General psychology eng notes_41395307_2024_09_04_13_28.pdf

TABLE OFVFF CONTENTS General psychology 1- Introduction to psychology 2- Classical conditioning 3- Operand conditioning 4- Observational learning 5- Sensation 6- Attention 7 Perception 8- Emotions 9- Motivation 10- Att...

TABLE OFVFF CONTENTS General psychology 1- Introduction to psychology 2- Classical conditioning 3- Operand conditioning 4- Observational learning 5- Sensation 6- Attention 7 Perception 8- Emotions 9- Motivation 10- Attribution 11- Attitude 12- Aggression 13- Memory 14- Social influence 15- Theories of intelligence 16- Theories of personality 17- History of psychology For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  1- Introduction to Psychology Characteristics of science Objectivity Verifiability Ethical Neutrality Systematic Exploration Reliability Precision What is psychology? The scientific study of mind and behaviour. Or the mental or behavioral characteristics of an individual or group or the study of mind and behavior in relation to a particular field of knowledge or activity. Schools of Psychology Structuralism Functionalism Gestalt Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic Behaviorism Humanistic Cognitive Structuralism Structuralism proposes that the structure of conscious experience could be understood by analyzing the basic elements of thoughts and sensations. Structuralism is considered the first school of thought in psychology, and was established in Germany by Wilhelm Wundt, and mainly associated with Edward B. Titchener. Structuralism was one of the earliest schools of psychology, aiming to understand the structure of the mind by analyzing its basic components. Key Characteristics Focus on conscious experience: Structuralists believed that the mind could be studied by examining conscious experiences. Introspection: The primary method used by structuralists was introspection, where individuals carefully observed and reported their own mental processes. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Elements of consciousness: Structuralists sought to identify the basic elements of consciousness, such as sensations, images, and feelings. Reductionism: They believed that complex mental processes could be understood by breaking them down into simpler components. Limitations of Structuralism While structuralism was a pioneering approach, it faced several criticisms: Subjectivity: Introspection is subjective, making it difficult to replicate results across different individuals. Limited scope: Structuralism focused primarily on conscious experiences, neglecting unconscious processes and behavior. Overemphasis on analysis: Breaking down mental processes into elements might overlook the holistic nature of conscious experience. Despite its limitations, structuralism laid the groundwork for future psychological research by emphasizing the importance of systematic observation and experimentation. Keyword- Elements of consciousness , Introspection, Introduction to pychology Functionalism According to this school, the subject matter of psychology is to study the function of consciousness. The founder of functionalism is William James. His groundbreaking work, "Principles of Psychology," laid the foundation for functionalism. He argued that consciousness is a continuous stream and that its purpose is to help individuals adapt to their environment. James also explored topics like emotions, habits, and the self, which have had a lasting impact on psychology Other Key Figures While William James is often considered the "father" of functionalism, other psychologists also contributed significantly to this school of thought: John Dewey: Dewey focused on how individuals learn and adapt to their environment. His work on education and progressive education is still influential today. 1. John Dewey on Education: Impact & Theory - Simply Psychology www.simplypsychology.org James Rowland Angell: Angell defined functionalism as the study of mental operations, how they develop, and how they function. He emphasized the importance of the mind-body relationship. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Functionalism had a profound impact on the development of psychology, paving the way for later schools of thought, such as behaviorism and applied psychology. By shifting the focus from the structure of the mind to its function, functionalists helped to make psychology more practical and relevant to everyday life. Book- Principles of psychology (1890) Gestalt Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole. This school of psychology played a major role in the modern development of the study of human sensation and perception. whole. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Insight learning by Kohler Insight, often referred to as an “aha moment,” has been defined as a sudden, conscious change in a person's representation of a stimulus, situation, event, or problem. Max Wertheimer Key figure: Max Wertheimer is considered the founder of Gestalt psychology. Contribution: His work on the phi phenomenon, the illusion of movement created by rapidly flashing lights, led to the development of key Gestalt principles. Kurt Koffka was a prominent figure in Gestalt psychology, making significant contributions to the school of thought. Key Contributions Expansion of Gestalt principles: Koffka extended the Gestalt principles beyond perception to other areas of psychology, including learning, memory, and child development. Gestalt theory of learning: Koffka applied Gestalt principles to learning, suggesting that learning is a process of reorganizing one's perception of the world. He believed that insight and understanding are crucial for effective learning. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Child development: Koffka explored how children's perception of the world develops over time. He studied perceptual development and its relationship to cognitive growth. PSYCHODYNAMIC Psychodynamic theory basically talked about the unconscious mind and its role in shaping the personality and behaviour of an individual. Important things to remember- personality types, Psychoanalysis, Psychosexual stages of development. BEHAVIOURISM It was founded by John B Watson. Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, Skinner gave the famous concept of Radical behaviorism. Radical behaviorism is a psychological approach developed by B.F. Skinner. It focuses on understanding behavior through its relationship with the environment. Unlike other behavioral approaches that might dismiss internal states like thoughts and feelings, radical behaviorism includes these as behaviors themselves, influenced by environmental factors BF Skinner gave the concept of operant conditioning and Albert Bandura gave the concept of observational learning For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 HUMANISTIC Humanistic psychology, a movement in psychology supporting the belief that humans, as individuals, are unique beings and should be recognized and treated as such by psychologists and psychiatrists. The movement grew in opposition to the two mainstream 20th-century trends in psychology, behaviourism and psychoanalysis. Famous humanistic psychologists are Carl Rogers and Abrahm Maslow (Father of humanism) Key Challenges to Other Schools 1. Rejection of Determinism: Unlike behaviorism, which emphasized environmental determinants of behavior, and psychoanalysis, which focused on unconscious drives, humanism championed free will and individual choice. It argued that humans have the capacity to consciously control their lives and strive for personal growth. 2. Emphasis on Subjective Experience: In contrast to the objective focus of behaviorism and the deterministic nature of psychoanalysis, humanism placed great importance on subjective experiences, feelings, and self-awareness. It argued that understanding an individual's unique perspective is crucial for comprehending their behavior. 3. Holistic View of the Person: While behaviorism often reduced humans to stimulus-response mechanisms, and psychoanalysis emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts, humanism adopted a holistic approach, considering the individual as a whole person with complex needs and motivations. 4. Focus on Positive Growth: Unlike the problem-oriented approach of psychoanalysis, humanism emphasized personal growth, self-actualization, and the pursuit of human potential. It shifted the focus from pathology to positive psychology. 5. Client-Centered Therapy: Humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, challenged the traditional therapist-centered approaches of psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It emphasized the client's capacity for self-understanding and growth, with the therapist acting as a facilitator rather than an authority figure. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  By emphasizing human potential, free will, and subjective experience, humanistic psychology offered a compelling alternative to the prevailing psychological perspectives of its time. It has had a lasting impact on various fields, including therapy, education, and organizational behavior. COGNITIVE Father of cognitive psychology- Ulric Neisser They proposed that psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  2 – Classical Conditioning Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience or practice. It's a fundamental process that allows individuals to adapt to their environment. Characteristics of Learning Relatively Permanent: While temporary changes in behavior can occur due to fatigue or drugs, learning implies a lasting change. Involves Behavior: Learning manifests in observable changes in actions, thoughts, or feelings. Result of Experience: Learning is acquired through practice, observation, or other forms of interaction with the environment. Adaptive: Learning helps individuals adjust to new situations and challenges. Active Process: Learners actively engage in the learning process, rather than being passive recipients of information. Types of Learning There are various theories of learning, each emphasizing different aspects: Classical Conditioning: Learning through associations between stimuli. Operant Conditioning: Learning through rewards and punishments. Observational Learning: Learning by observing others. Classical Conditioning Occurs when: a stimulus gains the power to cause a response because it predicts another stimulus that already produces that response form of learning by association Classical Conditioning: Practical Example How do you know when to change classes? stimulus (ringing bell) response (leaving classroom) prediction of another stimulus (time for class to end) that already produces that response (leaving classroom) Components of Classical Conditioning For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that triggers a response automatically and reflexively Example :whenever hot water comes from shower, you step aside Unconditioned Response (UCR) automatic response to the UCS; not learned example: Automatically, you step aside Conditioned Stimulus (CS) stimulus that through learning has gained the power to cause a conditioned response; must be a neutral stimulus example: when you hear the beep sound before the shower gets on, you step aside. Conditioned Response (CR) response to the conditioned stimulus; usually the same as the UCR example: when you hear the beep , you step aside. Classical Conditioning Example The nurse says “Now this won’t hurt a bit” just before stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear “This won’t hurt” you cringe in fear. Classical Conditioning: Individual Assessment Classical Conditioning Example For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 It was heavily raining and your crush rejected you on call, you felt very irritated and sad. Now every time you see rain, you become irritated and sad Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) A Russian physiologist discovered classical conditioning while doing experiments on the digestive system of dogs Ivan Pavlov For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life: Baby Albert psychology should only study observable behaviors, not mental processes founder: John Watson John Watson believed mental processes could not be studied scientifically Baby Albert phobia study Baby Albert 11-month-old infant Watson and his assistant, Rosalie Rayner, conditioned Albert to be frightened of white rats led to questions about experimental ethics For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Baby Albert – During Conditioning Baby Albert – After Conditioning For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Baby Albert – Generalization Ethical Considerations Lack of Informed Consent: Albert's mother did not provide informed consent, a major ethical concern by modern standards. Emotional Distress: The experiment caused significant distress to Albert, and he was not deconditioned after the experiment, which would be considered unethical today. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Follow-Up: Little is known about Albert after the experiment. There is speculation that he was removed from the study before any attempt to reverse the conditioned fear was made. What are the three basic processes in classical conditioning? 1) Acquisition 2) Extinction 3) Spontaneous Recovery Acquisition process of developing a learned behavior. the attainment by an individual of new behavior, information, or skills or the process by which this occurs. Although often used interchangeably with learning, acquisition tends to be defined somewhat more concretely as the period during which progressive, measurable changes in a response are seen. Extinction diminishing of a learned response in classical conditioning, the continual presentation of the CS without the UCS Spontaneous Recovery reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response recovered response is weaker & can be extinguished more easily Generalization And Discrimination Generalization For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  an organism produces the same response to two similar stimuli the more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original, the stronger the generalized response Example: Fred has a fluffy down pillow with some of the down sticking out of the fabric. When he first tries out the pillow, a piece of down tickles his nose and he sneezes. He now sneezes every time he lays down on any kind of pillow. Discrimination an organism produces different responses to two similar stimuli subject learns that one stimuli predicts the UCS and the other does not Examples: when the dog salivate only by hearing the sound of tunning fork and not by the sound of buzzer Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life: Taste Aversion John Garcia: classically conditioned taste aversion could develop subjects become classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes, because the tastes are associated with nausea For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Taste aversion is a form of classical conditioning where an individual develops a strong dislike or aversion to a particular taste after experiencing a negative reaction, such as nausea, following the consumption of that taste. This phenomenon is particularly intriguing because it can occur even when the negative reaction is delayed for several hours after consuming the food or drink. The Garcia Effect The term "taste aversion" is closely associated with the work of psychologist John Garcia, who conducted experiments in the early 1960s that demonstrated this phenomenon. His research is often referred to as the "Garcia effect." The Rat Experiment 1. Procedure: In Garcia's experiment, rats were exposed to a novel-tasting substance (such as a sweetened water solution) and then were made ill through the use of a mild toxin (such as lithium chloride), which induced nausea. 2. Findings: The rats developed a strong aversion to the taste of the solution, even though the illness caused by the toxin occurred several hours after they consumed the solution. This experiment demonstrated that taste aversions could be learned even when the negative consequence was delayed, which was contrary to the previously held belief that the conditioned stimulus (taste) and unconditioned stimulus (nausea) needed to be closely paired in time. 3. Significance: Garcia's work challenged the prevailing ideas about classical conditioning and highlighted that some associations (like taste and nausea) are more easily learned due to evolutionary factors, such as the survival advantage of avoiding toxic foods. Methods of Using Taste Aversion in Addiction Treatment 1. Aversive Therapy for Alcoholism: o Drug-Induced Nausea: One approach involves using medications that induce nausea (e.g., disulfiram, also known as Antabuse) when alcohol is consumed. Disulfiram inhibits the metabolism of alcohol, leading to unpleasant symptoms such as flushing, nausea, and vomiting. The goal is to create a strong negative association with alcohol consumption, thus encouraging abstinence. o Behavioral Conditioning: Patients are conditioned to associate alcohol with these negative effects, which helps them to develop an aversion to drinking. A range of features are associated with classical conditioning. These include the timing of the stimuli: Delayed conditioning: Involves a delay between the presentation of the NS and the arrival of the UCS. Trace conditioning: Relies on the animal's memory - it is when the presentation of the NS ceases before the arrival of the UCS. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Forward conditioning: Occurs when the neutral stimulus (NS) appears just before and during the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Backward conditioning: Involves the presentation of the NS after the UCS and usually results in no learning at all Higher-order conditioning, also known as second-order conditioning, is a type of classical conditioning where a previously conditioned stimulus (CS) is used to condition a new stimulus. This process involves creating a new conditioned response (CR) to a stimulus that was not directly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US) but is associated with an already conditioned stimulus. How Higher-Order Conditioning Works 1. First-Order Conditioning: o Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food). o Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural response to the US (e.g., salivation). o Conditioned Stimulus (CS1): A neutral stimulus that is paired with the US to become a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a bell). For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  o Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to CS1 (e.g., salivation to the sound of the bell). Example: Pavlov’s dogs salivate (CR) in response to the sound of a bell (CS1) after the bell has been paired with food (US). 2. Second-Order Conditioning: o New Conditioned Stimulus (CS2): A stimulus that is associated with the already conditioned stimulus (CS1), but not directly with the US. o Conditioned Response (CR2): A learned response to CS2 due to its association with CS1. Example: After the dogs have learned to salivate to the sound of the bell (CS1), a light (CS2) is paired with the bell. After several pairings, the light alone can elicit salivation (CR2), even though the light has never been directly paired with food. Steps in Higher-Order Conditioning 1. Establish First-Order Conditioning: Start with the basic classical conditioning process where a neutral stimulus (CS1) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to create a conditioned response (CR). 2. Introduce Second-Order Conditioning: Pair a new neutral stimulus (CS2) with the already established CS1. Over time, the new stimulus (CS2) becomes associated with the original conditioned stimulus (CS1). 3. Observe the New Conditioned Response: The new stimulus (CS2) should eventually elicit a response similar to the original CR, even though it was never paired directly with the US. Characteristics of Higher-Order Conditioning Weaker Conditioning: The conditioned response to the second-order stimulus (CS2) is often weaker and less reliable than the response to the first-order stimulus (CS1). This is because each successive step in the conditioning process involves a weaker association with the original unconditioned stimulus (US). Extent of Conditioning: Higher-order conditioning can be limited in its effectiveness. For example, while CS2 might elicit a CR, the response may not be as strong or persistent as the response to CS1. Generalization and Discrimination: Higher-order conditioning can also involve generalization and discrimination, where the new conditioned response might generalize to stimuli similar to CS2, and discrimination might involve differentiating between similar stimuli. Examples of Higher-Order Conditioning 1. Advertising: In marketing, a product (CS1) is often paired with positive emotions or attractive images (US). Over time, the positive images or emotions (CS2) become associated with the product (CS1). Consumers may then experience positive feelings (CR) towards the product (CS1) when exposed to the images or emotions (CS2) alone. 2. Emotional Reactions: If a person has developed a fear of dogs (CS1) after a bad experience, they might also develop a fear of places where they have seen dogs (CS2). For instance, if they associate a particular park with encountering aggressive dogs, they might begin to feel anxious about the park (CS2), even if the park itself is neutral and not associated with the original fear directly. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Higher-order conditioning illustrates the flexibility and complexity of classical conditioning processes, showing how associations can be extended beyond the initial stimulus-response pairings. 3- Operant Conditioning Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) Introduced the “Law of Effect” Behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently. Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently. Developed into Operant Conditioning Created puzzle boxes for research on cats Tolman gave the concept of cognitive learning For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Edward Thorndike was an influential psychologist known for his work on learning and behavior. His research led to the formulation of several key principles, collectively known as Thorndike’s Laws of Behavior. These laws were foundational in the development of behaviorism and operant conditioning. Here are the main laws: 1. Law of Effect Definition: The Law of Effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant or annoying consequences are less likely to be repeated. Details: Satisfying Consequences: If a behavior leads to a positive outcome or reward, it strengthens the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. Annoying Consequences: If a behavior leads to a negative outcome or punishment, it weakens the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. Example: If a cat in a puzzle box learns that pressing a lever results in being let out and receiving food, the cat is more likely to press the lever in the future. Conversely, if pressing the lever resulted in an unpleasant consequence, the cat would be less likely to repeat that behavior. 2. Law of Readiness Definition: The Law of Readiness suggests that learning is most effective when the learner is ready or prepared to learn. If an individual is not ready or willing to engage in a particular behavior, the learning process will be less effective. Details: Readiness: Refers to the physiological and psychological state of the learner, including their motivation and ability to engage in the behavior. Implications: Learning occurs more smoothly and effectively when the learner is in a state of readiness and motivation. Example: A child is more likely to learn to ride a bike if they are enthusiastic and physically able to do so, rather than if they are uninterested or not developmentally ready. 3. Law of Exercise Definition: The Law of Exercise states that connections between stimuli and responses are strengthened through practice and repetition. Conversely, connections that are not practiced weaken over time. Details: Practice: Regular practice or repetition of a behavior strengthens the association between the stimulus and the response. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Disuse: Behaviors or associations that are not reinforced or practiced may fade or become less effective over time. Example: A person who repeatedly practices playing the piano will improve their skills over time. If they stop practicing, their proficiency may decline. 4. Law of Belongingness (Later Addition) Definition: Thorndike’s Law of Belongingness, added later to his principles, suggests that the strength of the association between a stimulus and a response is influenced by how well the response "belongs" or is appropriate for the stimulus. Details: Appropriateness: The more appropriate or relevant a response is to a given stimulus, the more likely it is to be reinforced and learned. Example: A dog is more likely to learn to sit on command if sitting is a natural and appropriate response to the command, compared to a command that does not fit well with the dog's natural behaviors Operant Conditioning A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior The frequency will if the consequence is reinforcing to the subject. The frequency will if the consequence is not reinforcing to the subject. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning. Devised ways to apply these principles in the real world. Designed the Skinner Box. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Reinforcement v. Punishment Reinforcement: Anything that increases the likelihood of behavior to be repeated Punishment: Anything that decreases the likelihood of the behavior to be repeated Positive Reinforcement Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state The subject receives something they want Will strengthen the behavior Negative Reinforcement Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state Something the subject doesn’t like is removed Will strengthen the behavior (Definition of Reinforcement) -A student is in a classroom where a loud alarm is sounding. They are allowed to leave the classroom if they complete a certain task, like a worksheet. -A car has a chime that sounds when the seatbelt is not fastened. The driver fastens the seatbelt to stop the chime. Positive Punishment Anything that decreases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with an undesirable event or state Will weaken behavior Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease its frequency. 1. Extra Chores for Misbehavior o Scenario: A teenager comes home past their curfew. o Behavior: Coming home late. o Punisher: Additional chores are assigned to the teenager. o Effect: The teenager is less likely to come home late in the future to avoid additional chores. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  2. Speeding Ticket o Scenario: A driver exceeds the speed limit. o Behavior: Speeding. o Punisher: The driver receives a speeding ticket. o Effect: The driver is less likely to speed in the future to avoid fines and legal consequences. 3. Scolding or Verbal Reprimand o Scenario: A student fails to turn in an assignment on time. o Behavior: Missing the deadline. o Punisher: The student receives a scolding or verbal reprimand from the teacher. o Effect: The student is less likely to miss deadlines to avoid criticism. 4. Late Fees o Scenario: A person fails to return a library book on time. o Behavior: Late return of the book. o Punisher: The person is charged a late fee. o Effect: The person is more likely to return books on time to avoid fees. 5. Loss of Privileges o Scenario: A child breaks a household rule. o Behavior: Breaking the rule. o Punisher: The child loses access to their favorite video game or television time. o Effect: The child is less likely to break rules in the future to retain their privileges. Negative Punishment Anything that decreases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with removal of an desirable event or state Will weaken behavior. Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus after a behavior to decrease its frequency. 1. Loss of Screen Time o Scenario: A child does not complete their homework. o Behavior: Failing to complete homework. o Punisher: The child loses access to their tablet or TV time. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  o Effect: The child is more likely to complete homework on time to avoid losing screen time. 2. Revoking Access to a Social Activity o Scenario: A teenager misses a family event because they were grounded for breaking a rule. o Behavior: Breaking a rule. o Punisher: The teenager is not allowed to attend a planned social activity with friends. o Effect: The teenager is less likely to break rules to avoid missing out on social activities. 3. Withholding Allowance o Scenario: A child does not follow their chores routine. o Behavior: Neglecting chores. o Punisher: The child does not receive their weekly allowance. o Effect: The child is more likely to complete their chores to avoid losing their allowance. 4. Suspension from a Club o Scenario: A member of a school club is repeatedly disruptive during meetings. o Behavior: Disruptive behavior. o Punisher: The member is temporarily suspended from attending club meetings. o Effect: The member is more likely to behave appropriately to avoid suspension. 5. Loss of Driving Privileges o Scenario: A young adult repeatedly breaks traffic laws. o Behavior: Breaking traffic laws. o Punisher: The young adult’s driving privileges are suspended or revoked. o Effect: The young adult is more likely to follow traffic laws to retain their driving privileges. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Two types of Punishment: Immediate/Delayed Reinforcement For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcement Ways of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response Most useful way to establish a behavior The behavior will extinguish quickly once the reinforcement stops. Example: A dog gets a treat every time it sits on command. Partial Reinforcement A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses Includes the following types: Fixed-interval and variable interval Fixed-ratio and variable-ratio Schedules of Reinforcement By Response: Variable Ratio: Rewarded after a random number of responses (changes between rewards) Fixed Ratio: Rewarded after a certain number of responses (same every time) By time: Fixed Interval: Rewarded after a certain amount of time (same every time) Variable Interval: Rewarded after a random amount of time (changes between rewards) Fixed interval schedule is when the reinforcement is received after a fixed amount of time has passed. Ex. You get allowance every other Friday. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Variable interval schedule is when the reinforcement occurs after varying amounts of time. Ex. Fishing and catching a fish after varying amounts of time Fixed ratio schedule a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained. Ex. Buy 10 haircuts get 1 free. Example: A worker gets paid for every 10 products they assemble. Variable ratios schedule is when an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained. Ex. slot machines. The Premack Principle, named after psychologist David Premack, is a concept in behavioral psychology that suggests that more probable or preferred behaviors can be used as reinforcers for less probable or less preferred behaviors. In For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 other words, an activity that a person enjoys (a high-probability behavior) can be used as a reward to encourage them to perform an activity they are less inclined to do (a low-probability behavior). Example: Imagine a child who loves playing video games (high-probability behavior) but is not very fond of doing homework (low- probability behavior). According to the Premack Principle, you can use the opportunity to play video games as a reward for completing homework. Application: The parent tells the child, "You can play video games after you finish your homework." Outcome: The child is more likely to do their homework because they want to play video games. Shaping and chaining are two important concepts in operant conditioning, a type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences. Both techniques are used to teach complex behaviors by breaking them down into smaller, more manageable steps. 1. Shaping Shaping is a process where successive approximations of a target behavior are reinforced. The idea is to start by reinforcing a behavior that is a close approximation of the desired behavior and then gradually require behaviors that are closer to the target before reinforcement is given. Example: Goal: Teach a dog to roll over. Process: 1. Step 1: Initially, you might reward the dog for just lying down. 2. Step 2: Once the dog consistently lies down, you only reward it when it turns slightly to one side. 3. Step 3: Next, you reward the dog only when it turns further. 4. Step 4: Finally, you only reward the dog when it completes the full roll. Over time, the dog learns that rolling over is the behavior that earns the reward. 2. Chaining Chaining involves linking together a series of behaviors into a complex action. Each step in the chain serves as a cue for the next step, and reinforcement is provided only after the final behavior in the chain is completed. There are two types of chaining: forward chaining and backward chaining. Forward Chaining: Start with the first step in the sequence, and once that step is mastered, move on to the next step, continuing in sequence. Backward Chaining: Start with the last step in the sequence, and once that step is mastered, move backward through the sequence. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Example: Goal: Teach a child to tie their shoes. Process: o Forward Chaining: You might first teach the child to cross the laces, then to make a loop, and so on, until they can tie the shoes completely. o Backward Chaining: You might first teach the child to pull the loops tight, then go back and teach them how to make the loops, and continue backward until they can tie the shoes from the beginning 4- Observational learning Bobo-Doll Experiment Bandura demonstrated that children learn aggressive behaviors by watching an adult’s aggressive behaviors. The Bobo Doll Experiment, conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961, is a seminal study in the field of psychology that explored the effects of observational learning and imitation of aggressive behavior. Here’s a summary of the experiment and its significance: Bobo Doll Experiment Setup: For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Participants: Young children, typically between ages 3 and 6. Procedure: 1. Modeling Phase: Children were divided into three groups: ▪ Aggressive Model Group: Children observed an adult behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll (a large, inflatable toy that bounces back when knocked over). The adult hit, kicked, and verbally abused the doll. ▪ Non-Aggressive Model Group: Children observed an adult interacting with the Bobo doll in a non-aggressive manner, playing calmly with other toys. ▪ Control Group: Children had no exposure to any model before playing with the Bobo doll. 2. Observation Phase: After observing the models, children were placed in a room with a Bobo doll and other toys and were observed for their behavior. Findings: Aggressive Behavior: Children who observed the aggressive model were significantly more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior toward the Bobo doll. They not only replicated the actions but also exhibited novel aggressive behaviors, including the use of non-observed techniques. Non-Aggressive Behavior: Children who saw the non-aggressive model were less likely to exhibit aggressive behavior and were more likely to play with the Bobo doll in a non-aggressive manner. Control Group: Children who had no prior exposure to a model exhibited less aggressive behavior compared to those who had seen the aggressive model. Significance: 1. Social Learning Theory: o Bandura’s Contribution: The experiment provided empirical support for Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, which posits that people learn behaviors through observation and imitation of others. The study demonstrated that aggression could be learned by observing others and did not require direct reinforcement or personal experience. 2. Influence of Models: o Role Models: The study highlighted the impact of role models on behavior, emphasizing that children can learn and replicate behaviors they observe in adults, especially in situations involving aggression. 3. Media and Behavior: o Implications for Media: The experiment had significant implications for understanding how media exposure to violence could influence children’s behavior. It suggested that exposure to aggressive models in media could potentially lead to increased aggression in viewers. 4. Behavioral Change: o Interventions: The findings influenced educational and psychological interventions aimed at reducing aggressive behavior and promoting positive behavior through role modeling and observational learning. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  5. Research Methodology: o Experimental Design: The Bobo Doll Experiment is a classic example of a controlled experimental design, demonstrating how rigorous methodology can provide insights into complex behavioral phenomena. Albert Bandura found that we learn by watching others if the following four conditions are met: Attention – We must be aware of behaviors of those around us Retention – We must remember the behavior we have witnessed Ability to Reproduce Behavior/production – We must possess the skills to do the tricks Motivation – We are more likely to feel motivated to learn if the model we’ve observed has been rewarded and we like the model Behaviors produced can either be prosocial or antisocial behaviors Prosocial: Beneficial (helping people, obeying rules, etc.) Antisocial: Damaging (vandalism, violence, etc) Role Models Can people choose to be role models? Whether we want it or not, people watch us and learn from us. Vicarious Learning: For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Definition: Vicarious learning is a specific type of observational learning where the observer learns not only by watching the actions of a model but also by observing the consequences that the model experiences as a result of those actions. This can include rewards, punishments, or other outcomes. Focus: The primary focus is on the learning of consequences (e.g., rewards or punishments) experienced by the model and how those consequences influence the observer’s behavior. Key Components: o Vicarious Reinforcement: The observer learns to engage in a behavior after seeing the model rewarded for it. o Vicarious Punishment: The observer learns to avoid a behavior after seeing the model punished for it. Example: A student sees a classmate receive praise from the teacher for answering a question correctly and is therefore motivated to participate in class, hoping to receive similar praise. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  5 - Sensation and perception Sensation Sensation - the activation of receptors in the various sense organs. Sensory receptors - specialized forms of neurons. Sense organs: eyes ears nose skin taste buds Eye Sensory Receptors The human eye is a complex organ responsible for capturing and processing visual information, which is then interpreted by the brain. Here’s a breakdown of the important parts of the eye and their functions in visual perception: 1. Cornea For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Function: The cornea is the transparent, dome-shaped outermost layer of the eye. It functions as a protective barrier and helps to focus incoming light by bending it (refraction) towards the lens. Role in Visual Perception: The cornea is responsible for about 65-75% of the eye's total focusing power, playing a crucial role in directing light into the eye. 2. Pupil Function: The pupil is the black circular opening in the center of the iris (the colored part of the eye). It controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing size in response to light intensity. Role in Visual Perception: In bright light, the pupil constricts to reduce the amount of light entering the eye; in dim light, it dilates to allow more light in, helping to optimize vision in different lighting conditions. 3. Iris Function: The iris is the colored part of the eye that surrounds the pupil. It contains muscles that control the size of the pupil. Role in Visual Perception: By adjusting the size of the pupil, the iris helps regulate the amount of light that reaches the retina, contributing to clarity and focus in different lighting situations. 4. Lens Function: The lens is a transparent, flexible structure located behind the pupil. It changes shape to focus light rays onto the retina, a process known as accommodation. Role in Visual Perception: The lens fine-tunes focus, allowing the eye to see objects clearly at various distances, from near to far. 5. Retina Function: The retina is the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones). It converts light into electrical signals. Role in Visual Perception: The retina is responsible for detecting light and color. Rods are more sensitive to low light and are crucial for night vision, while cones detect color and are essential for daylight and detailed vision. 6. Fovea Function: The fovea is a small, central pit in the retina densely packed with cones. Role in Visual Perception: The fovea is responsible for sharp central vision (visual acuity), which is crucial for tasks requiring detailed vision, such as reading and recognizing faces. 7. Optic Nerve Function: The optic nerve is the bundle of nerve fibers that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. Role in Visual Perception: The optic nerve carries the electrical signals generated by the retina to the brain, where they are processed into the images we see. 8. Blind Spot (Optic Disc) For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Function: The blind spot is the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye. There are no photoreceptors in this area. Role in Visual Perception: Although the blind spot lacks visual information, the brain typically fills in this gap based on surrounding visual cues, so we usually don’t notice it in our field of vision. Sensation and Perception Sensory threshold refers to the minimum level of stimulus intensity that is necessary for a sensory system to detect a stimulus. It is the point at which a stimulus is strong enough to be perceived by the sensory receptors and, consequently, reach our consciousness. There are several types of sensory thresholds, each relating to different aspects of sensory detection. 1. Absolute Threshold Definition: The absolute threshold is the minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected by a sensory system at least 50% of the time. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Example: The absolute threshold for hearing might be the faintest sound a person can hear in a quiet room, such as the ticking of a watch from 20 feet away. For vision, it might be the dimmest light that a person can detect in a dark room. 2. Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference, JND) Definition: The difference threshold is the minimum difference in intensity between two stimuli that a person can detect at least 50% of the time. It is the smallest detectable change in a stimulus. Example: If you are holding a 100-gram weight, the difference threshold might be the smallest additional weight (e.g., 2 grams) that you can sense when it is added to the original weight. For vision, it could be the smallest change in brightness that you can detect between two light sources. Habituation and Sensory Sensory adaptation and habituation are both processes that involve a decrease in response to a stimulus over time, but they occur in different contexts and involve different mechanisms. Here's a comparison of the two: Sensory Adaptation Definition: Sensory adaptation is a physiological process where sensory receptors become less sensitive to a constant or unchanging stimulus over time. It occurs at the level of the sensory organs or receptors. Mechanism: It involves the sensory receptors themselves becoming less responsive to the stimulus. For example, photoreceptors in the eye may become less sensitive to light if you're in a bright environment for an extended period. Example: When you first jump into a cold swimming pool, the water feels very cold, but after a few minutes, you no longer feel the cold as intensely because your thermoreceptors in your skin have adapted to the temperature. Nature: Automatic and physiological. It does not involve conscious awareness or learning. Habituation Definition: Habituation is a psychological process where an organism decreases its response to a repeated stimulus over time. It occurs at the level of the central nervous system (brain) and involves learning and memory. Mechanism: It involves the brain learning to ignore a stimulus that is deemed unimportant or non- threatening. The decrease in response is due to a reduced focus or attention on the stimulus, not a change in the sensory receptors. Example: If you move to a new house near a train track, the sound of passing trains might be very noticeable at first. Over time, as you realize the sound is not harmful or important, you begin to ignore it, and it no longer catches your attention. Nature: Involves learning and is more related to behavior and attention. It's a conscious or semi- conscious process. Key Differences: Level of Processing: Sensory adaptation occurs at the sensory receptor level, while habituation occurs at the cognitive or central nervous system level. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Involvement of Learning: Habituation involves a form of learning and is influenced by psychological factors such as attention and memory. Sensory adaptation is purely physiological and does not involve learning. Consciousness: Habituation involves a reduction in attention to a stimulus and is more related to conscious processing, whereas sensory adaptation is a subconscious and automatic response. Summary: Sensory Adaptation: A decrease in receptor sensitivity due to constant exposure to a stimulus. It's a physiological and automatic response. Habituation: A decrease in behavioral response due to repeated exposure to a stimulus, influenced by learning and attention. It's a cognitive and behavioral process. Both processes help us manage the vast amount of sensory information we encounter, allowing us to focus on new or changing stimuli that may be more important. Factors influence the way stimuli are detected, processed, and perceived by our sensory systems. 1. Stimulus Intensity Definition: The strength or magnitude of a stimulus. Impact: Stronger stimuli are more likely to be detected and produce a stronger sensory response. For example, a louder sound is more easily heard than a softer one. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 2. Threshold Levels Absolute Threshold: The minimum intensity of a stimulus required for it to be detected 50% of the time. Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference, JND): The minimum difference between two stimuli required to detect a change. Impact: Sensory detection varies depending on whether the stimulus exceeds the absolute threshold or whether the difference between stimuli exceeds the difference threshold. 3. Attention Definition: The focus of consciousness on a particular stimulus or set of stimuli. Impact: Attention enhances the ability to detect and process sensory information. Without focused attention, stimuli might not be consciously perceived. 4. Adaptation Definition: The reduction in sensitivity to a constant or repeated stimulus over time. Impact: Sensory receptors become less responsive to unchanging stimuli, which helps prevent sensory overload. For example, you may stop noticing the feeling of your clothes on your skin after a while. 5. Expectations and Prior Experience Definition: The influence of previous knowledge, experiences, and expectations on sensory perception. Impact: Prior experience can shape how stimuli are perceived. For example, if you expect a sound to be loud, you might perceive it as louder than it actually is. 6. Motivation and Emotional State Definition: The influence of desires, needs, and emotions on sensory perception. Impact: Motivation can heighten sensitivity to certain stimuli, while emotions can either enhance or dampen sensory experiences. For instance, fear may make you more sensitive to sounds in a dark environment. 7. Sensory Adaptation Definition: The gradual decrease in sensitivity to a stimulus after prolonged exposure. Impact: Sensory systems become less responsive to unchanging stimuli, allowing us to focus on more important changes in our environment. 8. Age Definition: The influence of aging on sensory systems. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  Impact: As people age, sensory abilities often decline, affecting how stimuli are detected and perceived. For example, older adults may have reduced sensitivity to high-frequency sounds. 9. Health and Physiology Definition: The impact of overall physical health and specific physiological conditions on sensation. Impact: Conditions like illness, fatigue, or damage to sensory organs can impair sensory functioning. For example, a cold might reduce the sense of taste and smell. 10. Environmental Factors Definition: The context in which a stimulus is presented. Impact: Environmental factors like background noise, lighting, or temperature can affect how stimuli are perceived. For example, bright light may make it difficult to see a dim screen. Psychological Aspects to Light For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Brightness - amplitude of the wave; higher waves brighter; lower waves dimmer. Color - length of the wave; long wavelengths red; short waves blue Saturation - purity of the color people see Retina, Rods, and Cones Photoreceptors that respond to various light waves Rods – receptors responsible for non-color vision and sensitivity to dim light. Cones – receptors responsible for color vision and sharpness of vision. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Color Vision Trichromatic theory (Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz ) -The trichromatic theory suggests that color vision is based on the activity of three types of photoreceptor cells in the retina, known as cones. Each type of cone is sensitive to a specific range of wavelengths corresponding to one of the three primary colors: Short-wavelength cones (S-cones): Sensitive to blue light (around 420 nm). Medium-wavelength cones (M-cones): Sensitive to green light (around 530 nm). Long-wavelength cones (L-cones): Sensitive to red light (around 560 nm). For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 Opponent-process theory - theory of color vision that proposes four primary colors with cones arranged in pairs: red and green, blue and yellow Edward Hering The opponent-process theory proposes that color vision is based on the activity of three opposing color pairs in the visual system. These pairs are: Red-Green Blue-Yellow Black-White (for lightness and darkness perception) According to this theory, color perception depends on the opposing responses of these color pairs. If one color in a pair is activated, the other is inhibited. For instance: When red is perceived, the green mechanism is inhibited, and vice versa. When blue is perceived, the yellow mechanism is inhibited, and vice versa. The black-white pair is responsible for perceiving shades of gray and differences in lightness. Afterimages: If you stare at a red image for a long time and then look away at a white surface, you might see a green afterimage. This occurs because the red-sensitive cells become fatigued, and the green cells respond more strongly once you look away. Laws of psychophysiology Weber's Law, Fechner's Law, and Stevens' Power Law are key concepts in psychophysics, a field that studies the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. Each of these laws describes different aspects of how we perceive changes in stimuli. For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345 1. Weber's Law Definition: Weber's Law states that the smallest noticeable difference in stimulus intensity (the just noticeable difference, or JND) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity. This means that as the intensity of a stimulus increases, the difference required to notice a change also increases proportionally. Example: Imagine you're holding a 100-gram weight. According to Weber's Law, you might notice a difference in weight if an additional 2 grams are added (a 2% increase). But if you’re holding a 200-gram weight, you would only notice a difference if 4 grams are added (also a 2% increase). The ability to detect a change depends on the proportion of the change relative to the original weight. 2. Fechner's Law Definition: Fechner's Law builds on Weber's Law and suggests that the perceived intensity of a stimulus increases logarithmically as the actual stimulus intensity increases. It posits that equal increments in the logarithm of stimulus intensity produce equal increments in sensation. Essentially, it means that our perception of changes in stimulus intensity becomes less sensitive as the intensity increases. o Example: Consider the perception of brightness. If you're in a dimly lit room and turn on a small lamp, the increase in brightness is quite noticeable. However, if you're in a well- lit room and turn on the same small lamp, the increase in brightness seems much less significant. Fechner's Law explains that our perception of brightness does not increase linearly with actual brightness but rather on a logarithmic scale. 3. Stevens' Power Law Definition: Stevens' Power Law suggests that the relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and its perceived intensity is better described by a power function For CUET PG Preparation Download Our App CUET Study Capital -Contact Us: 9336257345  rather than a logarithmic one. This law accounts for different types of stimuli, where some sensations grow faster (exponentially) and some slower (compressively) than the physical intensity. Example: If you're turning up the volume on a stereo, the perceived loudness of the sound might increase more quickly (if n>1n > 1n>1) than the actual increase in decibels, which is why a small increase in volume can seem much louder. Conversely, with the brightness of light, the perceived increase in brightness might grow more slowly (if n