear any lactic acid in the muscles - Allows heart rate and blood flow to reduce gradually to normal levels - Gentle stretching reduces muscles soreness and stiffness - Reduces risk to injury Psychological Benefits: - Gives time for performer to calm down - Helps transition to less physical daily activities - Offers chance to reflect on performance Cool down: - 5 -- 10 minutes of light jogging/walking: to decrease temperature and remove waste products - 5 -- 10 minutes of static stretches: to help muscles relax and re-establish their normal range of movement. - Breathing exercises: To aid and transition back to daily life [Skill acquisition and Psychology] ============================================== Chapter 8 -- Skill and Skill Acquisition ---------------------------------------- **SKILL & ABILITY** **Skill --** a learned and practiced ability **Ability --** the qualities & characteristics a person is born with A person's ability will help them learn a skill quickly **FACTORS AFFECTING SKILL LEVEL** - **Culture** - Background impacts the skills you learn - **Motivation** - A desire to succeed will encourage a performer - **Anxiety** - If you think the skill is too difficult, it may stop you from improving - **Teaching & Coaching** - They quality of teaching & coaching will affect your skill - **Environment** - Where you live will affect your choices - **Facilities** - Better facilities mean better quality practice - **Arousal Conditions** - Someone who is calm may choose to work more on sports that require fine motor skills - **Age & Maturity** - How young a performer starts may affect how good they become -- they have more time to practice **SKILLED PERFORMANCES** A skilled performance should be: - **Accurate:** Precise movements - **Consistent:** Performing to a high level every time - **Fluent:** Using movements that are quick, smooth & flowing - **Coordinated:** Moving different parts of the body together with efficiency & control - **Aesthetically pleasing:** A performance that looks good to the eye of the spectator, judge or coach - **Goal Directed:** Focusing performance on a specific target and being determined to achieve that target **SKILL CLASSIFICATION** **BASIC & COMPLEX SKILLS** Basic Complex ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Simple skills such as throwing, rutting, hitting a ball or catching More difficult skills that require a higher level of coordination and concentration Needs to be mastered first before being able to learn a complex skill Takes longer to learn and perfect Few sub-routines/parts Many sub-routines/part May involve limited decision-making judgments May involve many decision-making judgments Example: a chest pass/over-arm throw Example: A diving routine **OPEN & CLOSED SKILLS** Open Closed ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Skills that are affected by the environment Skills that are not affected by the environment or the performers in it The performer needs to react and adjust to the situation and this will constantly change Takes longer to learn and perfect Commonly seen in team games Many sub-routines/part Environmental changes -- weather, pitch surface, actions of team-mates & opponents Where the environment is stable Example: Rugby, football, netball Example: Swimming, 100m sprint, gymnastic routine **FINE & GROSS SKILLS** Fine Gross ----------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Precise movements that require high levels of accuracy and technique Skills that use a large muscle group to produce large powerful movements Often small movements that require small muscle groups (e.g. fingers) Involve larger muscle groups Example: Archery, snooker Example: Shot put, jumping, throwing, running **CONTINUA** No skill fits completely into one category; each pair of skills can be charted on a continuum. You need to be able to place a skill on each continuum and justify your choice\ \ **SIMPLE INFORMATION-PROCESING MODEL** The brain processes information from a number of sources: - Eyes -- visual information - Ears -- hearing/auditory information - Skin -- sensory information - Muscles -- which provides action through movement **INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL** - **Input** - The information that is received via the senses - The performer must "select" the most important information to focus on - **Decision making** - Information is analysed by the performer so they an choose the most appropriate response - If the situation has been experienced many times before, the performer will have information in their long term memory (LTM), which will help them to make their decision. - **Output** - The decision is made and then acted upon - the brain sends information to the muscles - the muscles contracting creating movement & the skill is performed - **Feedback** - Information is also received about the output/outcome *(was the action good or bad?)* - This knowledge will be stored in the short term memory (STM) at first, but will be moved to the LTM if the skill is practiced many times - This will help the performer to improve their decision-making next time +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **LONG TERM** | **SHORT TERM** | +===================================+===================================+ | - **Memory stored that can hold | - **A system for storing small | | vast amounts of information | amounts of information for a | | for a long period** | brief period** | | | | | - **Experts will have more | - **If actions are not | | information stored here as | rehearsed this information is | | they have rehearsed more** | lot** | | | | | - **Making decision easier and | | | more efficient** | | | | | | - **Because they know what | | | worked well in the past and | | | what didn't** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **CHANNELS** **LIMITED-CHANNEL CAPACITY** The idea that our brains can only process a certain amount of information at once; too much information results in overload **SINGLE-CHANNEL & MULTI-CHANNEL HYPOTHESES** Single-channel hypothesis: - A performer can only process one piece of information at a time - Until one has been dealt with, another cannot be acted upon Multi-channel hypothesis - The brain has several channels, each dedicated to a different task - Performers suffer only in a channel gets overloaded **STAGES OF LEARNING** 1. **Cognitive Stage** - The preparation stage: you start to learn a new skill or technique. You consciously think about what is involved and the actions you need to performer the skill - A large number of mistakes will be made 2. **Associative Stage** - **The practice stage: you will continue repeating and practicing skills and techniques so they improve** - **Skill improves** - **Number of misses gradually decreases** 3. **Autonomous Stage** - The automatic stage: perform the skill naturally and without conscious thought, showing control and accuracy - Mistakes are rare - When they are mistakes you can analyse what was wrong **HOW TO PRACTICE A SKILL** **Whole practice --** Practice all the different parts at once **Part Practice --** Break down the skill into smaller parts **Fixed Practice --** Repeat the technique in one situation over and over again **Variable Practice --** Repeat the technique in a range of different situations Ways to Practice: - Whole practice - Part practice - Whole -- part -- whole practice - Fixed -- variable practice **FEEDBACK** **Feedback --** The information that a performer receives about their performance Why is feedback important? - Identifies a strength that can be built on - Identifies a weakness to work on - Stops mistakes from being repeated - See if extra training or practice is needed - Set goals or targets for improvement - Motivates performer/develops self-esteem - Allows comparison to the ideal performance **FEEDBACK LOOP** Performance **→** Feedback **→** Assess performance **→** Correct, adjust, practice **TYPES OF FEEDBACK** **Intrinsic Feedback -** Information from within (emotions, thoughts, feel of a movement) -- important for cognitive stage Advantage: - Performers can make immediate adjustment to their techniques Disadvantage: - Requires a high level of knowledge about the skill - Beginners do not have this knowledge **Extrinsic Feedback --** Information from an external source (coach, fans) -- important from autonomous stage Advantage: - Good for beginners as they need constant feedback in order to learn - High performers can combine intrinsic and extrinsic feedback to get a better picture of their performance Disadvantage: - Needs a qualified coach to give the feedback - Incorrect feedback from a poor-quality coach will cause performance to decline **Knowledge of Results --** Knowing your score, time, distance or place in a race allows you to judge or measure how well you have done Advantage: - Gives a quick measure of success - Provides a target for improvement - Helps to show improvement over time if recorded regularly Disadvantage: - Poor results can be demotivating - Improvement might slow down which can be demotivating - Results may not reflect skill or performance well **Knowledge of Performance --** Analysing quality of movement or use of techniques Advantage: - Feedback can be tailored to suit the performer's ability level - Can be simple feedback on 1 or 2 areas for beginners - Can be specific, complex and detailed for experienced performers Disadvantage: - Can be difficult or time-consuming to analyse performance of experts - There many be many skills and techniques that require feedback which is time consuming - A coach may need to watch videos of the performance first if they are to provide accurate feedback **QUALITY FEEDBACK** Feedback can be, **Positive --** focusing on what you did well (which provides motivation) **Negative --** focusing on what you did less well Good feedback should be, **Fast --** given as soon as possible after the event **Focused --** on the key areas for development **Factual --** based on evidence of what you did well and what you need to improve **GUIDANCE** **Guidance --** Help and instruction given to guide learners through movements, skills and techniques to help them acquire skills **FORMS OF GUIDANCE** **Verbal --** In the form of words **Visual --** In the form of images, videos or demonstration **Mechanical --** The use of physical supports such as harnesses **Manual --** 'Hands on' guidance **GUIDANCE & THE STAGES OF LEARNING** **Visual --** All stages, essential at the cognitive stage as beginners need to see an overall picture of the skill to understand how it's performer **Verbal --** Associative/Autonomous as cognitive learners may no understand the terms used. More detailed explanations can be provided for autonomous learners **Mechanical/Manual --** Cognitive learners as it enables performers to gain a 'feel' for the movement. Other learners already have this and they can provide their own intrinsic feedback **ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF THE FORMS OF GUIDANCE** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **FORMS** | **ADVANTAGES** | **DISADVANTAGES** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Visual Guidance | - Performers can | - Demonstrations | | | form a mental | need to | | | picture of | accurately and | | | correct technique | expertly | | | | performed | | | - Demonstrations | | | | can be repeated | - Poor-quality | | | | videos are not | | | - Slow-motion | helpful | | | videos can be | | | | used to focus on | | | | specific skills | | | | | | | | - Useful in all | | | | stages of | | | | learning | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Verbal Guidance | - It is immediate; | - Long or | | | instructions can | complicated | | | be acted upon | instructions are | | | right away | hard to take it | | | | | | | - Coaches can use | - This can cause | | | questions to | issues for | | | check | beginners taking | | | understanding | in lots of new | | | | information at | | | - Verbal and visual | once | | | guidance can be | | | | combined to paint | - Some movements | | | a more accurate | cannot be | | | picture for | accurately | | | learners | explained using | | | | words | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Manual/Mechanical | - Useful in the | - Leaners may | | Guidance | early stages of | become dependant | | | learning | on support from | | | | equipment/coach | | | - Helps an | | | | individual get a | - Can give an | | | feel for the | unrealistic | | | movement and | feeling of the | | | develop muscle | motion | | | memory | | | | | - Learners may | | | - Can provide a | resist having | | | same environment | manual/mechanical | | | to try out more | guidance taken | | | hazardous | away | | | activities | | | | | | | | - Gives performers | | | | a sense of | | | | security & helps | | | | deal with | | | | feelings of | | | | anxiety or fear | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **\ ** **\ ** Chapter 9 -- Psychology ----------------------- **GOAL SETTING** **Goal --** A desired aim or outcome; something that you are trying to achieve Goals work best following the SMARTER principles: S Smarter Make your goal specific. *Example: I must run 30m in under 4 seconds* --- ------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- M Measurable Make sure you can measure your goal to see if it has been achieved. *Example: I must run 30m in under 4 seconds (can be timed)* A Agreed You and your coach should agree on your goal and it needs to be a challenge in order to make progress R Realistic A goal that is too difficult will demotivate you. *Example: to be able to run 100m in under 10 seconds by next month* T Time-Phased Goals should be planned out and should be spread over a length of time such as short term and long term. E Exciting Exciting goals will keep you motivated and as you make progress, goals should get more difficult but more exciting R Recorded Goals should be written down and you should record your progress and when you've met your goal **MOTIVATION AND MENTAL PREPARATION** **Motivation --** the desire required to be successful/the driving force that makes you do something Motivation can be seen by: - The amount of effort applied to a task - How well focus and effort is directed - How long we stick to a task - What we are willing to sacrifice for success **INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **INTRINSIC MOTIVATION** | **EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION** | +===================================+===================================+ | Motivation that comes from simply | Motivation that comes from | | doing the activity, rather than | outside of the individual such as | | to gain external rewards or | prizes, trophies, praise or fame' | | prizes' | | | | *e.g. praise from a parent, coach | | *e.g. improving physical fitness* | or the crowd* | | | | | *e.g. social rewards from playing | *e.g. rewards -- money, prizes, | | in a team* | medals & trophies* | | | | | *e.g. satisfaction from | *e.g. desire of fame or | | completing a task* | attention* | | | | | | *e.g. the search for sponsorship | | | or a better contract* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Rewards --** something given to someone to recognise their achievements **Incentive --** something that motivates someone to do something **HOW CAN COACHES MOTIVATE PERFORMERS** Promoting **intrinsic** motivation - Ensure that sessions are enjoyable, this allows that performers continue to gain satisfaction from performing Promoting **extrinsic** motivation - Set goals based around achieving rewards - Provide incentives to continue working hard such as extrinsic rewards **AROUSAL** **Arousal --** An increased level of mental excitement and alertness Arousal can lead to determination, focus and excitement and can therefore benefit performance **Increasing arousal** - Motivational talk from a coach - Appropriate warm-up - Having a clear goal to work towards - Inspiration from crowd, bright lights, synchronised clapping - Importance of match/trophy/prize **OVER AROUSAL** - Too much arousal can lead to anxiety, nervousness & stress - You come become 'psyched out' by the opposition - You may make mistakes and not give your best performance - Physical symptoms: - Dry mouth - Increased breathing - Increased heart rate - Nausea - Sweaty palms - Tremor/shakiness **UNDER AROUSAL** - Too little arousal may cause you to under-perform - You may be excited or focused enough to perform at your best - Lack of drive/determination - However fine motor skills (such as darts) require low levels of arousal to perform well **THE INVERTED-U THEORY** - There is an optimal level of arousal for performance - Too much or too little will cause a reduction in performance - The optimum level is dependant upon: - The nature of the task - The skill of the performer - The personality of the performer **ANXIETY** **Anxiety --** Negative reaction to stress, causing the performer to feel worried, nervous or apprehensive Increased arousal = increased likelihood of anxiety **Causes:** **Uncertainty --** not knowing whether you will succeed or not **Pressure --** a game of high importance, or taking a crucial penalty **Effect on self-esteem -** "other people may have a lower opinion of me if I don't perform well" **Fear of harm --** "I might get hurt or injured" **Frustration --** "I might not with the trophy/I might not make the first team" **TYPES OF ANXIETY** **Cognitive anxiety --** The mental symptoms a performer feels such as fear, worry & doubt **Somatic anxiety --** The physical signs of anxiety. Symptoms of somatic anxiety include: increased heart rate, increased respiration & muscle tension **RELAXATION TECHNIQUES** - Relaxation techniques are used to control the symptoms of cognitive & somatic anxiety. They allow for better decision making. - A combination of relaxation techniques may be used to reduce anxiety & arousal both in short & long term 1. **Mental Rehearsal --** running through a skill, sequence or event in your mind, in detail, involving all your senses - Using sense to recreate the event mentally. Simulating sights sounds and sensations such as: - Crowd noises - What the crowd looks like - How to react positively to bad situations - Performing skills perfectly under pressure 2. **Visualisation --** 'seeing' the best possible outcome for the skill/technique you are about to perform - The athlete will try to visualise themselves performing well under certain conditions 3. **Deep Breathing --** a learned way of breathing in a deep, calm and focused way to promote relaxation as well as physical well-being - Focus on the breath instead of the event, reducing stress - Helps the body take in oxygen efficiently - Focuses the attention - Helps to remove tension from the muscles **PERSONALITY** **Introverts --** A quiet, shy, reserved personality. Associated with individual sports **Extroverts --** A sociable, lively, optimistic, outgoing personality. More associated with team sports *(However, these are just generalisations)* INTROVERT EXTROVERT --------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Quiet, shy & reserve Sociable, talkative & outgoing Prefer taking part in solo activities Prefer team sports Enjoys your own company and like being alone Enjoys interacting with others and get bored easily if alone Enjoy sports that require high levels of accuracy and concentration Enjoy sports that require lower levels of concentration Excels at sports that require fine movement skills Prefers sports that require lower levels of concentration Performs better with lower levels of arousal Prefer sports that require higher levels of arousal and are played at a fast pace Prefers to practice alone or with only a few others Enjoy team practice sessions Dislikes contact sports Prefers contact sports with lots of action **THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY\ **Your personality characteristics can have an effect on the types of sports you decide to take up & the roles you adopt when participating in team sports Assessing personality types can be used as a way of identifying talented individuals & nurturing their specific skills **PERSONALITY THEORIES** How did my personality come to be? - **Trait theory --** people are born with inherited characteristics (personality is determined by genetics) - **Social learning theory --** behaviours are learned through observation & instructions - **Interactionist theory --** behaviours/personality are developed through interaction with others [Social, Cultural and Ethical Influences ] ====================================================== Chapter 10 -- Social and Cultural Influences -------------------------------------------- **LEISURE AND RECREATION** **Leisure Time --** Time spent away from work, free of obligations **Physical Recreation --** A physical activity or past time that promotes health, relaxation and enjoyment **Sport --** An activity that involves physical exertion and skill, either as an individual or as part of a team competing against another person or team **Play -** To take part in a sport or activity for enjoyment **PHYSICAL RECREATION INFLUENCES** Influence Explanation ---------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Age & Health Older people may choose less physically demanding activities. Interests You are more likely to take part in activities that spark your interest. Facilities Facilities & standard of facilities will influence what you are able to take part in. Peer Pressure You are more likely to take part in activities that your peer group approves of or encourages. Where you live Geography, climate and culture influence that activities you are likely to participate in. Social Circumstances Social circumstances may mean that you cannot afford to participate in certain activities. Family Influences If your family shows interests and encourages a certain activity you are more likely to participate in it **SPORTS DEVELOPMENT PYRAMID** **Stage 1 -- Foundation** - The first stage at which people come into contact with sports - Beginners ( often young) - Involves mass participation - Is about reaction & having fun - Found in PE lessons **Stage 2 -- Participation** - The participation stage is about the enjoyment factor of taking part in sports - Taking part in organised sporting activities at clubs or leisure centres - More structured environment - Being with friends and like-minded individuals who are there to play sports **Stage 3 -- Performance** - This stage is about competition. Performers have a higher level of skill and are largely at the autonomous stage of learning - The focus is on developing performance toward the elite level - Performers concentrate on one or two sports - Training and competition are regular and more important - Emphasis on professionalism and not just having fun **Stage 4 -- Elite** - Performance is of the highest level. Very few people reach this stage. - Performers are in regional or national squads - Governing bodies are responsible for performer's development - High levels of support are provided, including medical care, coaching & nutrition - Performers are often professional and may receive money from sponsorship **ACCESS AND PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS** Many people come across obstacles that prevent them from progressing up the sports development pyramid or even participating. These obstacles fall in two main groups: **Factors that affect access --** Factors that determine whether or not it is possible for an individual to access a certain sport or activity **Factors that affect participation --** Factors that influence the likelihood that individuals will participate in a certain sport or activity -- provided they have access to it **FACTORS THAT AFFECT ACCESS** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Factor | Group | How it affects access | | | | to sport? | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Age** | Young Children | Some activities are | | | | not appropriate, such | | | | as weightlifting | | | | since their joints | | | | are not fully | | | | developed | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | Older People | May not the physical | | | | capacities | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Gender** | Female | Some organisations | | | | restrict access to | | | | men only | | | | | | | | Women may feel | | | | unwelcomed | | | | | | | | Women's sports may | | | | not have the same | | | | levels of finance, | | | | facilities and | | | | coaching | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Disability** | Physical | Lack of facilities | | | | and support for | | | | people with | | | | disabilities | | | | | | | | Lack of parking and | | | | disabled friendly | | | | transport -- people | | | | can't access the | | | | | | | | Facility | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Social Influences** | Family | Family may not be | | | | able to afford | | | | equipment, club | | | | membership or | | | | coaching fees | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | School | Schools may not | | | | provide facilities | | | | for certain sports, | | | | or offer them | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Cultural | Religion | Some faiths won't | | Influences** | | allow people to | | | | participate on | | | | certain days | | | | | | | | Some faiths impose | | | | restrictions on | | | | sports that can be | | | | played or the | | | | clothing women can | | | | wear | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **FACTORS THAT AFFECT PARTICIPATION** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Factor | Whom does it affect and why? | +===================================+===================================+ | Access | People with disabilities, the | | | elderly, women | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Discrimination | People of minority ethnic groups/ | | | people with disabilities. May be | | | discriminated against, | | | discouraging them from | | | participate | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Education | Those educated on the health | | | benefits of physical activity may | | | be more likely to participate | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Environment/climate | Geography can affect what | | | activities that available in your | | | area | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Family | In some countries women are | | | expected to look after the | | | family, meaning fewer | | | opportunities to participate in | | | physical activities | | | | | | Your family's habits and attitude | | | towards exercise could influence | | | your approach | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Financial Consideration | Expensive activities such as golf | | | and horse riding may not be | | | accessible for those from lower | | | socio-economic backgrounds | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Media Coverage | Very dominated by male sports, | | | therefore having more inspiration | | | to participate | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Role Models | Males have many role models due | | | to extensive media coverage in | | | male sport (females have fewer | | | role models) | | | | | | Minority sports are not covered | | | in the media to the same extent, | | | therefore fewer role models in | | | such activities | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Time & Work Commitment | People in full-time work may have | | | less time for activities or may | | | feel too tired to take part. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **SPONSORSHIP** **Sponsorship --** The support given to a sport, event, organisation or individual by an outside body for the mutual benefit of both parties\ *Example: JP Morgan Chase have paid the Golden State Warriors hundreds of millions of dollars to name the team's new stadium* **Financial Support --** Funding from the sponsors can help pay for daily living and training costs or a performer or team. In return, the performers will need to promote the business by wearing branded sportswear during competitions or in public **Clothing, Footwear, Equipment --** Certain brands provide clothing to many high-profile players, in return the company will receive huge public exposure **Provision of Specialist Facilities --** Certain companies will partially pay for the construction of specialist facilities. In return the gain the rights to name it for advertising purposes. **\ ** **Benefit of Sponsorship** - **Sponsor** - Being linked to successful sports performers can improve the public image of companies - Displaying the brand helps to increase the sales through advertising - Sponsorship money is generally tax free, meaning sponsors can reduce their tax outlay - **Performer** - Financial support can allow the athlete to compete and train full time - Performers may become extremely wealthy through sponsorship - **Sport** - Additional funding can be used to develop coaching and community schemes - This can increase the numbers of people playing the sport, improving quality later on - **Audience and Spectators** - Sponsorship money can be used to improve spectator facilities - Sponsors can raise the profile of a sport increasing the level of media coverage **Disadvantages of Sponsorship** - **Sponsorship** - Image may be damaged if the performer becomes a negative role model - **Performer** - Sponsors can go bankrupt causing financial difficulties for the performer or organisation - Sponsors can withdraw support if a performer's image is damaged - Performers may be required to spend time at a sponsor's event instead of resting or training**\ ** - **Sport** - Pressure from sponsors can lead to changes in the rule of the sports which can interfere with the flow of the game - Sponsors prefer high profile sports to promote their brands. Minority sports may find it to find sponsors - **Audience and Spectators** - Timings of games may change due to sponsors wanting prime-time exposure - Sponsorship deals with media companies may mean coverage changes from free to pay/view **MEDIA** **Types of Media Coverage** - **Print** - **Newspapers** -- contain sports sections. There are some sports specific papers - **Magazines** -- Sporting articles, interviews and insights into sports, specific magazines for individual sports - **Internet and Social Media** - **Internet --** Allows access to radio, TV and print media. Provides up to date and varied information as well as means to look up past events and statistics - **Social media --** Provides access to 'behind the scenes' footage and information from performers and teams. Allows individuals to comment on posts and connect with sport performers. - **Television** - Non- subscription channels deliver free sports coverage - Pay to view channels deliver sports with 24-hour coverage - Channels can bid to show sports or particular events - Subscription services have led to improved quality of broadcasting - **Radio** - Offers live coverage with up-to-date information - Sport specific stations - Can be listened to on the move - Allows people to interact and share opinions through phone-ins Positive Effects of the Media Negative Effects of the Media --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Media coverage makes it easier to attract sponsorship Some sports get more exposure than others Supporters can get a better view of the action **Media feeds an obsession with statistics and records, rather than the skills of the sports** Supporters gain insider knowledge from expert analysis Media influence is large, with sports changing formats to suit media needs Media has influenced positive rule changes (VAR) **People may stay at home to watch sporting events leading to reduced attendances** People become more interested in sports leading to increased attendance Pay/view channels may mean people can't afford to access certain events Athlete pay and prize-money increases due to money from the media **Event timings may be altered to suit the media, not the players or the fans** Standards increase due to media money used for facilities and coaching Increased exposure can lead to a lack of privacy for performers and families Performers can become role models, developing their reputation, promoting themselves and products **Media scrutiny means that comments and behaviour can lead to fines and loss of sponsorship** Media coverage can increase participation levels and interest in sports Sensationalisation by the media to promote events can affect people's views of sports and individuals **Over-exposure can lead to a loss of interest in the sport** Sports may become dependent on money from the media **Sensationalisation --** The reporting of something in a way that arouses curiosity by exaggerating a story or focusing specific details **GLOBAL EVENTS** **Advantages & Disadvantages of Hosting a Global Competition** **Factor** **Advantages** **Disadvantages** ------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Stadia and Training Facilities** Improved sports facilities are built that can be used both before and after the competition Sports facilities can be a target for terrorists or those seeking to make their political views known **Home Advantages** Hosting an event can give the country home advantage, with more spectators and performers can also benefit from competing in a familiar environment Added pressure on home performers to succeed could have a negative effect on them **National Pride** Can create a buzz for local residents, improving optimism and a sense of national pride Negativity or lowering of morale if home team does not perform well **Tourism** More visitors in the country spending more money, this can lead to improved awareness and status of the city/country increasing visitors' numbers in the future Increased tourism can put pressure on facilities. Tourists's experiences could create bad publicity for the host nation **Economy and Employment** Increased employment in preparation for and during the event. Extra revenue from visitors during and after the event The cost of hosting a global event can be huge. A poorly run competition could give the country a poor image, which could affect future tourism **Legacy Implications** The event offers a legacy, better facilities will be available for elite training and community use. Increased interest following the even can lead to more participation in sports Facilities can quickly become run-down and disused if not maintained and managed properly **Infrastructure** Improved infrastructure around the venues and main cities such as road, rail and accommodation, offering longer term benefits for the local society Huge financial cost of investing in new sports facilities **Benefits for Athletes** - Opportunity to compete against the best - Athletes feel proud to represent their nation - Increased fame/gaining status as a top-level athlete - High levels of pressure could impact performance - Financial rewards for competing - Could be a once in a lifetime opportunity - Athletes can become role models - Chance to obtain better contracts and sponsorships **PROFESSIONAL AND AMATEUR PERFORMERS** **Professional --** Performing a sports activity as a paid occupation, rather than a pastime **Amateur --** Engaging in a sport activity, on an unpaid basis +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Era | Amateur | Professional | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Traditional | - The purest form | - Came from lower | | | of sport because | classes as they | | | they weren't paid | competed for | | | or rewarded | money, mostly | | | | from bets | | | | | | | | - Not seen as | | | | "gentlemanly" | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Modern | - Sports is a | - Sport is their | | | leisure activity | job | | | | | | | - Amateurs take | - Professionals | | | part for the | take part for | | | enjoyment | money | | | | | | | - Taking part is | - Winning is the | | | more important | main aim, as they | | | than the results | can often receive | | | | more money when | | | - Training is done | they win more | | | during their | | | | spare time, | - Training and | | | fitted in around | playing is their | | | other commitments | job. It is a | | | such as work and | full-time | | | family | occupation to be | | | | ready to perform | | | - They choose when | and be in prime | | | and where to take | condition to do | | | part | so | | | | | | | | - They perform | | | | where and when | | | | they are told to | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **KEY NOTES** - Most people who take part in sports are amateur - Sponsorship & media made majority of elite sports professional **BLURRING BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL AND AMATEUR STATUS** - Amateurs were eventually gaining funding, allowing them to dedicate more time & energy to their sport - Amateur performers were essentially professional - Olympics were for purely amateurs but changed their rules to allow professionals to compete -- this happened because it was hard to distinguish between professional & amateur - Where did the funding for performers in the Olympic games come from? - Governments sponsored their competitors to train & compete - Athletes were being paid secretly to allow them to train and compete full time - In 1971 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) started compensating for missing work or funding - Sponsorship - Athletic Scholarships - Grants & Trust-funds - In 1986 a rule change meant professionals were allowed to compete in the Olympics - Today most competitors are professional, however amateurs still have an opportunity - "Eric the Eel" (Eric Moussambani) represent Equatorial Guinea in the 2000's Olympic in Sydney - He had 8 months to learn - Came just over a minute behind the winner in the semi-finals in the 100m - His determination brought him fame **SPORTSMANSHIP & GAMESMANSHIP** **Sportsmanship --** Upholding the spirit of the game by being honest, playing by the rules and showing respect for your opponents **Gamesmanship --** Seeking to gain an advantage in any way you can that is not against the rules **TECHNOLOGY IN SPORTS** Used for: - Performance enhancing - Official decision making - Recording distance & time Performance Enhancing - **Altitude tents** - Recreates living & training at altitude - Exposes performers to low oxygen conditions - Leads to an increase of red blood cells - Increasing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood - Improves aerobic performance - Beneficial for marathon runners - Expensive - Multisensor Monitoring (Viper Pod) - Sensor is worn in a vest and used for data analysis of an athlete's physical performance - Measure heart rate, distance covered, intensity & speed - Detailed feedback can be provided & training can be adapted to address weaknesses - Wind Tunnels - High speed fans are used to show how equipment & body positions are affected by air resistance - Techniques & equipment are adapted to reduce the impact of air resistance - Equipment - New materials & designs are used in equipment such as rackets, skis, footballs, etc to improve control, speed & distance - Specialist clothing and footwear such as heating reducing & lightweight materials & hydrodynamic full-body swimming suits improve speed & endurance - Facilities - All weather surfaces, better drainage & roofed stadiums produce better playing conditions - Safety improvements such as in gymnastics include better landing areas & harnesses encourage greater skill development - ICT in Training & Coaching - Use of video & Statistical analysis helps identify areas for improvement & focuses coaching to improve performance more effectively - Fitness monitoring equipment analyses key physiological factors & helps with the planning of effective training Official Decision Making - Correct decision made by officials has become increasingly important because of investments from sponsors & the media - Wrong decisions can cost a team hundreds of millions - *Examples:* - *replay system in basketball to make sure the players are shooting within the time allotted by the shot clock* - *third umpire in cricket has access to TV replays to assist with disputed catches & boundaries* - *goal-line technology in football is used to determine whether the ball has fully crossed the line & if the goal can be awarded* - *Off-field umpires with access to multiple TV replay angles to communicate with referees to have them make correct decisions* - *TMO -- television match official in rugby* - *VAR -- Video assistant referee in football* - *Hawkeye is used in tennis to know whether the ball landed in the court or not* Recording Distance & Time - Full automatic time (FAT) - Time measuring technology is used in swimming where the clock is activated by the starting buzzers and stopped when the swimmer makes contact with a touch pad of the pool wall - Laser Measurement (LaserLynx) - Laser-based distance measurement devices can produce accurate, computer-generated measurements for field events Advantages & Disadvantages of Technology in Sports +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Effect on | Advantages | Disadvantages | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Performer | - Improvement in | - Not all | | | training leading | performers have | | | to improvement in | access to the | | | performance | best technology | | | | | | | - Able to review | - Gives advantage | | | decisions in a | to performers in | |