General Studies 2024 PDF by B. Singh & A.P. Singh

Thoroughly Revised & Improved Edition GENERAL STUDIES 2024 SSC | RAILWAYS | BANKING | PSUs | UPSC State Public Services & State Engineering Exams by B. Singh | A.P. Singh www.madeeasypublications.org  MADE EASY Publi...

Thoroughly Revised & Improved Edition GENERAL STUDIES 2024 SSC | RAILWAYS | BANKING | PSUs | UPSC State Public Services & State Engineering Exams by B. Singh | A.P. Singh www.madeeasypublications.org  MADE EASY Publications Pvt. Ltd. Corporate Office: 44-A/4, Kalu Sarai (Near Hauz Khas Metro Station), New Delhi-110016 Ph.: 9021300500 E-mail: [email protected] Web : www.madeeasypublications.org General Studies Copyright © 2023, by MADE EASY Publications Pvt. Ltd.. All rights are reserved. 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Your suggestions will be appreciated. © All rights reserved by MADE EASY Publications Pvt. Ltd.. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the written permission from the publisher.  Preface This comprehensive text book on General Studies explains the subject matter in a brief and simple style. The authors are very well aware of the requirements of examinations conducted by UPSC, SSC, State Public Service Examinations, Railways Examinations and Public Sector Examinations. This book has been very well targeted covering all the aspects of subject matter required for various examinations. Since last one decade, authors have closely studied the marks of various candidates appeared & selected in government sectors and other examinations and found that those who have scored below average or poor marks in General Studies section, are either not able to get selection or get poor ranks, hence it has been realized that general studies section should be given significant importance. There is no good book available to the readers in the market, which covers all the aspects of Geography, Polity, History, Life Science, Economy, General knowledge, General Science, Environment, Basics of Computer Applications and Science & Technology that may satisfy the requirements of various competitive examinations conducted for aspirants. In this edition authors have put sincere efforts to satisfy all the requirements of various examinations. The book is thoroughly revised and updated. Authors have tried to incorporate previous year questions of UPSC, SSC, State Public Service Examinations, Railways examinations and Public Sector Examinations. The authors feel that this book will be sufficient and highly useful for all the competitive examinations conducted for graduates from every discipline. Any suggestions from the readers for the improvement of the book are most welcome. B. Singh A.P. Singh  GENERAL STUDIES CONTENTS 1. General Knowledge....................................... 01 ~ 62 2. Geography.................................................. 63 ~ 168 3. History and Culture.................................. 169 ~ 242 4. Indian Polity............................................. 243 ~ 296 5. General Science......................................... 297 ~ 436 6. Basics of Computer Applications............... 437 ~ 452 7. Science & Technology................................ 453 ~ 500 8. Environment............................................. 501 ~ 560 9. Indian Economy........................................ 561 ~ 580  CHAPTER GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Basic General Knowledge of India & World National Emblem NATIONAL SYMBOLS The National Emblem of India is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. It was adopted by the Government of India on January National Flag 26, 1950. The National Flag of India is a horizontal tricolour In this emblem, only three lions are visible, the of deep saffron (Kesaria) at the top, white in the fourth lion being hidden from view. The wheel middle and dark green at the bottom in equal appears in relief in the centre of the abacus proportion. The ratio of width of the flag to its with a bull on right and a horse on left. The length is 2:3. In the centre of the white band a bell shaped lotus (as in the original) has been navy-blue wheel is located which represents the omitted. The other animals present in the emblem Chakra. are an Elephant and a Lion. It was adopted by Constituent Assembly of India The words Satyameva Jayate are inscribed below on July 22, 1947. the abacus in Devanagri script. These words are A tricolour flag was first accepted by the Indian taken from Mundaka Upanishad. National Congress in 1931, having Charkha in place of today’s Chakra. The horizontal colour strip of deep Saffron at top National Anthem represents courage, sacrifice and renunciation, The song Jana gana mana is the National Anthem White at middle shows truth and purity in thoughts of India which was composed by Rabindra Nath and dark Green at the bottom is the symbol of life Tagore, originally in Bengali. abundance and prosperity. It was adopted by Constituent Assembly on A wheel (Chakra) in centre of the white strip is the January 24, 1950 in its Hindi version. symbol of progress and movement. It has 24 spokes. The song Jana gana mana was first published in Supreme Court declared the right to hoist flag as January, 1912 under the title ‘Bharat Vidhata’ in a Fundamental Right under Article 19 (i) (a) of Tattva Bodhini Patrika. the Constitution in 2002. Flag hoisting in India is The song was translated in English in 1919 with regulated by Flag Code of India, 2002. the title “Morning Song of India’’. The Flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya and first time, the flag was hoisted by Sacchindra It was first sung at the Calcutta Session of Prasad Bose in 1906 in Calcutta and later on in the Congress on December 27, 1911. year 1907 an another tricolour flag was unfurled by Playing time of full version of National Anthem is Madam Bhikaji Cama in Stuttgart, Germany. 52 seconds while it is 20 seconds for first and The first flag committee was headed by Dr. last lines of the stanza. Rajendra Prasad.  2 General Studies National Song National Emblems of Countries “Vande Mataram” is the National song of India, Country Emblem which was composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, originally in Sanskrit. India Sarnath Lion Capital It was adopted on January 24, 1950, providing Australia Kangaroo it equal status with National Anthem Jana gana mana. Bangladesh Water Lily It is taken from his novel Anand Math published Canada White Lily in 1882. Its English translation was done by Sri Aurobindo. France Lily It was sung for the first time at the Congress Germany Corn flower Session of 1896. Iran Rose National Calendar Italy White Lily National Calendar is based on Saka Era (began on 78 A.D.) with Chaitra as its first month and Japan Chrysanthemum Phalguna as its last month with a normal year of Pakistan Crescent 365 days adopted from March 22, 1957 along Spain Eagle with the Gregorian Calendar. First day of Chaitra normally falls on March 22 Sri Lanka Sword & Lion and on March 21 in leap year. Russia Sickle and Hammer Norway Lion National Animal The Tiger (Panthera Tigris) is the National Animal United Kingdom Rose of India. It has a thick yellow coat of fur with dark USA Golden Rod stripes. Lion was the National Animal of India till 1972. Significance of Signs and Symbols Later on, it was replaced by Tiger. Symbol Meaning Other Indian National Symbols Red triangle Family planning National Bird Peacock Red cross Hospital/Ambulance (Pavo Cristatus) Red light Danger/Emergency National Flower Lotus Green light Line clear signal (Nelumbo Nucipera Gaertn) Olive branch Peace National River Ganga Black arm-band Sign of mourning/protest National Tree Banyan Dove Peace (Ficus Benghalensis) Black flag Demonstration of protest National Fruit Mango (Mangifera Indica) Red flag Sign of danger, revolution National Aquatic Animal Ganges River Dolphin Yellow Flag Displayed by ship with infectious disease on board National Heritage Elephant or ship in quarantine. Animal White Flag Truce National Game Hockey (De-facto) Tricolour National Flag of India  General Knowledge 3 Significance of Signs and Symbols Country Symbols Symbol Meaning Country Symbol Union Jack National Flag of UK India Royal Bengal Tiger Lotus Culture and civilization China Dragon Wheel Progress Russia Brown Bear Flag flown half National mourning USA Bald Eagle mast Spain Red Carnation Flag flown upside Distress down Japan Cherry Blossom A blind-folded Justice England Rose woman holding a Australia Golden Wattle Flower balance South Africa Blue Crane Pen Symbol of Culture and Civilization Greece Olive Branch Official Publications of Countries/Organizations Publication Issued/Released by Blue Book Report by the British Government Green Book Government of Italy and Iran Grey Book Japanese and Belgium Government Orange Book Government of the Netherlands White Book Official publication of Germany, Portugal and China White Paper (Shwet Patrika) Issued by the Government of India Yellow Book Issued by the Government of France Economic Survey Ministry of Finance (Government of India) Report on Currency and Finance Reserve Bank of India Wholesale Price Index Ministry of Commerce and Industry National Accounts Statistics Central Statistical Organization  CHAPTER GEOGRAPHY Latitude The areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the northern hemisphere, and It is the angular distance of a point on the earth’s the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle surface, measured in degrees from the centre of the earth. It varies from 0 to 90° North and 0 to in the southern hemisphere, have moderate 90° South. temperature, hence called Temperate Zones (or Latitudes are circular lines which are parallel Mild Zone). to the equator, which lies midway between the Areas bounded by the Arctic Circle and North poles. Hence, these lines are called parallels Pole, and the Antarctic Circle and South pole are of latitude. The latitudes are also called as called Frigid Zones. These zones are very cold temperature coordinates because with the as the sun does not rise above the horizon. increase in latitudinal distance towards the poles, the temperature reduces. Longitude It is an angular distance measured in degrees along the equator east or west of the Prime Meridian (0°). It varies from 0 to 180° E and 0 to 180° W. It is also called as time coordinates. Longitudes are also known as Great circles because it divides earth into two equal parts. Each longitude cuts each latitude at 90°. 1° = 4 minute i.e. 15° = 1 hour Meridians are a series of semicircles that run from pole to pole passing through the equator. N.P. W 0° °E 9 90 °E °W The most important lines of latitude are the 75 75 PRIME MERIDIAN Equator (0°), the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N), the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S), the Arctic Circle W E 60° 60° (66½°N) and the Antarctic Circle (66½°S). The midday sun is exactly overhead at least 45°W 45°E once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic 30°W 30°E of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area, 15°W 15°E therefore receives the maximum heat and is 0° called the Torrid Zone (or Tropical Zone).  64 General Studies The Prime Meridian is at 0° and is known as the is called Revolution of earth (also called annual Greenwich line as it passes through Greenwich movement). near London, where the British Royal Observatory is located. Varying Lengths of Day and Night Longitudes have one very important function i.e. they determine Local Time in relation to The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). earth’s orbit at an angle of 66½° giving rise to Local Time is the time reckoned by the noon-sun different seasons and varying lengths of day & at a given place and Standard Time is the Local night. Time of the Standard Meridian of a country. The earth’s revolution round the sun with its In India, the longitude of 82½° E is treated as the axis inclined at 66½° to the plane of earth’s orbit Standard Meridian. The Local Time at meridian is changes the apparent altitude of the midday sun. taken as the Standard Time for the whole country. The sun is vertically overhead at the equator on It is known as the Indian Standard Time (IST). 21 March and 23 September and these two days are termed as Equinoxes (equal length of day & night in both the hemisphere). International Date Line On 21 June, the sun is vertically overhead at It is an imaginary line drawn at 180° longitude, the Tropic of Cancer (23½° N). This is known as avoiding the continuous land parts. summer solstice, when the northern hemisphere International Date Line passes through Arctic will have its longest day and shortest night. Ocean, Bering Strait, Pacific Ocean, Antarctica, On 22 December, the sun is vertically over Fiji, Tonga and other islands. head at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S). This It is also the longitude where the date changes by is known as winter solstice, when the southern exactly one day when it is crossed. If a traveller hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest moves westward (from East to West), he gains a night. day, whereas form eastward (from West to East), Beyond the Arctic Circle (66½° N) and Antarctic he will loose a day. Circle (66½° S) darkness lasts for 6 months and daylight is continuous for the remaining 6 months. Motions of Earth The earth is a planet of the solar system. It is not Structure of Earth static but has two types of motions: (a) Rotational Motion (b) Revolutional (or Orbital) Motion (a) Rotation of Earth The earth spins (or rotates) continuously on its own axis from west to east once in every 24 hours, causing day and night. This motion is called Rotation of the Earth (also called ‘Daily Motion’). Day and Night: When the earth rotates on its own axis, only one portion of the earth’s surface comes into the rays of the sun and experiences day light whereas the other portion experiences darkness (or night). (b) Revolution of Earth The earth also revolves around the sun in an orbit The earth as a whole has been divided into three once in about 365 days and 6 hours, causing broad zones: formation of seasons and the year. This motion  Geography 65 1. Crust (SIAL) : The earth is made up of several More than 75% of the total land area of the globe distinct layers but the outermost layer is called is situated to the north of the equator, therefore the the crust. The crust is not a continuous layer of northern hemisphere is also known as the ‘Land rocks, but consists of large masses called plates, Hemisphere’ and the Southern hemisphere as which are free to drift slowly over a layer called the ‘Water Hemisphere’. It is believed that the Asthenosphere. continents are moving away from each other, The crust has a thickness of about 33 km in the Several theories have been propounded to continents (Continental crust) and 5-10 km thick explain this phenomenon: in the ocean basins (Oceanic crust). Silica and Continental Drift Theory: Aluminium are the main constituent of the earth This theory was proposed by famous German therefore it is also known as Sial. Geographer, Prof. Alfred Wagner in 1924. 2. Mantle (SIMA) : The layer of rock below the crust According to this theory, before 200 million years is called the mantle. It is about 2900 km thick and ago, there was a single land mass surrounded by is divided into the upper and lower mantle. This water which was named as Pangea. layer contains most of the mass of the earth, and is where most of the earth’s heat is located. The mantle is composed mainly of Ferro-magnesium silicates. (a) Upper Mantle: The upper mantle is about 650 km thick and has two distinct layers. The top layer of the upper mantle is solid. Combined with the crust, this layer forms the Lithosphere, which makes up the earth’s plates. With in this layer is the Asthenosphere, where semi molten rock flows slowly. (b) Lower Mantle : The lower mantle is solid and About 200 million years ago, pangea got cracked is about 2700 km thick. Though temperatures into two parts i.e. (a) Angaraland (or Laurasia) are higher here but the tremendous pressures (b) Gondwana land, and ocean water filled in it. keep the rock material from melting. As a result, a narrow sea was created, known as 3. Core : It is the innermost part of the earth and it Tethy’s Sea. comprises of outer core and inner core. (a) Outer Core : The outer core is liquid and is about 1900 km thick. It comprises of molten iron and nickel, formed as a result of the extremely high temperature. This liquid outer core controls the earth’s magnetic field. (b) Inner Core: The earth’s innermost core is about 1600 km thick and is made up of solid iron and nickel. The inner core is incredibly hot, with temperature reaching about 5,500°C and is subjected to a pressure of about 4 million atmospheres. It is this extreme pressure During further course of time, Angaraland was that keeps the inner core in a solid state. cracked into: (i) North American Plate  (ii) Eurasian Plate Formation of Continents Whereas Gondwana land was cracked into 5 plates: The age of earth is about 4500 million years (i) African Plate (4.5 billion) and about 70%, of the total surface (ii) South American Plate area of the globe is represented by the oceans (iii) Indian Plate (Hydrosphere), whereas remaining, 29.2% is (iv) Australian Plate represented by the continents, (Lithosphere). (v) Antarctic Plate  Geography 163 PRACTICE QUESTIONS GEOGRAPHY Q.1 Which of the following will never get the Q.8 Asiatic wild ass is naturally found in vertical rays of the sun? (a) Rann of Kutch (a) Srinagar (b) Baghelkhand (b) Mumbai (c) Sunderbans (c) Chennai (d) Shivaliks (d) Thiruvananthapuram Q.9 The hill stations in ascending order of heights Q.2 If the time of sunrise in Arunachal Pradesh are is 6.00 am, what will be the probable time of (a) Darjeeling, Srinagar, Leh, Simla sunrise in Saurashtra? (b) Srinagar, Darjeeling, Simla, Leh (a) 6.30 am (b) 5.30 am (c) Srinagar, Leh, Simla, Darjeeling (c) 8.00 am (d) 7.00 am (d) Simla, Srinagar, Leh, Darjeeling Q.3 What is Durand Line? Q.10 Which group of the rivers form delta? (a) Boundary line between Afghanistan and (a) Godavari, Narmada, Mahanadi Pakistan (b) Narmada, Kaveri, Mahanadi (b) Boundary line between India and Pakistan (c) Godavari, Kaveri, Mahanadi (c) Boundary line between India and China (d) Narmada, Krishna, Kaveri (d) Boundary line between India and Burma Q.11 The Baglihar Hydro-power project, is located Q.4 Duncan Pass is located between on which one of the following rivers? (a) North and Little Andaman (a) Beas (b) Chenab (b) North and South Andaman (c) Ravi (d) Satluj (c) North and Middle Andaman Q.12 Match List-I (Hydel Power Project) with List- (d) Andaman and Nicobar II (Location) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: Q.5 The highest dam of India is (a) Bhakra dam List-I List-II (b) Nagarjuna Sagar dam A. Balimela 1. Jammu & Kashmir (c) Hirakud dam B. Koyna 2. Maharashtra (d) Tehri dam C. Kundoh 3. Odisha Q.6 Sahyadri is the traditional name of the D. Salal 4. Tamil Nadu (a) Western Ghats 5. Uttar Pradesh (b) Eastern Ghats Codes: (c) Aravallis A B C D (d) Barbar and Nagarjuni hills (a) 3 2 4 1 (b) 5 1 2 4 Q.7 The climate of India is mainly tropical because (c) 3 1 2 4 of the (d) 5 2 4 1 (a) Seasonal influence of jet streams (b) Location of the Himalayas in its north Q.13 Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched? (c) Over-powering influence of Indian (a) Gwalior : Betwa Ocean (b) Dhaulpur : Chambal (d) Country being a part of Asian landmass  CHAPTER HISTORY & CULTURE Ancient India P R E H I STOR IC PER IO D INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION The early prehistoric period was observed before Indus Valley Civilization is one of the oldest the 8th millennium BCE. civilizations of the world. It flourished around the The period of the prehistoric agriculturalists and Indus river and its tributaries. The area consists pastoralists was during approximately the 8th to of modern Pakistan and Northwestern India. the mid-fourth millennium BCE. Mohenjodaro is the largest site of the Civilization. Indus valley civilization is also called as Harappan civilization because Harappa was the first site to be excavated in 1921 under the supervision of Daya Ram Sahni. The known extent of this civilization in the west is upto Sutkagendor in Baluchistan; Alamgirpur (UP) in the east; Daimabad (Maharashtra) in South; and Manda (J and K) in the north. Period/ Age Remarks This civilization belongs to Bronge Age/ Paleolithic People in Paleolithic age were Age dependent on hunting for their Chalcolithic Age. Hence, it is also called Bronze livelihood and used to travel from Age civilization. one place to another depending on Contemporary civilizations of Harappan civilization the availability of natural resources are Mesopotamian or Sumerian civilization, Egyptian for survival. They developed sharp weapons of stone for hunting civilization and Chinese civilization. purpose. John Marshall was the first scholar to use the Mesolithic During Mesolithic age, people were term “Indus Valley Civilization”. Age still hunter-gatherers, but were Important Sites of Harappan Civilization possibly starting to stay in one place. 1. Harappa Domestication of animals can be seen in this age. People of Harappa knew the process of making tarcoal. Neolithic During Neolithic age, stone tools Age and weapons were also further Main gate for the entry in the houses of modified and were sharpened by Harappa was in the north direction. fine shedding of the stones. R-37 cemetry have been found here. It also contributed greatly in the field Terracotta figurine of Mother Goddess have of transportation by an important been found here. invention of the wheel. Chalcolithic The people of Chalcolithic age 2. Mohenjo-daro Age practiced agriculture. They used Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 under tools made up of copper and stone. the supervision of R.D. Bannerji. Painted pottery was the most The literal meaning of Mohenjo-daro in Sindhi distinguishing feature of all Chalcolithic cultures. language is mound of the dead. 170 General Studies The Great Bath, a granary, big halls, a bronze 5. Dholavira statue of a dancing girl, idol of a yogi and Dholavira in Gujarat was discovered in 1992 numerous seals have been found here. by J.P. Joshi. Seven layers of Mohenjo-daro city directs Dholavira shows all the three phases of that the city was destroyed and rebuilt seven Harappan civilization. times. A script consists of big alphabets has been 3. Lothal found on a gate in Dholavira. In 1954, Lothal was discovered by S.R. Rao in Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat. Red & black clay pots, copper tools, brick built tank like structure, a bead making factory and a seal from Iran have been found at Lothal. Linear scale of bronze have been found here. A dockyard has been found at Lothal. 4. Kalibangan Kalibangan was discovered in 1953. It is located in upper Rajasthan. It did not have a drainage system. A number of firepits agnikundas (firepits) have been found here. It saw two cultural phases viz. pre-Harappan and Harappan. A ploughed field have been found here. Major Harappan Sites and their Excavators Site River District Province/ State Country Excavators Harappa Ravi Montgomery Punjab Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni (1921), Madho Swaroop Vatsa (1926), Wheeler (1946) Mohenjodaro Indus Larkana Sindh Pakistan Rakhal Das Bannerji (1922), Mackay (1927), Wheeler (1930) Chanhudaro Indus Nawabshah Sindh Pakistan Mackay (1925), N.G. Mazumdar (1931) Lothal Sabarmati Ahmedabad Gujarat India S.R. Rao (1954) & Bhogva Kalibangan Ghaggar Sri Gangana- Rajasthan India Amalanand Ghosh (1951), (i.e., the gar B.B. Lai & B.K. Thapar bangles of (1961) black colour) Banawali Saraswati Fatehabad Haryana India R.S. Bist (1973) Dholavira Luni Kutchh Gujarat India J.P. Joshi (1967-68)  History and Culture 171 Major Harappan Sites and Archeological Findings Site Archaeological Findings Harappa 6 Granaries in row, Working floors, Workmen's quarters, Virgin-Goddess (seal), Cemetery (R-37, H), Stone symbols of Lingam (male sex organ) & Yoni (female sex organ), Painted pottery, Clay figures of Mother Goddess, Wheat & Barley in wooden mortar, Copper scale, Crucible for bronze, Copper-made mirror, Vanity box, Dice. Mohenjodaro Great Bath, Great Granery (the largest building of civilization), Assembly hall, Shell strips, Pashupati Mahadeva/Proto-Shiva (seal), Bronze Image of a nude woman dancer, Steatite image of bearded man, Human skeletons huddled together, Painted seal (Demi-God), Clay figures of Mother Goddess, A fragment of woven cotton, Brick Kilns, 2 Mesopotamian seals, 1398 seals (57% to total seals of civilization),Dice. Chanhudaro City without a citadel, Inkpot, Lipstick; Metal-workers', shell-ornament makers' and bead- makers' shops; Imprint of dog's paw on a brick, Terracotta model of a bullock cart, Bronze toy cart. Kalibangan Ploughed field surface (Pre-Harappan), 7 Fire altars, Decorated bricks, Wheels of a toy cart, Mesopotamian cylindrical seal. Lothal Dockyard, Rice husk; Metal-workers', shell-ornament makers' & bead-makers' shops; Fire altars, Terracotta figurine of a horse, Double burial (burying a male and a female in a single grave), Terracotta model of a ship, Dying vat, Persian/ Iranian seal, Baharainean seal, Painted jar (bird & fox). Surkotada Bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials. Banawali Lack of chess-board or gridiron pattern town planning, Lack of systematic drainage system, Toy plough, Clay figures of Mother Goddess. Daimabad Bronze images (Charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant & rhinoceros) Dholavira A unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, a large well and a bath (giant water reservoirs), Only site to be divided into 3 parts, Largest Harappan inscription used for civic purposes, A stadium. Important Features of Indus Valley Civilization Town planning was the most distinguishable feature of the Harappan civilization. Hence, this civilization is also called first urbanisation. Towns were divided into parts viz. citadel and lower town. Citadels were occupied by members of ruling class and lower town was inhabited by the common people. Harappan cities were developed in Block Pattern/Chess Board Pattern because roads of these cities used to cut each other at right angles. Most peculiar feature of town planning was their drainage system. Drains were built of burnt bricks and covered by stone lids and manholes for cleaning. Complete burial was the most common method of the disposal of the dead. They grew wheat and barley on a large scale. The other crops grown were pulses, cereals, cotton, dates, melons, pea, sesamum and mustard. No clear evidence of rice has been found, except from Rangpur and Lothal where some grains of rice were found, but they may be of later period. Harappan people were mostly peasants and thus the Harappan civilization was an agro-commercial civilization. Evidences of hoe and plough have been found in kalibangan and Banawali.  CHAPTER INDIAN POLITY assist him. The first Governor-General of Bengal was Lord Warren Hastings. It made a provision of Supreme Court at Fort William in Calcutta, comprising one Chief Justice It was in 1934 when the idea of Constituent and three other judges. Assembly for India was put forward for the first It strengthened the control of the British time by M. N. Roy (A pioneer of communist Government over the East India Company by movement in India). requiring the Court of Directors which was a In 1935, the Indian National Congress (INC) governing body of the Company to report on its demanded a Constituent Assembly to frame the revenue, civil and military affairs in India. Constitution of India. In 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru, on behalf of INC Pitt’s India Act, 1784 declared that the Constitution of Free India must This Act created a new body called Board of be framed without outside interference and by Control to manage the political affairs while a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of Court of Directors were allowed to manage the Adult Franchise. The demand was accepted by commercial affairs. Thus, Pitts’s India Act made British Government during August Offer in 1940. a provision of separation in company’s political In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the and commercial activities. British Cabinet came to India with draft proposal It empowered the Board of Control to supervise of the British Government on the framing of an and direct all operations of the civil and military independent Constitution which to be adopted affairs and revenues of the British possessions in after the World War II. India. The Cripps Proposals were rejected by the The Company’s territories in India were for the Muslim League which wanted India to be divided first time called British Possessions in India. into two autonomous States with two separate Charter Act, 1793 Constituent Assemblies. This Act recognised the courts and redefined Finally, the Constituent Assembly was constituted their jurisdictions. Accordingly, the revenue in November,1946 under the scheme formulated administration was separated from the judiciary by the Cabinet Mission Plan. functions. This provision led to disappearing of the Maal Adalats (Revenue courts). Important British Acts of Constitutional Salaries of the members of the Board of Control to be drawn from the Indian exchequer. Significance Regulating Act, 1773 Charter Act, 1813 The Regulating Act, 1773 was the first step taken The East India Company’s monopoly over trade by the British Government to control and regulate was abolished in India but its monopoly over the affairs of the East India Company in India. trade with China and for trade in tea retained. It designated the Governor of Bengal as the This Act asked Company to spend one lakh ‘Governor-General of Bengal’ and created an rupees every year on the education of Indians. Executive Council consisting of four members to Christian missionaries were permitted to propagate their religion in India. 244 General Studies Charter Act, 1833 was made in-charge of one or more departments This Act made the Governor-General of Bengal of the government. as the Governor-General of India and vested in him all civil and military powers. Lord William Indian Councils Act, 1892 Bentinck was made the first Governor-General of This Act empowered the Universities, district India. boards, municipalities, zamindars and chambers The East India Company lost its monopoly over trade with China also and it was asked to close of Commerce to recommend members to the the commercial business. The Company became Provincial Legislative Council which were to be a purely administrative body. nominated by governors. This Act asked government to abolish slavery in According to this Act, the members of the India. Legislatures were for the first time entitled to take part in debate over Annual Statement of Revenue Charter Act, 1853 and Expenditure i.e. Budget. They could also put This Act had provisions of separation of executive questions within certain limitations. and legislative functions of the Governor General’s Council. It provided for addition of six Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) new members called Legislative Councillors to This Act is also known as Morley-Minto Reforms. the Indian (Central) Legislative Council. Morley was the then Secretary of State for India For the first time, the local representation in the and Lord Minto was the then Viceroy of India. Indian (Central) Legislative Council was allowed. Muslims were given separate representation An open competition system of selection and and hence Lord Minto came to be known as the recruitment of civil servants was introduced. For Father of Communal Electorate. the first time, Indians were allowed to take part in A provision was made for the association of Indians Civil Services recruitment process. Consequently, with the Executive Council of the Viceroy and the Macaulay Committee (the Committee on the Governors. Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the Indian Civil Service) was appointed in 1854. first Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council. He was appointed as Law Member. Government of India Act,1858 It brought an end to the Company’s rule and Government of India Act, 1919 (Montague- transferred all powers to the British crown. Chelmsford Reforms) The system of Dual government (Board of This Act is also known as Montague-Chelmsford Control and Court of Directors) introduced by Reforms or Montford Reforms. Montague Pitt’s India Act was abolished by this Act. was the then Secretary of State for India and A new office of Secretary of State for India was Chelmsford was the then Viceroy of India. created and he was vested with complete authority All administrative subjects were divided into and control over Indian administration. He was a two groups viz. central and provincial subjects. member of the British Cabinet and was ultimately responsible to the British Parliament. Lord Stanley Provincial subjects were further divided into two was the first Secretary of State for India. parts- transferred and reserved. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to Indian Councils Act, 1861 The Viceroy was empowered to issue ordinances the Legislative Council whereas Governor was in case of emergency without the concurrence not responsible towards Legislative Council in of the legislative council. The life span of such the discharge of reserved subjects. ordinances was six months. This dual scheme of governance was known as This Act also introduced the ‘portfolio’ system. ‘dyarchy’, a term derived from the Greek word Under this, a member of the Viceroy’s council diarche, which means double rule. For the first time, Indian Central Legislature was made bicameral (two Houses).  Indian Polity 245 For the first time, direct elections in the country This Act provided for the partition of India and were introduced. It granted franchise to a limited creation of two independent dominions of India number of people on the basis of property, tax or and Pakistan. education. It abolished the office of Viceroy and provided, It also provided for the establishment of the Public a Governor General for India and Pakistan separately, who was to be appointed by the Service Commission, which was established British Monarch on the advice of the cabinet of in 1926. both countries. Government of India Act, 1935 The Act divided the powers between the Centre and provinces in terms of three lists, namely Federal In the interim government formed in List (for Centre, with 59 subjects), Provincial List (for 1946, the Viceroy continued to be the provinces, with 54 subjects) and the Concurrent head of Executive Council. However, List (for both, with 36 subjects). Jawaharlal Nehru was designated as the Council of States having 260 members (156 from Vice-President of the council and he also British India & 104 from Indian States) was to headed the interim cabinet. be permanent House with 1/3 members to retire The members of the Interim Government every three years. were members of the Viceroy’s Executive A Federal Assembly to have 5 years duration consists of 375 members (250 from British India Council. The specific portfolios was and 125 from provinces). allotted to each member. This Act introduced bicameralism in six out Member from Indian National Congress of eleven provinces. Thus, the legislatures of (i) Jawaharlal Nehru (External Affairs and Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam and Commonwealth relations) the United Provinces were made bicameral (ii) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Home, consisting of a legislative council (upper house) Information and Broadcasting) and a legislative assembly (lower house). (iii) Dr. Rajendra Prasad (Food and It abolished dyarchy in the provinces and Agriculture) introduced provincial autonomy in its place. By (iv) Sardar Baldev Singh (Defence) these provisions, the provinces were allowed (v) Jagjivan Ram (Labour) to act as autonomous units of administration (vi) C. Rajagopalachari (Education and Arts) in their defined spheres in which the Governor (vii) Dr. John Mathai (Industries and Supplies) was required to act with the advice of ministers (viii) C. H. Bhabha (Works, Mines and Power) responsible to the provincial legislature. (ix) Asaf Ali (Railway and Transport) The Act provided for the establishment for a Federal Court which was set up in 1937. Member from Muslim League It also provided for the adoption of dyarchy at the (i) Liaquat Ali Khan (Finance) Centre. (ii) Abdur Rab Nishtar (Posts and Air) It provided for the establishment of Reserve Bank (iii) I.I. Chundrigar (Commerce) of India to control the currency and credit of the (vi) Ghazanafar Ali Khan (Health) country. (v) Joginder Nath Mandal (Law) It also provided for the establishment of Federal Public Service Commission, Provincial Public Framing of Constitution of India Service Commission and Joint Public Service The Constituent Assembly which was set up in Commission for two or more provinces. 1946 as per the Cabinet Mission Plan, was given Indian Independence Act, 1947 the task of framing of Constitution of India. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 ended the The members of Constituent Assembly were British rule in India and declared India as an elected indirectly by the provincial assemblies in independent and sovereign state from August the ratio of one member per million population. 15, 1947. Modern Periodic Table 378 General Studies PRACTICE QUESTIONS CHEMISTRY Q.1 Age of fossil may be found out by determining Q.6 Which one of the following properties change the ratio of two isotopes of carbon. The with valency? isotopes are (a) Atomic weight (a) C-12 and C-13 (b) Molecular weight (b) C-13 and C-14 (c) Density (c) C-12 and C-14 (d) Equivalent weight (d) C-12 and carbon black Q.7 The polymeric fibre used as substitute for wool Q.2 Which one among the following statement in making synthetic blankets, sweater, etc., is about an atom is not correct? (a) Nylon (b) Teflon (a) Atoms always combine to form molecule. (c) Orlon (d) Bakelite (b) Atoms are the basic units from which Q.8 Scuba divers are at high risk due to high molecules and ions are formed. concentration of dissolved gases while (c) Atoms are always neutral in nature. breathing air at high pressure under water. (d) Atoms aggregate in large numbers to The tanks used by Scuba divers are filled with form the matter that we can see, feel and (a) air diluted with helium touch. (b) O2 Q.3 Which one among the following statements is (c) N2 correct? (d) a mixture of nitrogen and helium (a) All bases are alkalis. Q.9 Which one among the following is not a (b) None of the bases is alkali. periodic property i.e., does not show any (c) There are no more bases except the trend on moving from one side to the other in alkalis. the Periodic Table? (d) All alkalis are bases but all bases are not (a) Atomic size alkalis. (b) Radioactivity Q.4 From which one among the following water (c) Valency source, the water is likely to be contaminated (d) Electronegativity with fluorine? Q.10 Which one of the following is used as a (a) Ground water mordant in dyeing and tanning industry? (b) Rain water (a) Magnesium oxide (c) River water (b) Magnesium chloride (d) Pond water (c) Magnesium sulphate Q.5 Gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) is added to clinker (d) Magnesium carbonate during cement manufacturing to Q.11 Which one of the following petroleum refinery (a) decrease the rate of setting of cement products has the lowest boiling point? (b) bind the particle of calcium silicate (a) Kerosene (b) Gasoline (c) facilitate the formation of colloidal gel (c) Diesel (d) Lubricating oil (d) impart strength to cement  BIOLOGY The parasitic protozoans feed on materials obtained from the hosts (e.g. Monocystis). Examples: (i) Free living: Euglena, Amoeba, Paramoecium, Animals Noctiluca and Elphidium. (ii) Parasitic: Monocystis, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Trypanosoma and Giardia. Classification of animals 2. Phylum Porifera (Pore Bearing Animals) When any plane passing through the central axis These are commonly known as sponges. They of the body divides the organism in two halves are the most primitive group of multicellular that are approximately mirror images it is called animals. About 5000 species of sponges are Radial symmetry and the animals showing radial symmetry are called Radiata. known. Most of them are marine and remain When the body can be divided into identical left attached to rocks. A few live in fresh water. and right halves in only one plane. This kind of The sponges are diploblastic. symmetry is called bilateral symmetry and such Sponges reproduce asexually by animals are called Bilateria. fragmentation. Almost 99 percent of animals are invertebrates 3. Phylum Cnidaria (animals without backbone) and the remaining The phylum name is derived from the stinging represents the vertebrates (animals with cells or cnidoblasts present on the ectoderm backbone). Also, the animals are categorised into of tentacles and body of the carnivorous two major groups, non-chordates and chordates, animals. Cnidarians have achieved tissue on the basis of the presence or absence of grade of organisation and they exhibit a blind notochord at some stage in their life. sac body plan and radial symmetry. The animal kingdom is divided into 35 Phyla (singular: Cnidarians are diplosblastic animals in which Phylum) of which 11 are considered as major Phyla. the body wall consists of only two layers 1. Phylum Protozoa (Unicellular Protist Animals) or cells, an outer ectoderm and an inner They are microscopic organisms in which a endoderm, separated by a gelatinous layer of single cell performs all the vital activities. mesoglea. They are aquatic (fresh water and marine) and Examples: Hydra, Obelia, Porpita, Vellela, cosmopolitan in distribution. Some forms are Physalia (Portuguese man of war), Aurelia parasitic. The protozoan cell body is either (Jellyfish), Adamsia (Sea anemone), Pennatula naked, (for example, amoeba) or surrounded (Sea-pen) and Gorgonia (Sea-fan). by a non-rigid pellicle (Cellulose is absent in 4. Phylum Ctenophora pellicle). Ctenophores are marine animals with Different types of locomotory organs are transparent and flat or oval body shape. found in protozoans. Polyphase is absent in their life cycle. These Locomotory organs are absent in the parasitic are bilaterally symmetrical and devoid of forms (Sporozoa) of protozoans. cnidoblast cells. Most protozoans are free-living and aquatic. The presence of a special sense organ at the They are holozoic and feed largely on opposite end of the mouth (aboral end) is the bacteria, microscopic algae and minute characteristic of the members of this phylum. animals such as rotifers or on other protozoans They reproduce only by sexual means and do including members of their own species. Some not exhibit larval phase in their life cycle. protozoans are holophytic i.e. they prepare their own food by photosynthesis (e.g. Euglena). 5. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) These are dorsoventrally flattened and, hence,  General Science Biology 383 commonly known as flatworms. These are Examples: Araneus (garden spider), Limulus mostly parasites. (king crab), Buthus (scorpion), Eupagurus These are triploblastic and unsegmented (hermit crab), Cancer (common crab), animals exhibiting bilateral symmetry. Macrobrachium (prawn), Lepisma (silverfish), They reproduce both asexually and sexually. Periplaneta (cockroach), Apis (bee), Anopheles They are hermaphrodites or bisexual i.e., both (mosquito), Musca (housefly), Leptocorisa male and female sex cells are produced by the (paddy pest: gandhi poka), Triops (tadpole fish), same individual. Daphnia (water flea), Cyclops, Squilla, Astacus Examples: Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver (crayfish), Lepas and Balanus (Barnacle). Fluke), Schistosoma (Blood fluke) etc. 10. Phylum Chordata (Scordates) 6. Phylum Nemathelminthes (Round Worms) Chordata refers to the group of animals which These are also known as nematodes. Their possess notochord either throughout or during bodies appear circular in cross-section, early embryonic life. Notochord is a stiff and hence, the name roundworm. Though not flexible rod of tissues lying ventral to nerve apparent they are possibly the most abundant chord. All the chordates are triploblastic, and numerous among animals. coelomate and bilaterally symmetrical. Roundworms are bilaterally symmetrical, Phylum Chordata is divided into four triplo-blastic and pseudocoelomate animals subphyla viz. subphylum Hemichordata or with an organ system grade of organization. stomochordata, subphylum Urochordata or Round worms have a tube within a tube body Tunicata, subphylum Cephalochordata or plan with mouth, faringes, intestine and anus. Acrania and subphylum Vertebrata. Sexes are usually separate, often with small male and large female individuals. Difference between Chordates & Examples: Ascaris, Wuchereria (Filaria Non-chordates worm), Ancylostoma (Hook worm), Enterobius Chordates Non-Chordates (Pin worm) and Rhaditis. 7. Phylum Annelida 1. Notochord Present. 1. Notochord absent. Metamerically segmented animals with a true 2. Central nervous 2. Central nervous coelom. system is dorsal, system is ventral, Examples: Nereis, Aphrodite (sea mouse), hollow and single. solid and double. Phere-tima (Earthworm), Tubifex, Hirudinaria 3. Pharynx perforated 3. Gill slits are (Leech), Chaetopterus, Erebella, and Bonnellia. by gill slits. absent. 8. Phylum Mollusca (Soft Bodied Animals) 4. Heart is ventral. 4. Heart is dorsal. They are triploblastic coelomates and usually with bilateral symmetry. They are terrestrial, 5. A post anal meta- 5. Terminal part marine and fresh water inhabitants. merically segmented (pygidium) is Examples: Pilla (apple snail), Achatina tail is present. unsegmented. (land snail), Lamellidens (mussel), Pinctada (peal oyster), Sepia (cutlefish), Loligo (squid), 11. Phylum Echinodermata (Spiny Skinned Animals) Octopus (devilfish), Doris (sea-lemon), Aplysia Echinoderms bears many spines and hence (sea-hare) and Teredo (shipworm). all are marine, triploblastic and coelomate. 9. Phylum Arthropoda The most distinctive feature of echinoderms is the presence of water vascular system, which The phylum Arthropoda constitutes the largest group of animals with about 900,000 is a part of the coelom. Its main function is species. These are triploblastic, coelomate locomotion and capture of food. and bilaterally symmetrical animals. Examples: Asterias (star fish or sea Arthropods have a segmented body, each star), Echinus (sea urchin), Echinocardium segment bearing a pair of jointed appendages (heart urchin), Antedon (feature star of sea covered by a jointed exoskeleton. lily), Cucumaria (sea cucumber) and Ophitura Arthropods are unisexual. (brittle star).  CHAPTER SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 12. Raman Research Institute, Bengaluru. 13. S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Kolkata. Ministry of Science and Technology 14. Sreechitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Department of Science and Technology (DST), Sciences & Technology, Thiruvananthapura. Department of Scientific & Industrial Research 15. Technology Information, Forecasting & (DSIR) and Department of Biotechnology (DBT) are Assessment Council (TIFAC), New Delhi. the departments which work under the Ministry of 16. Vigyan Prasar, New Delhi. Science & Technology. 17. Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Department of Science and Technology (DST) Dehradun. DST is primarily entrusted with the responsibility 18. Institute of Advanced Studies in Science & of formulation of S&T policies and their Technology, Guwahati. implementation, identification and promotion of thrust areas of research in different sectors Department of Scientific and Industrial Research of S&T; technology information, forecasting (DSIR) and assessment; international collaboration, Council of Scientific and Industrial research promotion of science & society programmes and coordination of S&T activities in the country. (CSIR) and Consultancy Development Centre (CDC) are the two autonomous institutions which The list of autonomous S&T institutions is work under DSIR. 1. Agharkar Research Institute, Pune. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research 2. Aryabhatta Research Institute of (CSIR), with its 39 laboratories dedicated to research Observational-Sciences, Nainital. and development in well-defined areas and around 50 3. Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow. field stations, is the major organization under DSIR. 4. Bose Institute, Kolkata. Among the other programmes of DSIR are: 5. Centre for Liquid Crystal Research, Jalahalli, support to R&D by industry, programmes aimed at Bengaluru. technological self-reliance, schemes to enhance 6. Indian Association for the Cultivation of efficacy of transfer of technology and a National Science, Kolkata. Information System for Science and Technology 7. International Advanced Research Centre (NISSAT). for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials, The list of CSIR Laboratories is as follows: Hyderabad. 1. Central Building Research Institute (CBRI), Roorkee 8. Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bengaluru. 2. Center for Cellular & Molecular Biology 9. Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, Mumbai. (CCMB), Hyderabad 10. Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced 3. Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Scientific Research, Bengaluru. Lucknow 11. National Accreditation Board for Testing & 4. Central Electrochemical Research Institute Calibration Laboratories, New Delhi. (CECRI), Karaikudi 558 General Studies PRACTICE QUESTIONS ENVIRONMENT Q.1 How much forest % is good for ecological Q.9 If you travel through the Himalayas, you are balance? Likely to see which of the following plants (a) 33% (b) 66% naturally growing there? (c) 35% (d) 38% 1. Oak 2. Rhododendron Q.2 In lake ecosystem, pyramid of biomass is (a) upright 3. Sandalwood (b) inverted Select the correct answer using the code (c) anything is possible given below (d) None of them (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Q.3 Which one of the following is a top carnivore of grassland food chain? Q.10 Consider the following statements: (a) snake (b) deer 1. Energy flow through the trophic levels (c) vulture (d) frog from producers to subsequent trophic Q.4 Consider the following statements regarding level is bi-directional. productivity: 2. Energy level increases from the first trophic 1. Primary productivity of ecosystem level upwards due to addition of energy in is the rate at which plants and other the form of heat at each trophic level. photosynthetic organisms produce Which of the above statements is/are correct? organic compounds. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only 2. Secondary productivity is the rate at (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 which energy is stored at different levels in consumers. Q.11 Snowfall is a Which of the above statements is/are (a) biotic factor (b) abiotic factor correct? (c) Both of them (d) None of them (a) 1 only (b) 2 only Q.12 Microbes are a (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) biotic factor (b) abiotic factor Q.5 Which of the following is the nature’s cleaner? (c) edaphic factor (d) None of them (a) Producers (b) Consumer (c) Decomposers (d) Man Q.13 Which one of the following is not an abiotic component of environment? Q.6 Pyramid of energy in a pond ecosystem is (a) Radiation (b) Geologic substratum always (c) Symbionts (d) Gravity (a) inverted (b) upright (c) irregular (d) linear Q.14 The gas responsible for Bhopal gas tragedy Q.7 Xerosere succession is related to was (a) land (b) rocks (a) Methane (b) Methyl isocyanide (c) pond (d) desert (c) CO (d) Methyl propane Q.8 Chipko Movement in Karnataka is known as Q.15 Photochemical smog mainly contains (a) Appiko movement (b) Sipko movement (a) CFC (b) SO2 (c) Assiko movement (d) None of these (c) H2O (d) NO2