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Thoroughly Revised & Improved Edition General Studies 2022 SSC | Railways | Banking | PSUs | UPSC State Public Services & State Engineering Exams by B. Singh | A.P. Singh Publications ...

Thoroughly Revised & Improved Edition General Studies 2022 SSC | Railways | Banking | PSUs | UPSC State Public Services & State Engineering Exams by B. Singh | A.P. Singh Publications  Publications MADE EASY Publications Corporate Office: 44-A/4, Kalu Sarai (Near Hauz Khas Metro Station), New Delhi-110016 E-mail: [email protected] Contact: 011-45124660, 08860378007 Visit us at: www.madeeasypublications.org General Studies Copyright © 2021, by MADE EASY Publications. All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photo- copying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the above mentioned publisher of this book. 1st Edition: 2006 2nd Edition: 2007 3rd Edition : 2008 4th Edition: 2009 5th Edition: 2010 6th Edition: 2010 6th Reprint: 2011 7th Edition : 2012 8th Edition : 2013 9th Edition: 2014 10th Edition: 2015 11th Edition: 2016 12th Edition: 2017 13th Edition: 2018 14th Edition: 2019 15th Edition: 2020 16th Edition: 2021 MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS has taken due care in collecting the data and providing the solutions, before publishing this book. Inspite of this, if any inaccuracy or printing error occurs then MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS owes no responsibility. MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS will be grateful if you could point out any such error. Your suggestions will be appreciated. © All rights reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the written permission from the publisher.  Preface This comprehensive text book on General Studies explains the subject matter in a brief and simple style. The authors are very well aware of the requirements of examinations conducted by UPSC, SSC, State Public Service Examinations, Railways Examinations and Public Sector Examinations. This book has been very well targeted covering all the aspects of subject matter required for various examinations. Since last one decade, authors have closely studied the marks of various candidates appeared & selected in government sectors and other examinations and found that those who have scored below average or poor marks in General Studies section, are either not able to get selection or get poor ranks, hence it has been realized that general studies section should be given significant importance. There is no good book available to the readers in the market, which covers all the aspects of Geography, Polity, History, Life Science, Economy, General knowledge, General Science, Environment, Basics of Computer Applications and Science & Technology that may satisfy the requirements of various competitive examinations conducted for aspirants. In this edition authors have put sincere efforts to satisfy all the requirements of various examinations. The book is thoroughly revised and updated. Authors have tried to incorporate previous year questions of UPSC, SSC, State Public Service Examinations, Railways examinations and Public Sector Examinations. The authors feel that this book will be sufficient and highly useful for all the competitive examinations conducted for graduates from every discipline. Any suggestions from the readers for the improvement of the book are most welcome. B. Singh A.P. Singh  General Contents Studies 1. General Knowledge.................................................. 01 ~ 62 2. Geography...............................................................63 ~ 168 3. History and Culture..............................................169 ~ 242 4. Indian Polity.........................................................243 ~ 296 5. General Science.....................................................297 ~ 436 6. Basics of Computer Applications..........................437 ~ 452 7. Science & Technology............................................453 ~ 500 8. Environment.........................................................501 ~ 560 9. Indian Economy....................................................561 ~ 580 (iv)  GENERAL KNOWLEDGE CHAPTER Basic General Knowledge of India & World National Emblem NATIONAL SYMBOLS The National Emblem of India is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. It was adopted by the Government of India on January National Flag 26, 1950. The National Flag of India is a horizontal tricolour In this emblem, only three lions are visible, the of deep saffron (Kesaria) at the top, white in the fourth lion being hidden from view. The wheel middle and dark green at the bottom in equal appears in relief in the centre of the abacus proportion. The ratio of width of the flag to its with a bull on right and a horse on left. The length is 2:3. In the centre of the white band a bell shaped lotus (as in the original) has been navy-blue wheel is located which represents the omitted. The other animals present in the emblem Chakra. are an Elephant and a Lion. It was adopted by Constituent Assembly of India The words Satyameva Jayate are inscribed below on July 22, 1947. the abacus in Devanagri script. These words are A tricolour flag was first accepted by the Indian taken from Mundaka Upanishad. National Congress in 1931, having Charkha in place of today’s Chakra. The horizontal colour strip of deep Saffron at top National Anthem represents courage, sacrifice and renunciation, The song Jana gana mana is the National Anthem White at middle shows truth and purity in thoughts of India which was composed by Rabindra Nath and dark Green at the bottom is the symbol of life Tagore, originally in Bengali. abundance and prosperity. It was adopted by Constituent Assembly on A wheel (Chakra) in centre of the white strip is the January 24, 1950 in its Hindi version. symbol of progress and movement. It has 24 spokes. The song Jana gana mana was first published in Supreme Court declared the right to hoist flag as January, 1912 under the title ‘Bharat Vidhata’ in a Fundamental Right under Article 19 (i) (a) of Tattva Bodhini Patrika. the Constitution in 2002. Flag hoisting in India is The song was translated in English in 1919 with regulated by Flag Code of India, 2002. the title “Morning Song of India’’. The Flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya and first time, the flag was hoisted by Sacchindra It was first sung at the Calcutta Session of Prasad Bose in 1906 in Calcutta and later on in the Congress on December 27, 1911. year 1907 an another tricolour flag was unfurled by Playing time of full version of National Anthem is Madam Bhikaji Cama in Stuttgart, Germany. 52 seconds while it is 20 seconds for first and The first flag committee was headed by Dr. last lines of the stanza. Rajendra Prasad.  2 General Studies National Song National Emblems of Countries “Vande Mataram” is the National song of India, Country Emblem which was composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, originally in Sanskrit. India Sarnath Lion Capital It was adopted on January 24, 1950, providing Australia Kangaroo it equal status with National Anthem Jana gana mana. Bangladesh Water Lily It is taken from his novel Anand Math published Canada White Lily in 1882. Its English translation was done by Sri Aurobindo. France Lily It was sung for the first time at the Congress Germany Corn flower Session of 1896. Iran Rose National Calendar Italy White Lily National Calendar is based on Saka Era (began on 78 A.D.) with Chaitra as its first month and Japan Chrysanthemum Phalguna as its last month with a normal year of Pakistan Crescent 365 days adopted from March 22, 1957 along Spain Eagle with the Gregorian Calendar. First day of Chaitra normally falls on March 22 Sri Lanka Sword & Lion and on March 21 in leap year. Russia Sickle and Hammer Norway Lion National Animal The Tiger (Panthera Tigris) is the National Animal United Kingdom Rose of India. It has a thick yellow coat of fur with dark USA Golden Rod stripes. Lion was the National Animal of India till 1972. Significance of Signs and Symbols Later on, it was replaced by Tiger. Symbol Meaning Other Indian National Symbols Red triangle Family planning National Bird Peacock Red cross Hospital/Ambulance (Pavo Cristatus) Red light Danger/Emergency National Flower Lotus Green light Line clear signal (Nelumbo Nucipera Gaertn) Olive branch Peace National River Ganga Black arm-band Sign of mourning/protest National Tree Banyan Dove Peace (Ficus Benghalensis) Black flag Demonstration of protest National Fruit Mango (Mangifera Indica) Red flag Sign of danger, revolution National Aquatic Animal Ganges River Dolphin Yellow Flag Displayed by ship with infectious disease on board National Heritage Elephant or ship in quarantine. Animal White Flag Truce National Game Hockey (De-facto) Tricolour National Flag of India  GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER Latitude The areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the northern hemisphere, and It is the angular distance of a point on the earth’s the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle surface, measured in degrees from the centre of the earth. It varies from 0 to 90° North and 0 to in the southern hemisphere, have moderate 90° South. temperature, hence called Temperate Zones (or Latitudes are circular lines which are parallel Mild Zone). to the equator, which lies midway between the Areas bounded by the Arctic Circle and North poles. Hence, these lines are called parallels Pole, and the Antarctic Circle and South pole are of latitude. The latitudes are also called as called Frigid Zones. These zones are very cold temperature coordinates because with the as the sun does not rise above the horizon. increase in latitudinal distance towards the poles, the temperature reduces. Longitude N.P. It is an angular distance measured in degrees along 66½°N North 66½°N the equator east or west of the Prime Meridian (0°). Frigid Zone It varies from 0 to 180° E and 0 to 180° W. It is also Arctic Circle called as time coordinates. North Temperate Zone Longitudes are also known as Great circles 23½°N Tropic of Capricorn 23½°N because it divides earth into two equal parts. Each Torrid Zone Equator longitude cuts each latitude at 90°. 0° 0° 1° = 4 minute i.e. 15° = 1 hour Torrid Zone Meridians are a series of semicircles that run Tropic of Capricorn 23½°S 23½°S from pole to pole passing through the equator. South Temperate Zone tic Antarc Circle South 66½°S Frigid Zone 66½°S N.P. W °E 9 0° 90 S.P. °E °W The most important lines of latitude are the 75 75 PRIME MERIDIAN Equator (0°), the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N), the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S), the Arctic Circle W E 60° 60° (66½°N) and the Antarctic Circle (66½°S). The midday sun is exactly overhead at least 45°W 45°E once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic 30°W 30°E of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area, 15°W 15°E therefore receives the maximum heat and is 0° called the Torrid Zone (or Tropical Zone).  64 General Studies The Prime Meridian is at 0° and is known as the is called Revolution of earth (also called annual Greenwich line as it passes through Greenwich movement). near London, where the British Royal Observatory is located. Varying Lengths of Day and Night Longitudes have one very important function i.e. they determine Local Time in relation to The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). earth’s orbit at an angle of 66½° giving rise to Local Time is the time reckoned by the noon-sun different seasons and varying lengths of day & at a given place and Standard Time is the Local night. Time of the Standard Meridian of a country. The earth’s revolution round the sun with its In India, the longitude of 82½° E is treated as the axis inclined at 66½° to the plane of earth’s orbit Standard Meridian. The Local Time at meridian is changes the apparent altitude of the midday sun. taken as the Standard Time for the whole country. The sun is vertically overhead at the equator on It is known as the Indian Standard Time (IST). 21 March and 21 September and these two days are termed as Equinoxes (equal length of day & night in both the hemisphere). International Date Line On 21 June, the sun is vertically overhead at It is an imaginary line drawn at 180° longitude, the Tropic of Cancer (23½° N). This is known as avoiding the continuous land parts. summer solstice, when the northern hemisphere International Date Line passes through Arctic will have its longest day and shortest night. Ocean, Bering Strait, Pacific Ocean, Antarctica, On 22 December, the sun is vertically over Fiji, Tonga and other islands. head at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S). This It is also the longitude where the date changes by is known as winter solstice, when the southern exactly one day when it is crossed. If a traveller hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest crossing the date line from east to west, he loses night. a day and while crossing the date line from west Beyond the Arctic Circle (66½° N) and Antarctic to east, he gains a day. Circle (66½° S) darkness lasts for 6 months and daylight is continuous for the remaining 6 months. Motions of Earth The earth is a planet of the solar system. It is not Structure of Earth static but has two types of motions: (a) Rotational Motion (b) Revolutional (or Orbital) Motion (a) Rotation of Earth The earth spins (or rotates) continuously on its own axis from west to east once in every 24 hours, causing day and night. This motion is called Rotation of the Earth (also called ‘Daily Motion’). Day and Night: When the earth rotates on its own axis, only one portion of the earth’s surface comes into the rays of the sun and experiences day light whereas the other portion experiences darkness (or night). (b) Revolution of Earth The earth also revolves around the sun in an orbit once in about 365 days and 6 hours, causing The earth as a whole has been divided into three formation of seasons and the year. This motion broad zones:  Geography 65 1. Crust (SIAL) : The earth is made up of several More than 75% of the total land area of the globe distinct layers but the outermost layer is called is situated to the north of the equator, therefore the the crust. The crust is not a continuous layer of northern hemisphere is also known as the ‘Land rocks, but consists of large masses called plates, Hemisphere’ and the Southern hemisphere as which are free to drift slowly over a layer called the ‘Water Hemisphere’. It is believed that the Asthenosphere. continents are moving away from each other, The crust has a thickness of about 33 km in the Several theories have been propounded to continents (Continental crust) and 5-10 km thick explain this phenomenon: in the ocean basins (Oceanic crust). Silica and Continental Drift Theory: Aluminium are the main constituent of the earth This theory was proposed by famous German therefore it is also known as Sial. Geographer, Prof. Alfred Wagner in 1924. 2. Mantle (SIMA) : The layer of rock below the crust According to this theory, before 200 million years is called the mantle. It is about 2900 km thick and ago, there was a single land mass surrounded by is divided into the upper and lower mantle. This water which was named as Pangea. layer contains most of the mass of the earth, and is where most of the earth’s heat is located. The mantle is composed mainly of Ferro-magnesium silicates. (a) Upper Mantle: The upper mantle is about 650 km thick and has two distinct layers. The top layer of the upper mantle is solid. Combined with the crust, this layer forms the Lithosphere, which makes up the earth’s plates. With in this layer is the Asthenosphere, where semi molten rock flows slowly. (b) Lower Mantle : The lower mantle is solid and About 200 million years ago, pangea got cracked is about 2700 km thick. Though temperatures into two parts i.e. (a) Angaraland (or Laurasia) are higher here but the tremendous pressures (b) Gondwana land, and ocean water filled in it. keep the rock material from melting. As a result, a narrow sea was created, known as 3. Core : It is the innermost part of the earth and it Tethy’s Sea. comprises of outer core and inner core. (a) Outer Core : The outer core is liquid and is about 1900 km thick. It comprises of molten iron and nickel, formed as a result of the extremely high temperature. This liquid outer core controls the earth’s magnetic field. (b) Inner Core: The earth’s innermost core is about 1600 km thick and is made up of solid iron and nickel. The inner core is incredibly hot, with temperature reaching about 5,500°C and is subjected to a pressure of about 4 million atmospheres. It is this extreme pressure During further course of time, Angaraland was that keeps the inner core in a solid state. cracked into: (i) North American Plate  (ii) Eurasian Plate Formation of Continents Whereas Gondwana land was cracked into 5 plates: The age of earth is about 4500 million years (i) African Plate (4.5 billion) and about 70%, of the total surface (ii) South American Plate area of the globe is represented by the oceans (iii) Indian Plate (Hydrosphere), whereas remaining, 29.2% is (iv) Australian Plate represented by the continents, (Lithosphere). (v) Antarctic Plate  HISTORY & CULTURE CHAPTER Ancient India P R E H I STOR IC PER IO D INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION The early prehistoric period was observed before Indus Valley Civilization is one of the oldest the 8th millennium BCE. civilizations of the world. It flourished around the The period of the prehistoric agriculturalists and Indus river and its tributaries. The area consists pastoralists was during approximately the 8th to of modern Pakistan and Northwestern India. the mid-fourth millennium BCE. Mohenjodaro is the largest site of the Civilization. Indus valley civilization is also called as Harappan civilization because Harappa was the first site to be excavated in 1921 under the supervision of Daya Ram Sahni. The known extent of this civilization in the west is upto Sutkagendor in Baluchistan; Alamgirpur (UP) in the east; Daimabad (Maharashtra) in South; and Manda (J and K) in the north. Period/ Age Remarks This civilization belongs to Bronge Age/ Paleolithic People in Paleolithic age were Age dependent on hunting for their Chalcolithic Age. Hence, it is also called Bronze livelihood and used to travel from Age civilization. one place to another depending on Contemporary civilizations of Harappan civilization the availability of natural resources are Mesopotamian or Sumerian civilization, Egyptian for survival. They developed sharp weapons of stone for hunting civilization and Chinese civilization. purpose. John Marshall was the first scholar to use the Mesolithic During Mesolithic age, people were term “Indus Valley Civilization”. Age still hunter-gatherers, but were Important Sites of Harappan Civilization possibly starting to stay in one place. 1. Harappa Domestication of animals can be seen in this age. People of Harappa knew the process of making tarcoal. Neolithic During Neolithic age, stone tools Age and weapons were also further Main gate for the entry in the houses of modified and were sharpened by Harappa was in the north direction. fine shedding of the stones. R-37 cemetry have been found here. It also contributed greatly in the field Terracotta figurine of Mother Goddess have of transportation by an important been found here. invention of the wheel. Chalcolithic The people of Chalcolithic age 2. Mohenjo-daro Age practiced agriculture. They used Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 under tools made up of copper and stone. the supervision of R.D. Bannerji. Painted pottery was the most The literal meaning of Mohenjo-daro in Sindhi distinguishing feature of all Chalcolithic cultures. language is mound of the dead. 170 General Studies The Great Bath, a granary, big halls, a bronze 5. Dholavira statue of a dancing girl, idol of a yogi and Dholavira in Gujarat was discovered in 1992 numerous seals have been found here. by J.P. Joshi. Seven layers of Mohenjo-daro city directs Dholavira shows all the three phases of that the city was destroyed and rebuilt seven Harappan civilization. times. A script consists of big alphabets has been 3. Lothal found on a gate in Dholavira. In 1954, Lothal was discovered by S.R. Rao in Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat. Red & black clay pots, copper tools, brick built tank like structure, a bead making factory and a seal from Iran have been found at Lothal. Linear scale of bronze have been found here. A dockyard has been found at Lothal. 4. Kalibangan Kalibangan was discovered in 1953. It is located in upper Rajasthan. It did not have a drainage system. A number of firepits agnikundas (firepits) have been found here. It saw two cultural phases viz. pre-Harappan and Harappan. A ploughed field have been found here. Major Harappan Sites and their Excavators Site River District Province/ State Country Excavators Harappa Ravi Montgomery Punjab Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni (1921), Madho Swaroop Vatsa (1926), Wheeler (1946) Mohenjodaro Indus Larkana Sindh Pakistan Rakhal Das Bannerji (1922), Mackay (1927), Wheeler (1930) Chanhudaro Indus Nawabshah Sindh Pakistan Mackay (1925), N.G. Mazumdar (1931) Lothal Sabarmati Ahmedabad Gujarat India S.R. Rao (1954) & Bhogva Kalibangan Ghaggar Sri Gangana- Rajasthan India Amalanand Ghosh (1951), (i.e., the gar B.B. Lai & B.K. Thapar bangles of (1961) black colour) Banawali Saraswati Fatehabad Haryana India R.S. Bist (1973) Dholavira Luni Kutchh Gujarat India J.P. Joshi (1967-68)  History and Culture 171 Major Harappan Sites and Archeological Findings Site Archaeological Findings Harappa 6 Granaries in row, Working floors, Workmen's quarters, Virgin-Goddess (seal), Cemetery (R-37, H), Stone symbols of Lingam (male sex organ) & Yoni (female sex organ), Painted pottery, Clay figures of Mother Goddess, Wheat & Barley in wooden mortar, Copper scale, Crucible for bronze, Copper-made mirror, Vanity box, Dice. Mohenjodaro Great Bath, Great Granery (the largest building of civilization), Assembly hall, Shell strips, Pashupati Mahadeva/Proto-Shiva (seal), Bronze Image of a nude woman dancer, Steatite image of bearded man, Human skeletons huddled together, Painted seal (Demi-God), Clay figures of Mother Goddess, A fragment of woven cotton, Brick Kilns, 2 Mesopotamian seals, 1398 seals (57% to total seals of civilization),Dice. Chanhudaro City without a citadel, Inkpot, Lipstick; Metal-workers', shell-ornament makers' and bead- makers' shops; Imprint of dog's paw on a brick, Terracotta model of a bullock cart, Bronze toy cart. Kalibangan Ploughed field surface (Pre-Harappan), 7 Fire altars, Decorated bricks, Wheels of a toy cart, Mesopotamian cylindrical seal. Lothal Dockyard, Rice husk; Metal-workers', shell-ornament makers' & bead-makers' shops; Fire altars, Terracotta figurine of a horse, Double burial (burying a male and a female in a single grave), Terracotta model of a ship, Dying vat, Persian/ Iranian seal, Baharainean seal, Painted jar (bird & fox). Surkotada Bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials. Banawali Lack of chess-board or gridiron pattern town planning, Lack of systematic drainage system, Toy plough, Clay figures of Mother Goddess. Daimabad Bronze images (Charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant & rhinoceros) Dholavira A unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, a large well and a bath (giant water reservoirs), Only site to be divided into 3 parts, Largest Harappan inscription used for civic purposes, A stadium. Important Features of Indus Valley Civilization Town planning was the most distinguishable feature of the Harappan civilization. Hence, this civilization is also called first urbanisation. Towns were divided into parts viz. citadel and lower town. Citadels were occupied by members of ruling class and lower town was inhabited by the common people. Harappan cities were developed in Block Pattern/Chess Board Pattern because roads of these cities used to cut each other at right angles. Most peculiar feature of town planning was their drainage system. Drains were built of burnt bricks and covered by stone lids and manholes for cleaning. Complete burial was the most common method of the disposal of the dead. They grew wheat and barley on a large scale. The other crops grown were pulses, cereals, cotton, dates, melons, pea, sesamum and mustard. No clear evidence of rice has been found, except from Rangpur and Lothal where some grains of rice were found, but they may be of later period. Harappan people were mostly peasants and thus the Harappan civilization was an agro-commercial civilization. Evidences of hoe and plough have been found in kalibangan and Banawali. 226 General Studies World History ANCIENT WORLD Bronze Age Civilization Sl. No. Name of Civilization Modern Area River Valley 1. Mesopotamian Civilization (4000 BC - 6th Cen. BC) Iraq Tigris and Duphrates 2. Egyptian Civilization (3400 BC - 1000 BC) Egypt Nile 3. Harappan Civilization (2500 BC - 1750 BC) India and Indus Pakistan 4. Chinese Civilization (1765 BC - 250 BC) China Hwang-Ho Mesopotamian Civilization The Oldest Civilization of the World Mesopotamia means land between the rivers. Mesopotamia is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The potter’s wheel was perhaps first used in Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamians also seem to have been the first to make glass ware. The Sumerians were the first to evolve a proper system of writing. This system is called cuneiform. The cuneiform script was deciphered by Henry Ravlinson. The Mesopotamian system of counting is known as sexagesimal because Ae Mesopotamian people counted by sixties as we count by tens (decimal system). Mesopotamians had discovered Pythagoras theorem. They could calculate the length of the day and the night. Egyptian civilization Egypt is called the ‘Gift of the Nile’. The Old Kingdom is also called the ‘Age of the Pyramids’. The Egyptian King was called the pharaoh. The Egyptian were the worshipper of the nature and the nature the sun was their most important god. The Egyptians believed that after death both the body and the soul live, So, Egyptians took great care in preserving the body of the dead. The body was embalmed in spices and then wrapped in strips of fine linen. Wooden box and buried. The Pyramids and the Sphinx are the two specimens of Egyptian of these monarchs. The Egyptians developed a decimal system of numeration. The crowing achievement of the Egyptians was the solar calendar.  INDIAN POLITY CHAPTER assist him. The first Governor-General of Bengal was Lord Warren Hastings. It made a provision of Supreme Court at Fort William in Calcutta, comprising one Chief Justice It was in 1934 when the idea of Constituent and three other judges. Assembly for India was put forward for the first It strengthened the control of the British time by M. N. Roy (A pioneer of communist Government over the East India Company by movement in India). requiring the Court of Directors which was a In 1935, the Indian National Congress (INC) governing body of the Company to report on its demanded a Constituent Assembly to frame the revenue, civil and military affairs in India. Constitution of India. In 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru, on behalf of INC Pitt’s India Act, 1784 declared that the Constitution of Free India must This Act created a new body called Board of be framed without outside interference and by Control to manage the political affairs while a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of Court of Directors were allowed to manage the Adult Franchise. The demand was accepted by commercial affairs. Thus, Pitts’s India Act made British Government during August Offer in 1940. a provision of separation in company’s political In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the and commercial activities. British Cabinet came to India with draft proposal It empowered the Board of Control to supervise of the British Government on the framing of an and direct all operations of the civil and military independent Constitution which to be adopted affairs and revenues of the British possessions in after the World War II. India. The Cripps Proposals were rejected by the The Company’s territories in India were for the Muslim League which wanted India to be divided first time called British Possessions in India. into two autonomous States with two separate Charter Act, 1793 Constituent Assemblies. This Act recognised the courts and redefined Finally, the Constituent Assembly was constituted their jurisdictions. Accordingly, the revenue in November,1946 under the scheme formulated administration was separated from the judiciary by the Cabinet Mission Plan. functions. This provision led to disappearing of the Maal Adalats (Revenue courts). Important British Acts of Constitutional Salaries of the members of the Board of Control to be drawn from the Indian exchequer. Significance Regulating Act, 1773 Charter Act, 1813 The Regulating Act, 1773 was the first step taken The East India Company’s monopoly over trade by the British Government to control and regulate was abolished in India but its monopoly over the affairs of the East India Company in India. trade with China and for trade in tea retained. It designated the Governor of Bengal as the This Act asked Company to spend one lakh ‘Governor-General of Bengal’ and created an rupees every year on the education of Indians. Executive Council consisting of four members to Christian missionaries were permitted to propagate their religion in India. 244 General Studies Charter Act, 1833 was made in-charge of one or more departments This Act made the Governor-General of Bengal of the government. as the Governor-General of India and vested in him all civil and military powers. Lord William Indian Councils Act, 1892 Bentinck was made the first Governor-General of This Act empowered the Universities, district India. boards, municipalities, zamindars and chambers The East India Company lost its monopoly over trade with China also and it was asked to close of Commerce to recommend members to the the commercial business. The Company became Provincial Legislative Council which were to be a purely administrative body. nominated by governors. This Act asked government to abolish slavery in According to this Act, the members of the India. Legislatures were for the first time entitled to take part in debate over Annual Statement of Revenue Charter Act, 1853 and Expenditure i.e. Budget. They could also put This Act had provisions of separation of executive questions within certain limitations. and legislative functions of the Governor General’s Council. It provided for addition of six Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) new members called Legislative Councillors to This Act is also known as Morley-Minto Reforms. the Indian (Central) Legislative Council. Morley was the then Secretary of State for India For the first time, the local representation in the and Lord Minto was the then Viceroy of India. Indian (Central) Legislative Council was allowed. Muslims were given separate representation An open competition system of selection and and hence Lord Minto came to be known as the recruitment of civil servants was introduced. For Father of Communal Electorate. the first time, Indians were allowed to take part in A provision was made for the association of Indians Civil Services recruitment process. Consequently, with the Executive Council of the Viceroy and the Macaulay Committee (the Committee on the Governors. Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the Indian Civil Service) was appointed in 1854. first Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council. He was appointed as Law Member. Government of India Act,1858 It brought an end to the Company’s rule and Government of India Act, 1919 (Montague- transferred all powers to the British crown. Chelmsford Reforms) The system of Dual government (Board of This Act is also known as Montague-Chelmsford Control and Court of Directors) introduced by Reforms or Montford Reforms. Montague Pitt’s India Act was abolished by this Act. was the then Secretary of State for India and A new office of Secretary of State for India was Chelmsford was the then Viceroy of India. created and he was vested with complete authority All administrative subjects were divided into and control over Indian administration. He was a two groups viz. central and provincial subjects. member of the British Cabinet and was ultimately responsible to the British Parliament. Lord Stanley Provincial subjects were further divided into two was the first Secretary of State for India. parts- transferred and reserved. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to Indian Councils Act, 1861 The Viceroy was empowered to issue ordinances the Legislative Council whereas Governor was in case of emergency without the concurrence not responsible towards Legislative Council in of the legislative council. The life span of such the discharge of reserved subjects. ordinances was six months. This dual scheme of governance was known as This Act also introduced the ‘portfolio’ system. ‘dyarchy’, a term derived from the Greek word Under this, a member of the Viceroy’s council diarche, which means double rule. For the first time, Indian Central Legislature was made bicameral (two Houses).  Indian Polity 291 INDIAN POLITY Q.1 In India, the Judges of the High Court of a Q.8 Which one of the following Statements is State are appointed by the correct? (a) President (a) The Constituent Assembly of India was (b) Vice-President elected by the Provincial Assemblies in (c) Chief Justice of India the year 1946. (d) Governor (b) Jawaharlal Nehru, M.A. Jinnah and Sardar Q.2 According to which Article Hindi, in Devnagari Vallabh Bhai Patel were members of the script is the official language of the Union ? Constituent Assembly of India. (a) Article 343 (b) Article 243 (c) The First Session of the Constituent (c) Article 223 (d) Article 123 Assembly of India was held in January, Q.3 In the Union Government, the Council of 1947 Ministers is collectively responsible to the (d) The Constitution of India was adopted on (a) President (b) Prime Minister 26th January, 1950. (c) Lok Sabha (d) Parliament Q.9 Which one of the following Schedules of the Q.4 The conditions of service and tenure of the Constitution of India contains provisions Election Commissioner in India is prescribed by regarding Anti-Defection Act? the (a) 2nd Schedule (b) 5th Schedule (a) Constitution (b) Parliament (c) 8th Schedule (d) 10th Schedule (c) President (d) Government Q.10 The Constitutional Adviser to the Constituent Q.5 The Supreme court of India dispenses justice Assembly was putting its reliance on the principles of (a) Sachidanand Sinha (a) rule of law (b) B.N. Rau (b) due process of law (c) N. Gopalaswamy (c) procedural due process (d) H.N. Kunzru (d) procedure established by law Q.11 The Constitution is declared to have been Q.6 Centre-State financial distribution takes place following the recommendations made by the adopted and enacted by the (a) Inter-State Council (a) Constituent Assembly (b) Finance Commission (b) People of India (c) NITI Aayog (c) Indian Parliament (d) Parliament (d) British Parliament Q.7 In India, the power of judicial review is Q.12 The Constitution of India was adopted and restricted because came into force on (a) the Executive is supreme (a) November 26, 1949/January 26, 1950 (b) the Legislature is supreme (b) August 15, 1947/November 26, 1950 (c) the Constitution is supreme (c) January 26, 1949/November 26, 1950 (d) the Judges are transferable (d) November 26, 1948/January 26, 1950  GENERAL SCIENCE CHAPTER PHYSICS Physics is a branch of science which is concerned Systems Length Mass Time with all aspects of nature on both the microscopic and of units macroscopic level. Its scope of study encompasses not only the behavior of objects under the action C.G.S. Centimetre Gram Second of forces but also the nature of gravitational, System electromagnetic, nuclear forces among others. F.P.S. Foot Pound Second The ultimate objective of physics is to formulate System comprehensive principles that bring together and explain all such phenomena. M.K.S. Metre Kilogram Second System 2. Derived Unit: All the units which are expressed in terms of fundamental units are known as derived units. Examples: Newton, Joule, etc. Unit is the chosen standard used for measuring a Internationally, there are four types of unit physical quantity. systems. These are: There are basically two types of unit: 1. S.I. Units/System: It is the modern form of 1. Fundamental Unit: These units are a set of the metric system, and is the most widely measurements, defined arbitrarily and from used system of measurement. It comprises which other units are derived. Examples: a coherent system of units of measurement meter, kilogram, second, etc. built on seven base units namely kilogram, The fundamental unit of some of the physical meter, second, candela, ampere, kelvin and quantities are given below: mol. 2. CGS System: The centimeter-gram-second International System of Units (S.I.) (CGS) system of units is a variant of the metric Physical Fundamental Symbol system based on centimetre as the unit of Mass Kilogram kg length, gram as unit of mass, and the second as the unit of time. Length Metre m 3. FPS System: The foot-pound-second (FPS) Time Second s system is a system of units built on three fundamental units: the foot for length, the Temperature Kelvin K pound for mass and the second for time. Electric-current Ampere A 4. MKS System: The MKS system of units is a Luminous intensity Candela Cd physical system of units that expresses any given measurement using base units of the Quantity of matter Mole mol metre, kilogram, and second. 298 General Studies Equation of Motion For a body moving with a uniform velocity If a body completes a displacement ‘S ’ in time ‘t ’ Basics of Motion with a uniform velocity ‘V ’, then, A body is said to be in motion if it changes its position Displacement = velocity × time with respect to its surroundings as time goes on. A or S = vt...(i) body is said to be at rest if it does not change its position with time, with respect to its surroundings. For a body moving with a uniform acceleration If a body starting with an initial velocity ‘u’ moves with Types of Motion a uniform acceleration ‘a’ for a time ‘t’ and attains (i) When a particle or a body moves along a straight a final velocity ‘v’ after travelling a displacement ‘s’ then, path, its motion is Rectilinear or translatory motion. 1 2 S = ut + at....(iii) 2 (ii) When a particle or a body moves in a circular path, its motion is circular motion. When a v2 = u2 + 2as...(iv) body spins about its own axis, it is said to be in When the velocity of a body increases, it has a rotational motion. positive acceleration and when the velocity decreases, it has a negative acceleration. (iii) When a body moves to and fro or back and This negative acceleration is called deceleration or forth repeatedly about a fixed point in a definite retardation. interval of time, it is said to be in vibrational or oscillatory motion. Position (Displacement)-Time Speed Graphs The time rate of change of position of an object in For a body moving with a uniform velocity any direction i.e. the rate of change of distance of an object with respect to time is known as speed. This graph comes as a straight displacement line because in a uniform velocity Speed = the particle completes equal time taken displacement in an equal interval of time. Velocity The rate of change of displacement of an object with For the motion of a body thrown vertically upwards respect to time is known as velocity. When the body moves up, its displacement velocity continuously decreases Velocity = time due to gravity and finally Acceleration becomes zero at the maximum height. Then, the body falls with The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is an increasing velocity. called acceleration. Change in velocity The slope of the position time graph is equal to the Acceleration = time taken uniform velocity. When a body completes equal displacement in equal Displacement interval of time, its velocity is constant and hence, Slope = Time it does not have an acceleration. When a body shows equal change in velocity in equal interval of or   V = x time its velocity is not constant but it has a constant t acceleration. Introduction Atmosphere The word ‘environment’ has been derived from French The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds earth. word “Environner” which means “to encircle” or “ t o Most of the atmosphere is located close to the earth's surround”, whereas “Nature” word is derived from Latin surface where it is most dense. word “Natura” which refers to characteristics of plants, The atmosphere is divided into a series of concentric animals and other creatures. shells of sphere due to the variations in temperature and pressure at various altitude. Components of Environment Air Composition Abiotic Biotic Nitrogen and oxygen are the most abundant gases in Energy Green plants the Troposphere, constituting about 78% and 20.9% of Radiation Non-green plants total gaseous volume respectively. The remaining 1 % Temperature and heat flow Water Decomposers consists of argon, water vapour, CO2 and ozone. These Atmospheric gases and wind Parasites gases occur in minute quantities in the atmosphere, Fire but are essential for maintaining life on the earth. Gravity Symbionts Carbon dioxide, water vapour and ozone play an Topography Animals important role in maintaining the heat balance of the Soil earth. Geological substratum Man Normal Composition of Gases in Air All organisms (from virus to man) are obligatorily Constituents Chemical Mole Percent Symbol dependent on the environment for food, energy, water, oxygen, shelter and for other needs. 1. Nitrogen N2 78.084% 2. Oxygen O2 20.947% Environment is total sum of all conditions which affect 3. Argon Ar 0.934% evolution and development of life on Earth’s surface 4. Carbon dioxide CO2 0.038% where organisms live including abiotic components (soil, 5. Neon 0.001818% Ne water, air, etc.) and biotic components (plants, animals, 6. Helium He 0.000524% microorganisms, etc.). 7. Methane CH4 0.00017% 8. Krypton Kr 0.000114% Biosphere Lithosphere Biosphere is the part of the earth’s crust, hydrosphere, and atmosphere that supports life. It is formed through The Lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire the interaction of atmosphere, lithosphere and earth. This crust is inorganic and is composed of hydrosphere. minerals. The area of contact and interaction between these three Geologically, Lithosphere refers to the combination of components are the basic requirement for the biosphere earth’s crust and outer mantle. It provides the platform to exist. and habitat to the biotic elements of the ecosystem. It covers the entire surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of the Mariana Trench. 576 General Studies Important Terms used in ECONOMICS Bank Rate Non-Performing Assets Bank rate is the rate charged by the Reserve Bank A non-performing asset (NPA) is a loan or advance of India for lending funds to commercial banks. It for which the principal or interest payment remained influences lending rates of commercial banks. Higher overdue for a period of 90 days. bank rate will translate to higher lending rates by the banks. In order to curb liquidity, the central bank can Monetary Policy resort to raising the bank rate and vice versa. Monetary policy is the macroeconomic policy laid down by the Reserve Bank of India. It involves management Gross Domestic Product of money supply and interest rate and it is the demand GDP is the final value of the goods and services side economic policy used by the government of a produced within the geographic boundaries of a country to achieve macroeconomic objectives like country during a specified period of time, normally a inflation, consumption, growth and liquidity. year. GDP growth rate is an important indicator of the economic performance of a country. Purchasing Power Parity Gross National Product Purchasing Power Parity aims to determine the adjustments needed to be made in the exchange Gross National Product (GNP) is Gross Domestic Product (GDP) plus net factor income from abroad. It rates of two currencies to make them at par with the measures the monetary value of all the finished goods purchasing power of each other. It is the expenditure on and services produced by the country’s factors of a similar commodity must be same in both currencies production irrespective of their location. It includes when accounted for exchange rate. It is used worldwide taxes but does not include subsidies. to compare the income levels in different countries. Wholesale Price Index Repo Rate Wholesale Price Index (WPI) represents the price of Repo rate is the rate at which the Reserve Bank of India goods at a wholesale stage i.e. goods that are sold lends money to commercial banks in the event of any in bulk and traded between organizations instead of shortfall of funds. For RBI point of view it is called as consumers. WPI is often used as a measure of inflation. short term lending and from banks point of view it is short term borrowing. Inflation Inflation is the percentage change in the value of the Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) Wholesale Price Index (WPI) on a year-on year basis. It is the ratio of total deposits of a commercial bank It effectively measures the change in the prices of a which it has to keep with itself in the form of liquid basket of goods and services in a year. It occurs due to assets. Liquid assets may consist of cash in hand, an imbalance between demand and supply of money, gold, reserves with RBI, excess reserves, government changes in production and distribution cost or increase securities and other encumbered securities, etc. in taxes on products. When economy experiences inflation the price level of goods and services rises and Sovereign Risk the value of currency reduces. Any risk arising on chances of a government failing Liquidity to make debt repayments or not honouring a loan Liquidity means how quickly one can get his cash in agreement is a sovereign risk. hand. In simpler terms, liquidity is to get your money Service Tax whenever you need it. It might be emergency savings account or the cash lying with you that you can access Service tax is a tax levied by the government on service in case of any unforeseen happening or any financial providers on certain service transactions, but is actually setback. borne by the customers.