History of Pharmacy.pdf

SOPH 111 HISTORY OF PHARMACY Frederick Owusu, PhD www.knust.edu.gh 1  Course Objectives At the end of this course students should be able to have a good knowledge on: The pharmacy profession Who a pharmacist is Th...

SOPH 111 HISTORY OF PHARMACY Frederick Owusu, PhD www.knust.edu.gh 1  Course Objectives At the end of this course students should be able to have a good knowledge on: The pharmacy profession Who a pharmacist is The history of pharmacy The history of pharmacy in Ghana www.knust.edu.gh 2  Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana SOPH 111 Brief class discussion History of Pharmacy M. El Boakye-Gyasi, PhD Department of Pharmaceutics FPPS, CHS, KNUST [email protected]  Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana SOPH 111is derived from the Greek Pharmacy word History ofmeaning Pharmakon Pharmacy medicine or drug M. El Boakye-Gyasi, PhD Department of Pharmaceutics FPPS, CHS, KNUST [email protected] the profession which is concerned with: the art and science of preparing from natural and synthetic sources, suitable and convenient materials for distribution and use in the treatment and prevention of diseases. www.knust.edu.gh 5 It embraces the knowledge of the identification, selection, pharmacologic action, preservation, combination, analysis and standardization of drugs as well as their safe distribution and use. www.knust.edu.gh 6 www.knust.edu.gh 7  Relationship between health professionals and drugs The physician, the dentist and veterinarian: may prescribe drugs are primarily interested in the effects of those drugs on the patient, are primarily interested in their therapeutic value and toxicology. The nurse: may administer the drug is interested in the dosage form, root of administration and toxic manifestations. www.knust.edu.gh 8  Relationship between health professionals and drugs the Pharmacist is an expert in drugs, it is his/her professionnal responsibility to know all about drugs. No educational programme other than pharmacy provides the background to understand completely all there is to be understood about drugs. www.knust.edu.gh 9  Historically man’s health seeking behavior has been to shield himself from diseases the best way he could Thus, pharmacy has been inseparable from the history of mankind www.knust.edu.gh 10 Asclepius holding his Asclepius and his Symbol of snake-entwined staff daughter Hygieia Pharmacy www.knust.edu.gh 11  Oldest known pharmaceutical records are from the near East Babylonia and Egypt (around 1500BC). These records show that people knew in a crude way, many of the basic forms of drug administration employed presently hundreds of different substances were used as drugs. www.knust.edu.gh 12  Before the Middle Ages (5th - 15th Century) pharmacy and medicine were practiced together without a conscious effort of specialization There were no defined medical practitioners or pharmacists They could be called healing practitioners. www.knust.edu.gh 13  The healing profession was not limited to drugs or natural products only it also involved the employment of supernatural powers and religion, (traditional healers) www.knust.edu.gh 14  The Greeks around 460 BC sought rational explanation for the treatment of diseases They did not reject religion and placed the supernatural in a separate category. Thus when lay medicine failed, the Greeks streamed into the temples for healing. www.knust.edu.gh 15  Asclepius holding his Asclepius and his Symbol of snake-entwined staff daughter Hygieia Pharmacy Credit: Google images www.knust.edu.gh 16  Apollo and Asclepius were the greatest healing gods. Apollo is one of the most important and diverse of the Olympian deities in Greek and Roman mythology Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of light and the sun, truth and prophecy, medicine, healing, plague, music, poetry, arts, archery and more. www.knust.edu.gh 17  Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto. Apollo was worshiped in both ancient Greek and Roman Apollo was an oracle god. (he had a shrine) www.knust.edu.gh 18  Medicine and healing were associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius. yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. www.knust.edu.gh 19  Asclepius was a Greek hero who later became the Greek god of medicine and healing. Asclepius was the son of Apollo and Coronis Asclepius had five daughters, Aceso, Iaso, Panacea, Aglea and Hygieia. www.knust.edu.gh 20  Asclepius was worshipped throughout the Greek world but his most famous sanctuary was located in Epidaurus which is situated in the northeastern Peloponnese. www.knust.edu.gh 21  The main attribute of Asclepius is a physician's staff with an Asclepian snake wrapped around it this is how he was distinguished in the art of healing, and his attribute still survives to this day as the symbol of the modern medical profession. Credit: Google images www.knust.edu.gh 22  he received the name Asclepius (Asklepios) "to cut open“ due to the circumstances surrounding his birth One version states that: His mother was killed for being unfaithful to Apollo and was laid out on a funeral pyre to be consumed, but the unborn child was rescued from her womb www.knust.edu.gh 23 Another version of the same story: his mother died in labour and was laid out on the pyre to be consumed, but his father rescued the child, cutting him out from her womb. www.knust.edu.gh 24  It is said that at the touch of the staff or hand or tongue of the sacred serpent of Asclepius, miraculous things happened. The staff of Asclepius entwined by his sacred serpent has gradually emerged as the official symbol of medicine around the world. www.knust.edu.gh 25  On the right hand of Asclepius and helping to minister to the afflicted, stood Hygieia, one of his daughters her arm entwined by a serpent and holding a bowl, now thought to have contained the healing potion. www.knust.edu.gh 26  Her bowl entwined by the serpent has gradually emerged as the official symbol in pharmacy in most parts of the world. In some parts too, pharmacy is symbolized by Rx, www.knust.edu.gh 27  With the advent of Christianity, the healing temples of Asclepius eventually fell into disuse. Monasteries became the centres of intellectual life including pharmacomedical study and practice. During the second half of the European Middle Ages, pharmacy gradually moved www.knust.edu.gh 28  As early as the 9th Century the rise of a qualified pharmacist as a separate functionary was realized/reported. The advances which were made towards the separation of pharmacy from medicine were gradual extending over thousands of years. The early physicians invariably practiced Pharmacy www.knust.edu.gh 29  The increasing complexity of medical formulae, the laborious work involved in their preparation, and the attainment of higher status gradually made the pursuit of Pharmacy distasteful to physicians It was delegated to assistants called Apothecaries – who gradually became independent and established shops at which prescriptions were dispensed and remedies sold. www.knust.edu.gh 30 Apothecary: A person who prepared and sold drugs/medicines In some countries, the word ‘apothecary’ is still used to refer to a retail pharmacy or a pharmacist who owns one. www.knust.edu.gh 31  In some countries the Apothecaries were the fore-runners of the present day Pharmacist. But in England and some other countries they became the general medical practitioners. Widening interactions between nations brought into use many exotic drugs and spices www.knust.edu.gh 32  the trade in these commodities became the special interest and ultimately the monopoly of a section of traders from whom the physicians and apothecaries and others purchased their requirements. www.knust.edu.gh 33  In the Middle Ages, around 1542, the apothecaries gradually assumed the role of unpaid medical attendants (reimbursing themselves from the charges for medicines). Eventually, in about 1721, they became recognized medical practitioners on equal terms with the physicians. www.knust.edu.gh 34  They later managed to get a law passed in their favour which prohibited the grocers (specialist drug merchants, druggists and spicers) keeping an Apothecary shop – or owning dispensing establishments. (Regulation of pharmacy practice started) www.knust.edu.gh 35  However, the law did not give the apothecaries the monopoly of the sale of drugs. The druggists therefore continued after 1617 as vendors of crude drugs from whom the apothecaries as well as the public obtained their supplies. www.knust.edu.gh 36  A long standing dispute between the physicians and apothecaries dealt a heavy blow to the volume of business of the apothecaries and eventually led to the introduction of dispensing assistants (recruited from the druggists and disgruntled apothecary assistants. www.knust.edu.gh 37  These assistants became proficient and naturally aspired to independence and commenced business on their own account as suppliers and vendors of drugs and assumed the title chemists or pharmaceutical chemist. The designation, Chemist by then was already used by a few, who prepared and sold chemical remedies which were increasingly used in medicine. www.knust.edu.gh 38  These assistants from the dispensaries and the self-styled dispensing chemists are probably the direct fore- runners of present day pharmacists. These assistants and chemists also trained others www.knust.edu.gh 39  Most of the apothecaries continued to give a greater attention to medical practice to the neglect of pharmacy this led to a gap in pharmaceutical services, which was duly filled by the druggists and dispensing assistants. www.knust.edu.gh 40  A bill passed in England, in 1851 gave the chemist and druggists recognition of the status they have gained as dispensers and vendors of drugs and medicines. www.knust.edu.gh 41  To consolidate their position, the chemists and druggists formed a permanent organization called the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain This organization was charged with the responsibility amongst others of establishing a system of education and examination, which will place the druggists and chemists above reproach in terms of qualification. www.knust.edu.gh 42 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA As far back as 1897, the government of Ghana (then Gold Coast) decided to establish a school to train personnel to dispense Doctors’ prescriptions. www.knust.edu.gh 43 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The early organization of the training is not clear, but in about 1923, Sergeant Hart, a commander in the Royal Army Medical Corps, was recruited to train local personnel in the act of dispensing at the only hospital in Accra, then situated at the site now occupied by the high court buildings. www.knust.edu.gh 44 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The entrance qualification was the then standard 7, with 2 years duration and maximum enrolment of three (3). In 1927 when the Korle-Bu hospital was commissioned, the school was transferred there to allow for expansion. www.knust.edu.gh 45  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The demand for medical and dispensing services compelled the government to institute a training scheme for medical assistants – People with a fair knowledge in both nursing and dispensing, to diagnose, prescribe and compound drugs for simple ailments for patients in small hospitals and clinics which could not be staffed with resident medical officers. www.knust.edu.gh 46 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA Entrance qualification was the Cambridge School Certificate A, pass in Chemistry and biology. The first 9 months were devoted to basic nursing, both medical and surgical on the wards, followed by a course of instruction in dispensing for 2.5years. www.knust.edu.gh 47  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA Subjects taught included; the material medica, toxicology, therapeutics and simple calculations in pharmaceutics. This period was then followed by a brief period of training 3-6months at the medical stores to learn stock control, and at the surgical theatre, to acquire the techniques of administering general anaesthetics. The trainees qualified with a dispensing certificate. www.knust.edu.gh 48  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA In 1944, Mr. Eric Allman was appointed to head the school He was chemist and druggist nursing was immediately decoupled from dispensing to allow more time for training in pharmacy proper. www.knust.edu.gh 49  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The course content was upgraded and the title “trainee dispenser” changed to “trainee pharmacist”. It was a 3year course and successful candidates passed out with a certificate of competency. In later years when some of the trained dispensers owned their private drug stores, the apprenticeship training scheme emerged. www.knust.edu.gh 50  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA A would be dispenser registers as an apprentice of a qualified dispenser and understudied him in the shop for a period. On completion of his apprenticeship and passing the government druggists qualifying examination, he was certified as competent to be a master of his own. www.knust.edu.gh 51 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA Around1945, Mr. Allman instituted night classes in both theory and practical in Pharmacy for many more people to become qualified pharmacists. Many of the older generations still in practice, were products of these various courses. www.knust.edu.gh 52  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA In 1952, the dispensing school was moved from Korle bu hospital in Accra to the Kumasi College of Technology The Kumasi College of Technology was later named University of Science and Technology (UST) and now known as Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) www.knust.edu.gh 53  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA Eric Allman was the head of the school when it was moved to Kumasi The move was to enable the dispensing school to expand its course content as well as its student intake The pharmacy and poisons board certificate was introduced in 1953 www.knust.edu.gh 54  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The duration of the course was 4 years after O- level 2 years for GCE A-level in Physics, Chemistry, biology , followed by 2 years of concentrated pharmacy education. The final batch of students for the pharmacy and poisons board certificate completed their studies in 1963. www.knust.edu.gh 55  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA In 1961 when the Kumasi College of Technology became the University of Science and Technology The school of pharmacy became a faculty and Eric Allman became the dean The courses were upgraded to degree level courses www.knust.edu.gh 56  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA In October 1961, the first batch of students were admitted They were 7 in number They graduated in June, 1964 after pursuing a 3 year degree in pharmacy www.knust.edu.gh 57  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The B. Pharm part one was taken at the end of the first year, in physiology, anatomy and pharmacognosy It was realized that the 3year course of study was woefully inadequate Due to the introduction of new techniques and new areas of studies necessary for preparing the would- be pharmacists to cope with current trends in pharmaceutical practice www.knust.edu.gh 58  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA the final year student was doing the maximum number of school hours per week; excluding the extra hours per week taken out of leisure hours to be able to complete project assignments. To maintain and improve the physical and mental health of students a new 4 year honours course was mounted in 1969 www.knust.edu.gh 59  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The first 3 years was supposed to prepare the students in basic pharmacy. In the 4th year, the student is then taken through an advanced instrumentation course, biopharmaceutics, pharmacology and pharmaceutics. Project work and thesis writing were also carried out in the 4th year www.knust.edu.gh 60  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The 4th year course content was therefore deliberately designed not only to offer the student the basic industrial pharmaceutical training, but also his first experience in research and presentation of research reports. www.knust.edu.gh 61  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA After graduation, the aspiring pharmacist had to do a 1 year internship, followed by the professional qualifying examinations After passing the pharmacist is registered by the Pharmacy Council of Ghana upon payment of the right fees www.knust.edu.gh 62 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA Before anyone could hold themselves out as a pharmacist, all the above requirements should have been satisfied and must continue to be in good standing at all times www.knust.edu.gh 63  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA Transition from Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) to Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm D) In 2012, the Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences admitted the very first batch of students to its PharmD programme These students graduated in 2018 www.knust.edu.gh 64  THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA Transition from Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) to Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm D) Subsequently, other schools of Pharmacy in Ghana have started the PharmD programme Thus the BPharm programme is no longer in existence in Ghana. www.knust.edu.gh 65 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA In 1968, the MOH in collaboration with the University reintroduced a 2 year diploma course ostensibly to augment the annual output of graduate pharmacists The successful candidates were designated pharmacy technologists This programme ended around 1974. www.knust.edu.gh 66  Most professional and patient centered organizations and Associations around the world including the World Health Organization use the "correct" and traditional symbol of medicine, the staff of Asclepius with a single serpent encircling a staff. www.knust.edu.gh 67. Some medial associations also use the caduceus symbol. However, the caduceus was the magic staff of Hermes (Mercury), the god of commerce, eloquence, invention, travel and theft, and so was a symbol of heralds and commerce, not medicine. The words caduity & caducous imply temporality, perishableness and senility, while the medical profession espouses renewal, vitality and health www.knust.edu.gh 68. THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA Branches of Pharmacy : Hospital pharmacy Industrial pharmacy Forensic pharmacy Medical representation Retail/community pharmacy Academia – pharmaceutical education and research www.knust.edu.gh 69. LAWS & REGULATIONS GOVERNING PHARMACY PRACTICE FOOD AND DRUGS LAW - 1992, PNDCL 305B: (Amendment) Act 523, 1996 (Food and Drugs Authority) PHARMACY ACT - Act 489, 1994(Pharmacy Council) Health Institutions and Facilities Act, 2011, Act 829. Established the Health Facilities Regulatory Agency (heFRA) www.knust.edu.gh 70. THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA LAWS & REGULATIONS GOVERNING PHARMACY PRACTICE PSGH Constitution of PSGH Bye-laws of PSGH Code of Ethics www.knust.edu.gh 71. THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA CONSTITUTIONS & BYE-LAWS OF SUB-GROUPS OF PSGH GHOSPA - Gov’t Hospital Pharmacists’ Association CPPA - Community Pharmacists’ Association of Ghana LAPAG - Lady Pharmacists’ Association of Ghana ARSPA - Academic, Research and Social Pharmacists Assoc. of Ghana GPSA - Students’ Association IPA - Industrial Pharmacists Association AREPI - Medical Representations of Drug Manufacturers and Dealers. www.knust.edu.gh 72. THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The Food and Drugs Board (FDB) (now Food and Drugs Authority FDA) was established by the Food and Drugs Law 1992, PNDCL 305B. This law has since been amended by the Food and Drugs (Amendment) Act 523, 1996 to provide for the fortification of salt to alleviate nutritional deficiencies and to bring the provisions of the law in conformity with the 1992 constitution, and provide for related issues. www.knust.edu.gh 73. THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA This law has since been amended by the Food and Drugs (Amendment) Act 523, 1996 to provide for the fortification of salt to alleviate nutritional deficiencies and to bring the provisions of the law in conformity with the 1992 constitution, and provide for related issues. Before 1990, the control of drugs and the practice of pharmacy profession were under the Pharmacy and Drugs Act 64, 1961. www.knust.edu.gh 74. THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA In 1990, the Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC) passed the Narcotics Drug Control, Enforcement and Sanctions Law, PNDCL 236. This law established the Narcotics Control Board to deal with the rising incidence of drug abuse in the country and the threatening dimensions that illicit drug dealing had taken internationally. In 1992, the PNDC separated the control of drugs other than narcotics from the practice of Pharmacy. www.knust.edu.gh 75. THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The Food and Drugs Law 1992, PNDCL 305B was then enacted to control the manufacture, importation, exportation, distribution, use and advertisement of food, drugs, cosmetics, chemical substances and medical devices. Consequently in 1992, the PNDC separated the control of drugs from the practice of pharmacy. www.knust.edu.gh 76 HISTORY OF PHARMACY The Pharmacy Act 489, 1994 was subsequently passed in 1994 to establish the Pharmacy Council to regulate the practice of the Pharmacy profession and the registration of Pharmacists in Ghana. www.knust.edu.gh 77. THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA Although the Food and Drugs Law was passed in 1992, it was not until August 26, 1997 that the Board was inaugurated. The Food and Drugs Board/Authority is under the control and supervision of the Minister responsible for Health. Chief Executive Officer of FDA: Mrs. Delese Darko Registrar Pharmacy Council : Dr. Audu Rauf Both are Pharmacists www.knust.edu.gh 78 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The PSGH was started as the Pharmaceutical Society of Gold Coast on the 19th of December 1935 out of the former Gold Coast Pharmacists and Druggist Union and the Chemists Defiance Association, which existed before 1929. It was founded by a group of Pharmacists led by the late Mr. William Ayiah Hanson. The Society became the Pharmaceutical Society of Ghana on the 19th of October 1957. www.knust.edu.gh 79 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The objectives of the Society include: placing at the disposal of the government and people of Ghana, the benefit of pharmaceutical expertise and to cooperate with the government and other agencies in ensuring that pharmaceutical services comparable to the best globally, are available and accessible to the people of Ghana. www.knust.edu.gh 80 THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY IN GHANA The objectives of the Society include: promoting cooperation and collaboration among health care professionals, promoting a corporate spirit among Pharmacists in Ghana, encouraging exchange of ideas among members and organising meetings and other functions to promote social intercourse amongst members. www.knust.edu.gh 81 THANK YOU www.knust.edu.gh 82